OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES

1. Context

2. Olive Ridley Turtles

• The Olive ridley turtles are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world.
• These turtles are carnivores and get their name from their olive-colored carapace.
• They are best known for their unique mass nesting called Arribada, where thousands of females come together on the same beach to lay eggs.
• They are found in warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans.
• Odisha's Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is known as the world's largest rookery of sea turtles.

Image Source: Down to Earth

3. Conservation of Olive Ridley Turtles

• Conservation of the Olive Ridley turtles in Odisha began with the discovery and worldwide recognition of the Gahirmatha rookery close to the mouth of the Brahmani-Baitarani (Dharma) River, in 1974.
• A second mass nesting was discovered in 1981 at the Devi River mouth, about 55 nautical miles south of Gahirmatha.
• In 1994, a third mass nesting area was also discovered at the Rushkulya river mouth, 162 nautical miles south of Gahirmatha.
• The Olive Ridley Turtles come to the beaches of the Odisha coast annually between November and December and stay on until April and May for nesting. 
• Off late, nesting has been observed to start from late January to early February. The turtles choose the narrow beaches near estuaries and bays for laying their eggs.
• Each adult female lays approximately a hundred to hundred and forty eggs at a time.

4. Threats faced by Olive Ridley Turtles

• The Olive Ridleys face serious threats across their migratory route, habitat, and nesting beaches, due to human activities such as turtle-unfriendly fishing practices, and the development and exploitation of nesting beaches for ports, and tourist centers.
• Though international trade in these turtles and their products is banned, they are still extensively poached for their meat, shell, and leather.
• Turtles eggs, though illegal to harvest, have a significantly large market around the coastal regions.
• The most severe threat faced by the Olive Ridleys is the accidental killing of adult turtles through entanglement in trawl nets and gill nets due to uncontrolled fishing around nesting beaches during their mating season.
• Over 1.3 lakh turtles are believed to have been killed after being entangled in the nets of mechanized fishing trawlers in the last thirteen years.

5. Legislation for the Protection of Olive Ridley Turtles

• All five species of sea turtles occurring in India, including the Olive Ridley Turtles, are legally protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and Appendix I of the CITES convention which prohibits trade in turtle products.
• The mass nesting beach of Gahirmatha is a part of Bhitarkanika Wildlife sanctuary and the waters around Bhitarkanika was declared as Gahirmatha (Marine) Wildlife Sanctuary in September 1997, to protect the nesting and breeding habitat of the Olive Ridley.
• The coastal waters off Devi and Rushikulya rookery are declared as a no-fishing zone during the sea turtle breeding season under the Odisha Marine.
• Fisheries Regulation Act (OMFRA), 1982, and Odisha Marine Fisheries Regulation Rules, 1983. The Coast Guard is empowered to enforce the provisions of the Act.
• To reduce accidental entrapment and death of turtles, the Odisha government has made it mandatory for the mechanized fishing trawlers to use Turtle Excluder Devices or TEDs, which is a specially designed net with an exit cover that retains the catch while allowing the turtles to escape.

6. Operation Olivia, 2014

• As the nesting period stretched over six months, the Indian Coast Guard undertakes the Olive Ridley Turtle protection program under the code name 'Operation Olivia' every year.
• Coast Guard District No.7 (Odisha) commenced Operation Olivia 2014 on 08 Nov 2014 under the coordination and control of Commander Coast Guard Region (North East).
• As part of the operation, fishing boats found close to the marine reserve area were regularly checked by the ship's boarding party for confirming the usage of turtle excluder devices (TEDs).
• Offenders were warned and reported to the Assistant Director of Fisheries. Close coordination was maintained with the fisheries and forest department during the entire operation.

7. Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary

• Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is a marine wildlife sanctuary located in Odisha.
• It extends from the Dhamra River mouth in the north to the Mahanadi river mouth in the south.
• It is very famous for its nesting beach for olive ridley sea turtles.
• It is the one of world's most important nesting beaches for turtles.
• The olive ridley turtles turn up in millions for mass nesting along the Odisha coast every year. This phenomenon is referred to as 'arribada'.
• Apart from Gahirmatha, these aquatic animals turn up at the Rushikulya river mouth and Devi river mouth for mass nesting.
• Rushikulya river mouth is considered the second-biggest nesting site for Olive Ridley Turtles in India.

