Recent allegations made by Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau linking the killing of Khalistani leader Hardeep Singh Nijjar on Canadian soil to the Indian government have brought the intelligence-sharing alliance 'Five Eyes' into the spotlight. This alliance is believed to have provided crucial information that led Canada to accuse India of potential involvement in the assassination.

2. About The Five Eyes Network

• The 'Five Eyes' is a multilateral intelligence-sharing network comprising more than 20 different agencies from five English-speaking countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
• It operates in the domains of surveillance and signals intelligence (SIGINT), with shared intelligence documents classified as 'Secret—AUS/CAN/NZ/UK/US Eyes Only,' giving the alliance its name.

3. Historical Origins

• The roots of this intelligence alliance trace back to the Second World War when the United States and the United Kingdom collaborated to counter the Soviet threat of the Cold War.
• Their successful code-breaking efforts during the war led to a formalized cooperation agreement in 1946 known as the British-U.S. Communication Intelligence Agreement, or BRUSA (now the UKUSA Agreement).
• Initially limited to communication intelligence matters, this pact was later expanded to include Canada in 1948 and Australia and New Zealand in 1956.
• For decades, the existence of this alliance remained highly classified and undisclosed, with even high-ranking officials unaware of its details until the 1970s.
• It was officially acknowledged by governments by name only in 1999, and the text of the agreement was not released to the public until 2010.

Image Source: Graphic News

4. Functioning of the 'Five Eyes' Network

• Within the alliance, partner countries are assigned specific SIGINT mandates.
• For example, the United States focuses on Russia, northern China, most of Asia, and Latin America, while Australia covers southern China, Indo-China, and neighbouring regions.
• The UK takes charge in Africa and west of the Urals within the former Soviet Union, and New Zealand is responsible for the Western Pacific.
• Canada's responsibilities include the polar regions of Russia.
• Over time, the focus of the 'Five Eyes' has shifted beyond Cold War-era concerns, adapting to new global challenges such as terrorism and the rise of China.
• These countries have broadened their cooperation to encompass various areas, including ocean and maritime surveillance, scientific and defence intelligence analysis, medical intelligence, geospatial intelligence, counterintelligence, counterterrorism, and continuous information sharing through a secret collective database known as 'Stone Ghost.'

5. Five Eyes Intelligence Oversight and Concerns

• In September 2016, the Five Eyes Intelligence Oversight and Review Council (FIORC) was established as a non-political entity responsible for intelligence oversight, review, and security among member countries.
• This council promotes cooperation, shares best practices, explores collaborative opportunities, and maintains contact with non-Five Eyes nations.
• However, concerns have arisen over the years regarding the privacy, security, and methods employed by the alliance.
• A significant controversy erupted in 2013 when classified documents leaked by former NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed a mass surveillance program jointly operated by the Five Eyes to monitor their citizens.
• Snowden described the network as a "supranational intelligence organization that doesn't answer to the laws of its own countries."

6. Conclusion

• The Five Eyes Intelligence Alliance is a complex network of intelligence sharing with historical origins in countering Cold War threats.
• While it has evolved to address contemporary challenges, it has also faced scrutiny and criticism, particularly regarding its surveillance practices and transparency.

Source: The Hindu

ALIEN SPECIES

• Invasive species are often introduced intentionally or unintentionally by humans.
• They can be introduced through trade, transport, travel, or deliberate release for various purposes, such as agriculture, horticulture, aquaculture, and pet trade
• Invasive species tend to have characteristics that give them a competitive advantage in the new environment.
• This can include rapid reproduction, lack of natural predators or diseases, and adaptability to different environmental conditions
• Invasive species can disrupt ecosystems by outcompeting native species for resources like food, water, and habitat. They may alter nutrient cycling, fire regimes, and other ecosystem processes
•  Invasive species are a significant threat to native biodiversity. They can lead to the decline or extinction of native species through predation, competition, or habitat modification.
• Invasive species can also have severe economic impacts. They can damage agricultural crops, forests, fisheries, and infrastructure. Controlling and managing invasive species can be costly
• Some invasive species can pose risks to human health. For example, certain invasive plants may trigger allergies, while invasive mosquitoes can transmit diseases like Zika and West Nile virus
•  Invasive species are a global issue, and international cooperation is crucial for addressing the problem.
• Organizations like the Convention on Biological Diversity and regional agreements work to address invasive species at a global level
• Efforts to manage and control invasive species may involve eradication, containment, prevention, and control measures.
• Biological control, chemical control, and physical methods are often used, depending on the species and the context

