COMMISSION FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT (CAQM)
1. Context
The Commission for Air Quality Management in NCR and Adjoining Areas (CAQM) on Saturday proposed a stricter particulate matter (PM) emission limit of 50 milligrams per normal cubic metre (mg/Nm³) for industries across Delhi-NCR, replacing the earlier 80 mg/Nm³ standard notified in June 2022.
2. Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)
- The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in the National Capital Region (NCR) and nearby areas was initially established through an ordinance in 2020, which was subsequently replaced by an Act of Parliament in 2021.
- Its primary mandate is to enhance coordination, conduct research, identify issues, and address challenges related to air quality and associated concerns.
- At its inception, the CAQM comprised 15 members, including current and former officials from the Ministry of Environment and other Union government departments, along with representatives from various State governments, NGOs, and other organizations. Currently, the commission, led by Rajesh Verma, has expanded to 27 members.
- The CAQM succeeded the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA), which was created by the Supreme Court in 1998. Unlike the CAQM, the EPCA lacked statutory authority, which experts criticized as limiting its ability to enforce compliance among defiant agencies.
- Nevertheless, several initiatives now overseen by the CAQM, such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)—a framework of temporary emergency measures to combat air pollution—were originally implemented under the EPCA's guidance
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Powers of CAQM
The Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021, empowers the CAQM to undertake any necessary measures, issue directives, and address grievances aimed at safeguarding and enhancing air quality in the NCR and surrounding regions. According to Section 14 of the Act, the commission is authorized to take strict action against officials who fail to comply with its directives
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3. Supreme Court on CAQM
- The Supreme Court recently criticized the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) for delays in enforcing stricter anti-pollution measures as Delhi's air quality worsened.
- Despite the Air Quality Index (AQI) reaching hazardous levels, the CAQM postponed the implementation of Stage 4 measures under the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), prompting the Court to question the lack of urgency in addressing the crisis.
- The justices emphasized that such measures should be triggered as soon as AQI levels indicate severe pollution to prevent further deterioration.
- The Court also highlighted systemic failures, including inadequate action against stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana, and criticized the CAQM for focusing on meetings without concrete enforcement of rules.
- It warned against scaling down measures prematurely and stressed the need for stricter penalties and immediate action to curb pollution sources effectively
4. Challenges
- Although the CAQM formulates strategies and coordinates with various agencies, the actual implementation of these measures rests with the respective agencies.
- A CAQM official noted that the commission has significantly improved coordination and planning efforts.
- For instance, while paddy stubble burning—a major contributor to severe air pollution—occurs primarily in October and November, discussions with State officials begin as early as February and continue throughout the season.
- In 2022, the CAQM collaborated with Punjab and Haryana to develop action plans for managing stubble burning, which are reviewed and updated annually.
5. Way Forward
Discussing the challenges faced, the official acknowledged that while the commission has focused heavily on tackling stubble burning in the past, there is now a shift towards addressing multiple pollution sources. Moving forward, greater emphasis will be placed on controlling dust and vehicular emissions alongside agricultural pollution
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For Prelims: Graded Response Action Plan, National Capital Region (NCR),Environmental pollution(prevention control)Authority (EPCA).
For Mains:
1. What is GRAP? What is the Delhi-NCR action plan as air pollution increases? (250 words).
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Source: The Hindu
GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND PROJECT
1. Context
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) recently concluded a high-stakes legal battle over the ‘Holistic Development of Great Nicobar Island’, and ruled that all environment safeguards are in place for the Great Nicobar Island Project. This integrated project, estimated to cost ₹80,000-90,000 crore, has been at the centre of a debate between national interests and the preservation of one of the world’s most sensitive ecosystems.
2.What is the Great Nicobar Island Project?
- The Great Nicobar Island Project is a significant infrastructure development initiative undertaken by the Indian government on Great Nicobar Island, part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean. The project aims to transform the island into a strategic and economic hub.
- A deep-draft international container transshipment terminal is planned to be developed at Galathea Bay. This port is expected to serve as a key shipping hub in the region, facilitating trade and reducing dependency on transshipment ports in other countries
- An international airport is proposed to improve connectivity to the island, both for tourism and strategic purposes. This airport will be capable of handling wide-bodied aircraft and will enhance the island's accessibility
- To support the infrastructure and population growth, a gas- and solar-based power plant will be developed. This plant aims to provide a reliable and sustainable energy source for the island's needs
- A modern township with residential, commercial, and recreational facilities is planned to accommodate the increased population and workforce that the project will attract. This township is expected to have state-of-the-art amenities and infrastructure
Strategic and Economic Importance
- Great Nicobar Island is situated near the Malacca Strait, one of the world's busiest shipping lanes. Developing this island will enhance India's strategic presence in the Indian Ocean Region, particularly in terms of maritime security and trade control
- The project aims to boost the local economy by creating job opportunities and attracting investments. Improved infrastructure and connectivity are expected to stimulate tourism and other economic activities on the island
- Enhancing connectivity through the transhipment port and international airport will integrate Great Nicobar Island more closely with the global and regional trade networks, potentially making it a key logistical and commercial hub
Environmental and Social Considerations
- The project has raised concerns about its potential impact on the island's rich biodiversity and ecosystems. Great Nicobar Island is home to unique flora and fauna, including endangered species. Ensuring sustainable development practices and environmental protection measures will be crucial
- There are concerns about the impact on local communities, particularly indigenous tribes such as the Nicobarese and Shompen. Ensuring that their rights and livelihoods are protected is a key consideration for the project
- The project's emphasis on using renewable energy sources like solar power and promoting eco-friendly practices is an effort to mitigate environmental concerns. However, balancing development with conservation will be an ongoing challenge
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Great Nicobar
Great Nicobar is the largest of the Nicobar Islands, part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India. It is located in the Indian Ocean, near the western entrance of the Malacca Strait, which is a key maritime route for international trade.