Previous year question

NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The attacks by the US on Iran’s three nuclear sites – Natanz, Isfahan and Fordow – have triggered numerous concerns, including the risk of radiation leaks, with the UN’s nuclear watchdog saying that craters caused by ground-penetrating US bombs were visible at Fordow.

 

2. Nuclear Technology

 

• Nuclear technology stands out as a transformative and often debated advancement in the modern era. It centers on manipulating atomic nuclei through two main processes: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
• In nuclear fission, a large atomic nucleus breaks apart into smaller nuclei, frequently accompanied by radioactive decay, where unstable heavy elements gradually transform into lighter ones.
• Conversely, nuclear fusion involves the combination of two lighter nuclei to form a heavier nucleus, often described as a constructive or generative reaction.
• Both fission and fusion release tremendous amounts of energy. Although nuclear fusion is still largely confined to experimental research, nuclear fission has been widely utilized since its discovery in 1938 by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann.
• Its earliest and most impactful use was in the development of nuclear weapons by the United States under the Manhattan Project, employing elements like uranium and plutonium.
• These weapons were deployed during the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, marking the onset of what came to be known as the atomic or nuclear age

 

3. Nuclear technology in various sectors

The catastrophic devastation experienced by Japan during World War II spurred a global movement to channel nuclear technology toward peaceful and beneficial uses. In today’s world, nuclear technology finds itself at a pivotal juncture—while it offers significant advantages, concerns over its weaponization and potential misuse remain pressing. The major areas where nuclear technology proves beneficial include:

• Energy and industrial use – Nuclear energy is a dependable, long-term source of electricity that contributes to energy security while maintaining a low carbon footprint. As per the International Atomic Energy Agency’s (IAEA) 2024 report, nuclear power capacity worldwide reached 392 gigawatts (GW) by the end of 2023, generated through nearly 440 operational reactors. Beyond electricity, nuclear power supports various industrial activities, including district heating systems and seawater desalination.
• Agriculture and food production – Nuclear techniques contribute to enhanced agricultural productivity and food security. They are used for the early diagnosis of animal diseases, better soil and water resource management, and environmentally sustainable pest control strategies like the Sterile Insect Technique. Additionally, crop irradiation helps improve resistance to diseases and ensures the safety of food products.
• Healthcare advancements – The use of nuclear science in medicine has significantly strengthened healthcare systems. Tools like PET (Positron Emission Tomography) and SPECT (Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography) are pivotal for medical imaging, while radiotherapy and radioisotope therapies are essential for targeted cancer treatment and management.
• Defense and strategic balance – In the defense domain, nuclear capabilities are key to deterrence strategies, supporting geopolitical stability and acting as a tool for maintaining strategic balance among nations. Their very existence reduces the chances of full-scale or nuclear wars due to the principle of mutually assured destruction.
• Environmental and climate impact – Due to its low greenhouse gas emissions, nuclear energy is recognized as an important contributor to global climate objectives. Acknowledging this, 22 countries (later rising to 31) signed a declaration at COP 28 to triple nuclear energy production by 2050. Moreover, nuclear power delivers high energy output with minimal land usage compared to several other renewable sources

 

4. International regulatory framework

 

• Global efforts to regulate nuclear technology began in 1957 with the creation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which serves as a platform for promoting the peaceful application of nuclear science and technology.
• A major milestone followed in 1970 with the implementation of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), which is centered around three key pillars: preventing the spread of nuclear weapons, encouraging nuclear disarmament, and fostering the peaceful use of nuclear energy.
• Under the NPT, Non-Nuclear Weapon States (NNWS) are assured the right to pursue nuclear energy for peaceful uses, provided they refrain from developing or acquiring nuclear arms.
• Another significant international agreement is the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), adopted in 1996, which prohibits all nuclear explosions across all environments, whether for civilian or military purposes.
• Further strengthening the legal framework, the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons came into force in 2021. It is the first legally binding international treaty to comprehensively ban nuclear weapons, covering their development, testing, production, acquisition, stockpiling, and use, including any threats of use.
• Other important non-proliferation mechanisms include the Zangger Committee—also known as the NPT Exporters Committee—which maintains a ‘trigger list’ of sensitive nuclear materials requiring safeguards, and the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), formed in 1975. The NSG is a consortium of nuclear-exporting nations working together to curb nuclear proliferation by regulating the export of nuclear-related materials and technologies