• Exotic species are species that have been moved from their native range to a new geographic area, often due to human activities.
• They can be introduced through trade, travel, agriculture, aquaculture, horticulture, and other human-mediated means.
• Exotic species may possess characteristics that make them successful in their new environment. These characteristics can include rapid growth, efficient reproduction, lack of natural predators, and the ability to adapt to different environmental conditions.
• Exotic species can have a range of ecological impacts. They may outcompete native species for resources such as food, water, and habitat, leading to declines in native biodiversity.
• Some exotic species can alter ecosystem processes, such as nutrient cycling or fire regimes
• Exotic species can also have economic impacts. They may damage agricultural crops, forests, fisheries, and infrastructure, leading to financial losses. Controlling and managing exotic species can be expensive
• Not all exotic species have negative impacts. Some introduced species can provide benefits to the new environment or human society. For example, certain exotic plants may have ornamental value or be used in agriculture
• Managing exotic species typically involves prevention, early detection, and control measures. Strategies may include eradication, containment, biological control (using natural enemies), chemical control, and physical removal methods

Alien Species	Exotic Species
"Alien Species" is a more global or generic term used in international contexts and by organizations like the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) to refer to species introduced outside their native range.	"Exotic Species" is sometimes used in more localized or regional contexts and may have slightly different connotations depending on the region. For example, in North America, "exotic" is often used interchangeably with "alien," while in Europe, "exotic" might refer to species introduced from outside the continent.
"Alien Species" tends to have a more neutral or scientific connotation, emphasizing the fact that the species is not native to the area.	"Exotic Species" can sometimes carry connotations of novelty or unfamiliarity, highlighting the species' exotic or non-native status. This term is often used in horticulture and the pet trade to describe non-native species introduced for decorative or ornamental purposes.

 

 

Previous year Questions   Read the following passage and answer. Your answers to these items should be based on the passages only. (UPSC CSE CSAT 2018)   Most invasive species are neither terribly successful nor very harmful. Britain's invasive plants are not widespread, not spreading especially quickly, and often less of a nuisance than vigorous natives such as bracken. The arrival of new species almost always increases biological diversity in a region; in many cases, a flood of newcomers drives no native species to extinction. One reason is that invaders tend to colonise disturbed habitats like polluted lakes and post-industrial wasteland, where little else lives. They are nature’s opportunists. Which one of the following is the most logical and rational inference that can be made from the above passage? A.Invasive species should be used to rehabilitate desert areas and wastelands of a country. B.Laws against the introduction of foreign plants are unnecessary. C.Sometimes, the campaigns against foreign plants are pointless. D.Foreign plants should be used to increase the biodiversity of a country   Answer (C)

 

Source: indianexpress

COOKIES

1. Context

The digital world of cookies plays a significant role in any online experience. In the digital realm, cookies help in personalisation and user convenience. These unassuming bits of code, stored on a device when one visits websites, play a pivotal role in shaping any online experience.

2. About cookies and its work

• Cookies are small text files stored on your device when you visit a website.
• They can be used for a variety of purposes, such as remembering your login information, tracking your browsing activity, and delivering targeted advertising.
• Think of cookies as the key to a secure, members-only club. Just like the club bouncer recognises regular patrons and grants them seamless access, cookies remember your login information on websites.
• This means you do not have to repeatedly enter your credentials every time you revisit a site, making it convenient for use.
• On websites like Amazon, cookies remember your previous interactions; from products you have browsed to purchases you have made.
• Armed with this knowledge, Amazon serves up tailored product recommendations and content, making your online shopping feel like a personalised boutique experience.
• Consider an enchanted grocery cart that never empties, no matter how many times you step away.
• Online shopping carts, fuelled by cookies, offer a similar enchantment. You can add items to your cart, leave the website, and return later to find your selections waiting patiently, ready for checkout.
• Platforms like Facebook and Google use cookies to track online behaviour, ensuring the ads you encounter align with your preferences.
• While cookies offer undeniable advantages, there is a flip side to considering privacy concerns and the potential for data misuse.

3. Types of cookies

• Session cookies are temporary cookies like post-it notes for websites. They are stored in your computer’s memory only during your browsing session.
• Once you close your browser, they vanish. Session cookies help websites remember your actions as you navigate, like items in your shopping cart.
• Persistent cookies are the digital equivalent of bookmarks. They stay on your device after your browsing session ends.
• Persistent cookies remember your login information, language preferences, and even the ads you have interacted with. They are handy for a more personalised web experience.
• Secure cookies are only sent over encrypted connections, making them safer from prying eyes. Secure cookies are often used for sensitive data like login credentials.
• Third-party cookies are similar they come from a domain other than the one you are visiting.
• They are often used for tracking and advertising purposes, which can be both useful and, at times, intrusive.