 

5. India's nuclear program

 

• India launched its nuclear energy programme in 1954 with a distinctive three-phase plan tailored to maximize the efficient use of its limited uranium resources and abundant thorium deposits through progressive nuclear technologies.
• The programme's first phase relies on Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs), which operate on natural uranium. The second phase introduces Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs), using plutonium and uranium-238 derived from reprocessed spent fuel.
• The final phase envisions advanced nuclear reactors that will primarily utilize thorium, aiming to establish long-term energy independence for the country.
• India has successfully commercialized the first phase with operational PHWRs. The second phase was officially launched in 2024 with the commissioning of the Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu. This reactor is expected to use a combination of thorium and uranium, tapping into India's substantial thorium reserves.
• In the Union Budget 2025–26, the government unveiled the ‘Nuclear Energy Mission for Viksit Bharat’ and allocated ₹20,000 crore towards its implementation. A key focus of the mission is the development of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs), which are intended to help the country reach its ambitious target of 100 GW nuclear power capacity by 2047 in a more secure and environmentally sustainable manner.
• To advance this goal, the government is fostering partnerships with the private sector and strengthening international civil nuclear cooperation with nations like the United States, Russia, and France.

 

6. Regulation of Nuclear Technology in India

 

 

• India has put in place a robust legal and institutional structure to oversee the use of nuclear technology. As per the Indian Constitution, 'atomic energy' is listed under the Union List, granting the central government sole authority to legislate in this domain.
• The Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) was set up in 1954 and functions under the supervision of the Atomic Energy Commission, which serves as the principal policymaking body for nuclear affairs in the country.
• To further solidify regulatory control, the Atomic Energy Act of 1962 replaced its 1957 predecessor. This legislation empowers the central government to oversee all aspects of atomic energy, including its production, development, and disposal.
• The Act also authorizes the government to formulate rules and establish agencies for its effective implementation.
• Using these legislative powers, the government has enacted regulations focusing on radiation safety and nuclear waste disposal. It also created the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), which is responsible for monitoring and ensuring nuclear safety standards across the country.
• Additionally, the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) handles the planning, building, and operation of nuclear power stations. Recognizing the risks involved in nuclear activities, the government passed the Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act in 2010. This law enforces strict liability on nuclear operators, holding them accountable for any damage caused, irrespective of fault

 

7. Way forward

 

While nuclear technology is often praised for being a clean energy source with multiple advantages, it also presents several critical challenges. Incidents such as the Chernobyl and Fukushima disasters highlight the importance of maintaining rigorous safety standards. Additionally, issues like health hazards from uranium mining and the long-term management of radioactive waste continue to pose serious concerns.

In countries like India, the application of nuclear technology in areas such as agriculture and healthcare is still in its early stages and demands greater investment in research and innovation. However, with the implementation of well-framed policies, robust safety mechanisms, and international collaboration, nuclear energy can be effectively utilized to address global energy needs and contribute to scientific and technological advancement in a responsible and sustainable way.

 

 

For Prelims: Nuclear Waste Management, Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor, uranium, plutonium For mains:  1. Discuss the challenges associated with nuclear waste management in the context of India's nuclear energy program. How can these challenges be addressed effectively? (250 Words) 2. Ethical considerations play a crucial role in nuclear waste management. Discuss the ethical concerns surrounding the potential for environmental injustice and the responsibility of nations in dealing with nuclear waste.(250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. To meet its rapidly growing energy demand, some opine that India should pursue research and development on thorium as the future fuel of nuclear energy. In this on text, what advantage, does thorium hold over uranium? (UPSC 2012) Thorium is far more abundant in nature than uranium. On the basis of per unit mass of mined mineral, thorium can generate more energy compared to natural uranium. Thorium produces less harmful waste compared to uranium. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only         (b) 2 and 3 only            (c) 1 and 3 only              (d) 1, 2 and 3 2. Which among the following has the world’s largest reserves of Uranium? (UPSC 2009) (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) Russian Federation (d) USA Answers: 1-D, 2-A

Source: Indianexpress

 

RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION (RFID)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Minister of Road Transport and Highways Nitin Gadkari on Wednesday (18th June) announced a FASTag-based annual pass priced at Rs 3,000 for “hassle-free-highway travel”

 

2. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and FASTag

 

• FASTag is a digital toll payment mechanism jointly overseen by the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) and the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI). The FASTag is typically affixed to a vehicle's windshield and was initially introduced in 2014 as a test initiative. It became compulsory for toll collection across all national highways in 2021.

• The system operates using Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology, which enables interaction between the FASTag and electronic sensors at toll booths. As a vehicle passes through a toll gate, the toll fee is automatically debited from the associated bank account or digital wallet linked to the FASTag.

• RFID is a form of wireless identification that comprises tags and reading devices. It uses radio waves to relay details such as identification or status of an item or person to a nearby reader—either handheld or installed at fixed locations like structures or poles. These tags can include encrypted data, unique serial numbers, or brief descriptors. Some tags, particularly those used in the aviation sector, can store large volumes of data.

• RFID tags are categorized into three types: passive, semi-passive, and active. Active RFID tags have their own power source, typically a battery, allowing them to send signals periodically or when they detect a nearby reader. In contrast, passive RFID tags lack a power source and rely on the electromagnetic energy emitted by the reader to function. These passive tags are the type employed in the FASTag system. Semi-passive tags have internal circuitry and power, but still depend on the reader’s signal to respond.

• RFID systems function through an antenna and a microchip, which together communicate with a reader by emitting radio signals. These systems operate at various frequency bands including low (LF), high (HF), and ultra-high frequencies (UHF). The signals received from the tags are then decoded into usable information by a computer system

 

3. ANPR FASTag System (AFS)

 

ANPR FASTag System (AFS) is an advanced toll collection mechanism that integrates Automated Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) technology with the existing FASTag infrastructure to enable seamless and contactless toll payment.

Unlike traditional FASTag systems, where RFID tags on a vehicle's windshield are scanned by sensors at toll plazas, AFS uses high-resolution cameras to automatically read vehicle registration numbers. These cameras are equipped with software that captures and processes images of license plates as vehicles approach toll booths or designated gantries.

The ANPR system cross-verifies the vehicle’s registration details with the FASTag database, which includes the vehicle’s number and linked payment account. Once a match is found, the toll amount is automatically deducted from the corresponding FASTag wallet or bank account—without requiring a physical RFID scan.

Key Features:

• Contactless Tolling: Vehicles don’t need to slow down or stop for RFID scanning.

• No Tag Dependency: Even if the FASTag is damaged or unreadable, the toll can still be collected using the vehicle’s number plate.

• Real-time Verification: AFS enhances enforcement by checking vehicle compliance (e.g., tag validity, blacklisted status) in real-time.

• Reduced Congestion: Faster vehicle movement through toll plazas due to camera-based number recognition.

 

4. Navigation with India Constellation (NavIC) system

 

 

• NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), officially known as the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), is a satellite-based navigation network developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It is designed to function independently and consists of seven satellites. Of these, three are positioned in geostationary orbit, while the remaining four occupy inclined geosynchronous orbits, catering to both civilian and military requirements.

• The concept of having India’s own satellite navigation system emerged after the 1999 Kargil conflict, during which India’s defence forces were denied access to the US-based GPS. In response, India launched its first satellite under this initiative, IRNSS-1A, on July 1, 2013.

• With the launch of IRNSS-1G on April 28, 2016, the seventh satellite in the series, ISRO declared the IRNSS constellation complete. However, from mid-2016 onward, several satellites experienced failures due to malfunctioning rubidium atomic clocks. Out of the 11 satellites launched under the ₹2,250 crore NavIC project (including replacements), only five are currently fully functional, according to ISRO.

• NavIC delivers two distinct services: the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for general and commercial users, and the Restricted Service (RS), which is encrypted and intended solely for military and strategic applications. These services cover the Indian subcontinent and surrounding areas.