4. The uses of cookies

Cookies serve a multitude of purposes in the online world.

1. They act as digital ID cards, aiding in user authentication by allowing websites to recognise and keep you logged in during your visit.
2. They foster a sense of personalisation, recalling your preferences such as language choice or website theme.
3. They function as the digital equivalent of a persistent shopping cart, ensuring that items you have added online remain there when you return.
4. Cookies facilitate website owners in gathering invaluable analytics data about user interactions, enabling them to make enhancements and customise content.
5. Cookies play a pivotal role in targeted advertising, as advertisers use them to display ads that align with your interests and browsing history, making online shopping more enticing.
6. Navigating the world of cookies is not all sweetness, but it comes with its set of challenges.

5. The challenges associated with cookies

• Cookies could track your online behaviour, which, while often harmless, can sometimes encroach upon your digital privacy.
• Inadequately secured cookies could open doors for cybercriminals to pilfer your personal information.
• Privacy regulations like the General Data Protection Regulation and The California Consumer Privacy Act now necessitate websites to seek your approval before deploying certain cookie types, resulting in those somewhat irksome pop-ups and prompts. India’s newly enacted Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023 now necessitates websites to acquire explicit consent from users before collecting or processing their personal data via cookies.
• Third-party cookies have sparked debates, prompting many web browsers to curb their usage to safeguard user privacy.
•  The multitude of cookies can potentially clog your browser, leading to a sluggish web experience.

6. The Way Forward

• Cookies are both sweet and complex. They play a crucial role in enhancing your online experience, but they also come with privacy and security challenges.
• As the digital landscape continues to evolve, so will the way cookies will be used and regulated.

 

For Prelims: Cookies, websites, privacy, Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023,  For Mains:  1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using cookies in the digital realm? Discuss the benefits of cookies in user authentication and personalization, as well as the challenges related to privacy and security. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. What are web browser cookies? (MP Patwari 2017)  A. It is a virus that is downloaded from the internet B. It is a small file that contains user browsing data C. It is an application needed for playing audio or video files D. It verifies files that are downloaded for viruses   Answer: B   2. Right to Privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty. Which of the following in the Constitution of India correctly and appropriately imply the above statement? (UPSC CSE 2018) A. Article 14 and the provisions under the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution B. Article 17 and the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV C. Article 21 and the freedoms guaranteed in Part III D. Article 24 and the provisions under the 44th Amendment to the Constitution   Answer: C    3. ‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India? (UPSC CSE 2021)  A. Article 15       B. Article 19           C. Article 21             D. Article 29   Answer: C

 

 Source: The Hindu

GREEN REVOLUTION

 

 

1. Context

Even as the legendary agricultural scientist and the Father of Green Revolution, Dr MS Swaminathan (98) who passed away , had no lineage or roots in Punjab, his love and concern for the farmers of the state was well reflected in his several conversations

 

2. Green Revolution

The Green Revolution refers to a series of agricultural advancements and initiatives that took place in the mid-20th century, primarily during the 1960s and 1970s.

These developments had a profound impact on global agriculture, particularly in developing countries, and were aimed at increasing food production to address issues of food scarcity and hunger

The Green Revolution had a significant impact on India, which was previously a food-deficient country.

The introduction of high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice led to a dramatic increase in agricultural production, helping to alleviate poverty and hunger. India also became self-sufficient in food production

 

3. Key Features of Green Revolution

Key features and components of the Green Revolution include:

1. Introduction of High-Yielding Varieties (HYVs): One of the central elements of the Green Revolution was the development and widespread adoption of high-yielding crop varieties, particularly for wheat and rice. These new varieties produced significantly higher yields per acre compared to traditional varieties.

2. Use of Modern Farming Techniques: Alongside HYVs, the Green Revolution promoted the use of modern agricultural practices, including the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation. These technologies helped boost crop yields.

3. Expansion of Irrigation: Increasing access to irrigation was a critical component of the Green Revolution. Irrigation allowed for better water management and more consistent crop production.

4. Access to Credit and Infrastructure: The Green Revolution often included measures to provide farmers with access to credit, improved transportation, and marketing infrastructure to support their increased agricultural production.

5. Research and Education: Government and international organizations invested in agricultural research and extension services to disseminate knowledge about the new agricultural practices to farmers.

6. Public and Private Sector Collaboration: Collaboration between public sector institutions, such as research institutions and agricultural extension agencies, and the private sector, including seed companies, played a crucial role in the Green Revolution's success.