• Although global satellite systems such as GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (EU), BeiDou (China), and QZSS (Japan) are available, India pursued its own navigation system to ensure uninterrupted and reliable service, especially for defence operations where strategic autonomy is crucial.

5. Applications of RFID Technology

 

• RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology has become increasingly prevalent across numerous industries due to its ability to automatically identify and track objects, animals, and people using electromagnetic fields. Here are the key applications:
• RFID tags enable real-time inventory tracking, reducing stockouts and overstocking. Major retailers use RFID to monitor product movement from warehouses to store shelves, automatically updating inventory systems. This technology also powers anti-theft systems and enables faster checkout processes through bulk scanning
• The technology provides end-to-end visibility in supply chains, allowing companies to track shipments, monitor temperature-sensitive goods, and verify authenticity. RFID helps optimize warehouse operations through automated sorting and reduces manual scanning errors in distribution centers
• Hospitals use RFID for patient identification, medication tracking, and equipment management. The technology helps prevent medical errors by ensuring patients receive correct medications and dosages. It also tracks expensive medical equipment and monitors the location of patients, particularly those with conditions like dementia.
• RFID-enabled key cards and badges control building access, replacing traditional keys. The technology provides detailed audit trails of who accessed which areas and when, enhancing security in corporate buildings, government facilities, and residential complexes
• Electronic toll collection systems like E-ZPass use RFID to automatically charge vehicles passing through toll booths. Public transportation systems employ RFID in contactless payment cards for buses, trains, and subways.

 

For Prelims: NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS) For Mains: GS III - Science and Technology

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

JAL JEEVAN MISSION

 

 

1. Context

 

The Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), the government’s flagship scheme to provide tap connections to rural households, has encountered budgeting difficulties. The Jal Shakti Ministry had requested a staggering Rs 2.79 lakh crore from the Centre to complete the remaining 25% of its target by December 2028. However, in a setback for the mission, an expenditure panel, which appraises projects, has approved only half of the funds proposed by the ministry.

 

2. Jal Jeevan Mission

 

• The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on August 15, 2019, was envisioned to ensure tap water access to approximately 16 crore rural households, with the goal of achieving universal coverage by 2024.

• However, in just over five years, only 75% of the target has been met. To cover the remaining 4 crore households, the government now plans to extend the mission’s deadline to December 31, 2028.

• The Ministry of Jal Shakti had sought Rs 2.79 lakh crore from the Centre to finish the project. But according to sources, the Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC)—headed by the Expenditure Secretary—reviewed the proposal on March 13 and recommended a revised funding of only Rs 1.51 lakh crore. The committee also slashed the total project cost by Rs 41,000 crore, approving an outlay of Rs 8.69 lakh crore instead of the Rs 9.10 lakh crore originally proposed.

• Since the Jal Jeevan Mission is co-financed equally by the Centre and the states, this cut in Central funding could shift a greater financial burden onto state governments

Government Schemes related to Water   Among the various initiatives under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Namami Gange Programme and river interlinking projects hold significant importance. Hence, it is essential for aspirants to not only be familiar with these schemes but also grasp the concept of river interlinking itself. In fact, a previous Prelims question was based on the Godavari-Krishna river interlinking, highlighting the relevance of such topics. As a result, gaining a clear understanding of the Ken-Betwa river linking project is also crucial for exam preparation

 

3. Namami Ganga Programme

 

• The Namami Gange Programme is a comprehensive river conservation initiative launched as a flagship mission by the Union Government in June 2014. It aims to achieve two primary goals: the reduction of pollution and the revival and preservation of the Ganga River, recognized as India’s national river.

• The programme is built on several core components, which include:

  • Development of sewage treatment infrastructure

  • Revitalization of riverfront areas

  • Cleaning of the river surface to remove floating waste

  • Promotion and protection of biodiversity

  • Expansion of afforestation along the river basin

  • Enhancing public engagement and awareness

  • Monitoring of industrial waste discharge

  • Transformation of villages along the Ganga into model Ganga Grams

 

4. Interlinking of rivers (Ken-betwa river)

 

 

• River interlinking refers to a large-scale water resource management approach where water is deliberately redirected from regions with excess availability to those facing water scarcity.

• This method typically involves connecting river basins using infrastructure such as canals, reservoirs, and pipelines. These inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects are designed to improve irrigation capacity, support flood management, and boost water availability in areas prone to drought.

• On December 25, 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, marking the 100th birth anniversary of former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

• The project’s primary goal is to irrigate the drought-prone Bundelkhand region by channeling excess water from the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh to the Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh. Both rivers eventually feed into the Yamuna River, and are classified as its right-bank tributaries.

• The Union Cabinet approved a budget of Rs 44,605 crore for the KBLP. It will be implemented in two phases:

  • Phase I includes the construction of the Daudhan Dam, a 221-km-long Ken-Betwa Link Canal, and associated infrastructure.

  • Phase II will involve the development of the Lower Orr Dam, the Bina Complex Project, and the Kotha Barrage.

• A section of the proposed infrastructure will pass through the Panna Tiger Reserve, raising environmental concerns due to the potential submergence of a part of this ecologically sensitive tiger habitat.

• Significantly, the KBLP is the first river interlinking project to be implemented under the National Perspective Plan, which was introduced in 1980. This larger plan includes 16 river links in the Peninsular region, and another 14 links proposed under the Himalayan component

 

Yamuna river   Yamuna is a tributary of River Ganga. It has four main tributaries in the Himalayan region: Rishi Ganga, Hanuman Ganga, Tons, and Giri. In the plains, the main tributaries are Hindon, Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken. Tons is the largest tributary of Yamuna. Other small tributaries of the Yamuna River include the Uttangan, Sengar and the Rind.

 

 

5. Constitution on Water

 

Right to Water as a Fundamental Right in India

The right to access clean and safe drinking water in India is considered part of the fundamental rights framework, particularly under Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the Right to Life. This interpretation is derived from connected rights such as the right to food, right to health, and the right to a clean environment.

• In the landmark Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (2000) case, the Supreme Court emphasized that access to water is a basic human necessity, integral to the right to life. It also stated that the right to a healthy environment and sustainable development are essential components of human rights under Article 21.

• Similarly, in the State of Karnataka v. State of Andhra Pradesh (2000) case, the Court reiterated that the right to water is part and parcel of the right to life, thus making it a fundamental right

 

Directive Principles Related to Water and Environment

• Article 39(b) under the Directive Principles of State Policy directs the State to ensure that material resources, including water, are equitably distributed to promote the common good.

• Article 48A calls upon the State to actively work towards the protection and enhancement of the environment, including forests and wildlife, which indirectly contributes to water conservation

Environmental Duties of Citizens

• Article 51A(g), which falls under Fundamental Duties, obligates every citizen to safeguard and improve the natural environment, specifically mentioning rivers, lakes, forests, and wildlife. It also encourages compassion for living beings

Legal Provisions for Water Dispute Resolution

• Article 262 empowers Parliament to enact laws for resolving inter-State river water disputes. According to:

  • Clause (1): Parliament can legislate for the adjudication of conflicts over the use, distribution, or control of inter-State river waters.

  • Clause (2): Parliament may restrict judicial intervention, including that of the Supreme Court, in such matters.

  This article served as the constitutional basis for the enactment of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, aimed at resolving such disputes

 

Constitutional Powers over Water – State and Union Roles

• Entry 17 of the State List (List II), Seventh Schedule grants states the authority to legislate on water-related issues like irrigation, canals, drainage, and water supply, subject to the Union’s jurisdiction under Entry 56 of List I.

• Entry 56 of the Union List (List I), Seventh Schedule allows the central government to regulate and develop inter-State rivers and river valleys when declared to be in the public interest by Parliament

 

 

For Prelims: Jal jeevan Mission, Directive Principles of State Policy   For Mains: GS II - Government Schemes on Water

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

CONTEMPT OF COURT

 

 

1. Context

 

Hours after his party distanced itself from his statement that Chief Justice of India (CJI) Sanjiv Khanna was responsible for “grih yuddhas” (civil wars) in the country, BJP MP Nishikant Dubey on Sunday morning attacked former Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) S Y Quraishi over his criticism of the Waqf Act, labelling him a “Muslim Commissioner”.