7. Increased Crop Production: As a result of these efforts, many countries experienced substantial increases in crop production, particularly in staple crops like rice, wheat, and maize. This helped alleviate hunger and food shortages in many regions

4. Impacts of the Green Revolution

 

The Green Revolution had a number of positive impacts on India, including:

•  The Green Revolution led to a significant increase in agricultural production in India. Wheat production increased by 170% between 1965 and 1980, while rice production increased by 270%. This increase in production helped to alleviate poverty and hunger in India.
•  The Green Revolution helped India to become self-sufficient in food production. This meant that India was no longer dependent on imported food to feed its population.
• The Green Revolution contributed to India's economic growth. The increase in agricultural production led to an increase in incomes for farmers and rural communities. This increased spending power boosted the demand for goods and services, which helped to drive economic growth.

5. Challenges of the Green Revolution

 

However, the Green Revolution also had some negative impacts, including:

• The Green Revolution led to an increase in the use of fertilizers and pesticides, which can have a negative impact on the environment.
• The use of water also increased significantly during the Green Revolution, leading to water shortages in some areas
• The Green Revolution benefited large farmers more than small farmers. Large farmers were able to invest in the new technologies, such as high-yielding varieties of seeds and fertilizers, which led to significant increases in their production.
• Small farmers, on the other hand, often did not have the resources to invest in these new technologies, and their production did not increase as much
• The Green Revolution led to an increase in rural indebtedness. Many farmers borrowed money to invest in the new technologies, but they were unable to repay their loans when agricultural prices fell. This led to a debt crisis in rural India

 

6. Way forward

It's important to note that the Green Revolution was not a one-size-fits-all solution, and its success varied from region to region. Additionally, there have been ongoing efforts to address the environmental and social challenges associated with its implementation, while still benefiting from its agricultural innovations

 

 

For Prelims: Bt Cotton, High Yielding Varieties (HYV), Green Revolution For Mains: 1.The Green Revolution is often credited with increasing agricultural productivity in India. However, it has also faced criticism for its environmental and social repercussions. Analyze the positive and negative aspects of the Green Revolution and its long-term sustainability 2.Critically evaluate the impact of the Green Revolution on income distribution among farmers in India. Has it contributed to income inequality within the agricultural sector? Provide examples and data to support your analysis

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Which one of the following most appropriately describes the nature of Green Revolution of the late sixties of 20th century? (BPSC CCE 2015) A.Intensive cultivation of green vegetable B.Intensive agriculture district programme C.High-yielding varieties programme D.Seed-Fertilizer-Water technology E.None of the above/More than one of the above Answer (E)

 

Source: indianexpress

SWAMINATHAN

 

1. Context

Even as the legendary agricultural scientist and the Father of Green Revolution, Dr MS Swaminathan (98) who passed away Thursday, had no lineage or roots in Punjab, his love and concern for the farmers of the state was well reflected in his several conversations

 

2. Swaminathan

 

• Dr. M.S. Swaminathan is a renowned Indian agricultural scientist and geneticist. He is often referred to as the "Father of the Green Revolution in India" for his significant contributions to agricultural research and development.
• Dr. Swaminathan's work played a crucial role in increasing agricultural productivity in India and alleviating food shortages.
• Swaminathan was born in Kumbakonam, Tamil Nadu, India, and received his PhD in genetics from the University of Cambridge in 1952. He returned to India and joined the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), where he worked on developing high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice
• Swaminathan was a recipient of numerous awards and honors, including the World Food Prize, the Ramon Magsaysay Award, and the Albert Einstein World Award of Science.
• He was also a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

3. Key highlights of his Work

Some key highlights of Dr. M.S. Swaminathan's career and contributions include:

1. Green Revolution: He introduced high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice in India during the 1960s, which led to a substantial increase in crop yields and helped address food scarcity issues.

2. Agricultural Research: Dr. Swaminathan has made substantial contributions to agricultural research, particularly in the areas of plant genetics and crop improvement.

3. Sustainable Agriculture: He has been a strong advocate for sustainable agriculture and the conservation of biodiversity. His work emphasizes the importance of preserving traditional crop varieties and promoting eco-friendly farming practices.

4. International Recognition: Dr. Swaminathan's contributions to agriculture have earned him numerous awards and honors, including the World Food Prize, the Albert Einstein World Award of Science, and the Indira Gandhi Award for National Integration.

5. Policy and Advocacy: He has been involved in policy formulation related to agriculture and rural development in India and has served in various advisory roles.