 

2. What is Contempt of Court?

 

• The concept of Contempt of Court plays a crucial role in upholding the dignity and authority of the judiciary. It ensures that courts are able to perform their functions without obstruction and maintain the respect essential for the administration of justice.
• In India, this principle is codified under the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971, which recognizes two broad categories of contempt—civil and criminal.
• Civil contempt refers to the willful disobedience of any judgment, decree, or direction issued by a court. It may also involve the breach of an undertaking given to the court. For instance, if an individual deliberately fails to comply with a court’s order—such as ignoring a directive to pay court-mandated maintenance or refusing to act on a demolition order—it constitutes civil contempt. The key element here is the willful and intentional nature of the disobedience.
• On the other hand, criminal contempt goes beyond non-compliance and focuses on actions that obstruct the administration of justice. It includes any publication or act that scandalizes the court, lowers its authority, or prejudices or interferes with judicial proceedings.
• This form of contempt is aimed at protecting the court’s reputation and preventing any influence—direct or indirect—that could compromise the fairness of a legal process.
• The judiciary, while equipped with the power to punish for contempt, exercises this authority with restraint. It is used sparingly and only when the court believes that the act in question threatens the integrity of the judicial system.
• In a democratic society, this balance between protecting the dignity of courts and upholding the right to free speech is essential.
• The law on contempt seeks to strike that balance, ensuring that while criticism of the judiciary is permissible within reasonable limits, acts that impede justice are not tolerated

 

3. The Role of the Supreme Court in Contempt of Court

 

• The Supreme Court of India, as the apex judicial body in the country, plays a pivotal role in maintaining the integrity and authority of the judicial system, particularly when it comes to contempt of court.
• The Court holds the responsibility of ensuring that the dignity of the judiciary is respected and that the legal process remains uninterrupted. To this end, the Supreme Court has been entrusted with the power to punish acts of contempt and to take action when there is an attempt to undermine or obstruct the course of justice.
• The Supreme Court exercises its power to address contempt of court in two primary ways: preventing interference with judicial proceedings and protecting the reputation and authority of the judiciary.
• As a guardian of the Constitution, the Court uses its contempt powers to ensure that no individual or entity, whether governmental, private, or public, acts in a manner that could disrupt the delivery of justice or defame the judiciary.
• One of the key roles of the Supreme Court in contempt cases is to interpret and apply the law in a way that strikes a balance between protecting judicial authority and respecting constitutional rights, especially the freedom of speech.
• While the Court has the authority to punish contemptuous actions, including imposing fines or imprisonment, it is mindful of its role in a democracy. The Court typically steps in only when contemptuous behavior is blatant and significantly impacts the functioning of justice.
• For example, if someone openly insults the Court, defies its orders, or attempts to influence ongoing legal proceedings, the Supreme Court has the authority to take action.
• Additionally, the Supreme Court often serves as a forum for resolving high-profile contempt matters, particularly those involving media publications or public figures. The Court ensures that its judgments are implemented and that actions which may bring the court into disrepute or cause prejudice to the administration of justice are effectively dealt with.
• Through its oversight, the Supreme Court not only upholds the dignity of the judiciary but also reinforces the principle that no one is above the law, and that judicial authority must be respected at all times.
• The Court's role in contempt of court cases is essential to maintaining the rule of law, ensuring that justice is served without fear, favor, or obstruction

 

4. What Articles 129 and 142 of the Constitution says?

 

The Constitution of India grants the Supreme Court several powers and responsibilities to ensure the rule of law is maintained across the nation. Two of the significant provisions in this regard are Article 129 and Article 142, which empower the Supreme Court to uphold justice, enforce its orders, and protect the dignity of the judicial process.

Article 129: Power of the Supreme Court to Punish for Contempt of Court

• Article 129 explicitly states that the Supreme Court has the authority to punish any person for contempt of court. This provision grants the apex court the power to ensure that its dignity and authority are upheld, allowing it to take action when its decisions or the functioning of the judicial system is disrespected or obstructed.
• The article is vital in preserving the integrity of the judiciary, ensuring that its orders and judgments are followed, and preventing any act that undermines the administration of justice.
• In essence, Article 129 asserts that the Supreme Court has the inherent jurisdiction to deal with contempt cases, whether civil or criminal, and can impose penalties such as fines or imprisonment if necessary.
• This power is an essential tool for maintaining the respect and effectiveness of the judicial process in India.

Article 142: Enforcement of Orders and Decrees of the Supreme Court

• Article 142 provides a broader and more proactive power to the Supreme Court, enabling it to pass any order or decree that it considers necessary to ensure complete justice in a matter.
• This article empowers the Court to make any order or pass any decree that is beyond the explicit provisions of law, as long as it is in pursuit of justice. It allows the Supreme Court to issue directions that may not strictly adhere to the letter of the law but are deemed essential to prevent injustice and serve the cause of justice in specific cases.
• Article 142 also plays a key role in the enforcement of the Court's decisions. It ensures that the Supreme Court's orders are fully executed, even when there is no clear legal provision to implement a decision.
• The article thus helps the Court to act decisively and ensure that its decisions are not merely symbolic but lead to real-world changes, reinforcing its role as the final arbiter of justice in India.
• In short, Article 142 enhances the powers of the Supreme Court by enabling it to pass orders for the enforcement of its decisions, fill legal gaps, and ensure that justice is done in a timely and effective manner

 

5. Criticism of Contempt of Court Proceedings 

 

 

• While contempt of court proceedings play a critical role in maintaining the integrity and authority of the judiciary, they have been subject to criticism over the years. Critics argue that, when misused or overextended, contempt laws can pose a threat to democratic values, particularly the freedom of expression and the independence of the press.
• The debate over contempt of court laws centers on finding a balance between protecting the judiciary and ensuring that fundamental rights are not unduly restricted.
• One major criticism is that contempt of court proceedings can be used to suppress legitimate criticism of the judiciary. In a democratic society, the right to free speech and the freedom of the press are foundational principles.
• However, contempt laws, particularly criminal contempt, are sometimes perceived as being invoked to silence individuals or media outlets that critique or question judicial decisions, thus stifling public discourse.
• Critics argue that this undermines the transparency of the judicial process, as it discourages public debate on court judgments, which is essential for the evolution of law and justice.
• Additionally, there are concerns that contempt of court laws can be overly broad and vague. The definition of what constitutes contempt is often unclear, which can lead to arbitrary or excessive use of the power to punish individuals.
• For example, an individual who expresses an opinion about a court’s decision may be charged with contempt if the court deems the expression to be offensive, even if there was no intent to interfere with judicial proceedings. This lack of clear boundaries can result in inconsistent application of the law and the potential for abuse by those in power.
• Moreover, there is an argument that the judiciary should be self-regulating and not rely heavily on legal provisions to defend its honor. Some believe that judges should be able to withstand public criticism as part of the democratic process, as long as it does not impede the functioning of the court.
• In this view, contempt proceedings should only be used in cases of direct, serious interference with the judicial process, rather than as a tool to protect the judiciary’s image
• Another point of contention is that contempt of court laws are often disproportionately applied to those without the means to defend themselves, such as journalists or activists.
• The cost and complexity of legal proceedings can make it difficult for these individuals to mount an adequate defense, potentially leading to a chilling effect on free expression. This concern is especially pronounced when contempt charges are used to target dissenting voices or those who challenge the status quo.
• In conclusion, while contempt of court proceedings are essential for ensuring that the judiciary operates without interference, they must be applied with caution and clarity.
• Overuse or misuse of contempt laws can infringe on fundamental rights and inhibit public discourse, which is a vital aspect of a functioning democracy.
• Striking the right balance between protecting judicial authority and safeguarding freedoms of speech and expression remains a challenge that needs ongoing attention and scrutiny

 

For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance-Constitution, Political System, Panchayati Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues, etc   For Mains: General Studies II: Structure, organization and functioning of the Executive and the Judiciary

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (2022) 1. Pursuant to the report of H.N. Sanyal Committee, the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971 was passed. 2. The Constitution of India empowers the Supreme Court and the High Courts to punish for contempt of themselves. 3. The Constitution of India defines Civil Contempt and Criminal Contempt. 4. In India, the Parliament is vested with the powers to make laws on Contempt of Court. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 4 (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 3 only

 

 

Source: Indianexpress