4. Conclusion

The Green Revolution led to a dramatic increase in agricultural production in India, helping to alleviate poverty and hunger. Swaminathan's work also helped to make India self-sufficient in food production

 

 

Source: indianexpress

GOVERNOR'S POWER

 

1. Context

With eight Bills passed by Kerala Assembly pending with the Raj Bhavan, Chief Minister Pinarayi Vijayan on Wednesday said the state would approach the Supreme Court on whether the Governor has the power to sit on the Bills indefinitely.

2. About Governor

• Part VI of the Constitution deals with the states and lists out the role and responsibility of the Governor of states.
• Article 153 provides for a Governor of every state and is the constitutional head of the state.
• The executive power of the State shall be vested in the Governor and shall be exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with this Constitution (Article 154).
• Governor performs the same duties as of President, but as the executive head of a State; the work remains the same as of the office of the President of India.
• A Governor is a nominated head and not an elected representative.
• Dual Role of the Governor as head and representative
  - Constitutional head of state; and
  - Link between Union and State governments.
• His dual role makes him a key functionary in the Indian Constitutional system.

3. Powers of Governor

• Under Article 161 the Governor has the following powers –the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment; the power to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the State extends.
• The Governor makes all executive decisions on behalf of the state government (Article 166(1)).
• The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other cabinet members. They serve at the pleasure of the Governor (Article 164).
• He may create rules for the efficient execution of a state government's work and its distribution among the ministers. (Article 166(3))
• He appoints the state's advocate general and determines his tenure and conditions of service.
• He has the authority to recommend to the President the declaration of a state of constitutional emergency.
• He may request from the Chief Minister any information about the administration of the state's affairs, as well as legislative suggestions (Article 167).
• The governor appoints the state election commissioner and establishes his term of office and working conditions (Article 243K).

4. Friction points between the States and Governor

• In recent years. these have been largely about the selection of the party to form a government, the deadline for proving the majority, sitting on Bills, and passing negative remarks on the state administration.
• Kerala’s government was dismissed based on a report by the Governor. Several state governments have been dismissed since then, including 63 through President’s Rule orders issued by Governors between 1971 and 1990.
• Kerala Governor in 2020 turned down a request to summon a special sitting of the Assembly to debate the three central farm laws.
• In 2018 J&K Governor dissolved the Assembly amid indications that various parties were coming together to form the government. This paved the way for the Centre to later bifurcate the state into two Union territories, by considering the Governor as the government.
• In 2019 Maharashtra Governor quietly invited the BJP leader and administered his oath as CM. This government lasted just 80 hours. Six months later, the governor refused to nominate CM to the Legislative Council.
• Following the Karnataka polls in 2018, Governor Vajubhai Vala invited the BJP to form the government and gave B S Yeddyurappa 15 days to prove the majority. Challenged by Congress and JDS in the Supreme Court, it was reduced to three days.

5. Reasons for the friction between the Governor and the state governments

• There is no provision for impeaching the Governor, who is appointed by the President on the Centre's advice. While the Governor has a 5-year tenure, he can remain in office only until the pleasure of the President.
• There are no guidelines for the exercise of the Governor's powers, including for appointing a CM or dissolving the Assembly. There is no limit set for how long a Governor can withhold assent to a Bill.
• According to the Constitutional expert, although the Constituent Assembly envisaged the governor to be apolitical. But the truth is, politicians, become Governors and then resign to fight elections.
• The CM is answerable to the people. But the Governor is answerable to no one except the Centre. This is the fundamental defect in the Constitution.

6. Reforms Suggested

Several Panels, the Administrative Reforms Commission of 1968 and the Sarkaria Commission of 1988 have recommended reforms such as 

• selection of the Governor through a panel comprising the PM, the Home Minister, the Lok Sabha Speaker, and the CM.
• Apart from fixing his tenure for five years
• Recommendations have also been made for a provision to impeach the Governor by the Assembly. 

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Governor, Chief Minister,  Article 153,  Article 154,  Article 164,  and Article 243K. For Mains: 1. In the context of friction between the state governments and the Governor explain the role and powers of the Governor and what reforms have been suggested so far to end the tussle between the state governments and the Governor.

 

 

Previous Year Questions   Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State? (UPSC CSE 2014) 1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule 2. Appointing the Ministers 3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India 4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 2 Only B. 1 and 3 Only C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 2, 3, 4 Answer (B) 2.Which one of the following suggested that the Governor should be an eminent person from outside the State and should be a detached figure without intense political links or should not have taken part in politics in the recent past? (UPSC CSE 2019) A.First Administrative Reforms Commission (1966) B.Rajamannar Committee (1969) C.Sarkaria Commission (1983) D.National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2000) Answer (C)

Source: The Indian Express