Here are some key aspects of Great Nicobar:
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3. Strategic Importance
- The Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean region are critically important for India's strategic and security interests, especially as the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Navy aims to increase its presence in these waters.
- India is concerned about the buildup of Chinese naval forces at key Indo-Pacific chokepoints, particularly Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok. China's efforts to extend its influence in the area include constructing a military facility on the Coco Islands in Myanmar, located just 55 km north of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
- Earlier this year, The Indian Express reported significant upgrades to the military infrastructure on the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
- This includes modernizing airfields and jetties, creating new logistics and storage facilities, establishing a base for military personnel, and enhancing surveillance capabilities.
- The goal of these upgrades is to support the deployment of more military forces, larger warships, aircraft, missile batteries, and troops.
- Maintaining close surveillance over the area surrounding the archipelago and establishing a strong military presence on Great Nicobar is crucial for India's national security
4. Environmental Concerns
- The proposed infrastructure upgrade has faced opposition due to its potential ecological threat to the islands. Wildlife conservation researchers, anthropologists, scholars, civil society members, and the Congress party have raised concerns about the devastating impact on the Shompen, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) of hunter-gatherers, who have an estimated population of a few hundred individuals residing in a tribal reserve on the island.
- Critics claim the project infringes on the rights of the tribal population and will harm the island’s ecology, including the felling of nearly a million trees. There are fears that the port project will damage coral reefs, affecting the local marine ecosystem, and pose a threat to terrestrial species like the Nicobar Megapode bird and leatherback turtles, which nest in the Galathea Bay area.
- A statement by senior Congress leader and former Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh highlighted that the proposed port is in a seismically active zone, which experienced permanent subsidence of about 15 feet during the 2004 tsunami.
- The statement also accused the local administration of insufficiently consulting the Tribal Council of Great and Little Nicobar Islands as required by law.
- In November 2022, the tribal council withdrew a no-objection certificate it had issued for the diversion of about 160 sq km of forest land, citing inadequate information provided to them.
- In April 2023, the Kolkata Bench of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) chose not to interfere with the environmental and forest clearances granted to the project. However, the Tribunal ordered the formation of a high-power committee to review the clearances. There is still no clarity on whether the committee, mainly composed of government representatives, has submitted its report
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For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), Great Nicobar Island, Coastal Regulation Zones, Turtles, Dolphins, Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), Mangroves, Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve
For Mains: Significance and Issues Related to Great Nicobar Island Project
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Previous Year Questions
1. Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’? (2014) (a) Andaman and Nicobar Answer (a) 2. Which of the following have coral reefs? (2014)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only Answer (a) 3. In which one of the following places is the Shompen tribe found? (2009) (a) Nilgiri Hills Answer (b) |
Source: indianexpress
GLOBAL SOUTH
1. Context
Holding talks on issues ranging from trade to critical minerals to defence, Prime Minister Narendra Modi and visiting Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva Saturday called for strengthening the Global South “so that”, as Lula underlined, “we never, ever again are faced with a Cold War between two big superpowers.”
2. The need for the ‘Global North’ and the ‘Global South
- For a long time in the study of international political systems, the method of categorising countries into broad categories for easier analysis has existed.
- The concepts of ‘East’ and ‘West’ is one example of this, with the Western countries generally signifying greater levels of economic development and prosperity among their people and Eastern countries are considered as being in the process of that transition.
- Another similar categorisation is of First World, Second World and Third World countries, referring to countries associated with the Cold war-era alliances of the US, the USSR, and non-aligned countries, respectively.
- At the centre of these concepts is the World Systems approach introduced by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974, emphasising an interconnected perspective of looking at world politics.
- He said there are three major zones of production: core, peripheral and semiperipheral.
- The core zones reap profits, being the owners of cutting-edge technologies in countries like the US or Japan.
- Peripheral zones, on the other hand, engage in less sophisticated production that is more labour-intensive. In the middle are countries like India and Brazil.
3. The need for new terms
- In the Post-Cold War world, the First World/Third World classification was no longer feasible, because when the Communist USSR disintegrated in 1991, most countries had no choice but to ally at some level with the capitalist US the only remaining global superpower.
- Other classifiers have also seen criticism. The East/West binary was seen as often
perpetuating stereotypical thinking about African and Asian countries. - Categorising incredibly diverse countries into a monolith was felt to be too simplistic.
Also, the idea that some countries were ‘developed’ while others were not was thought to be too wide a classification, inadequate for accurately discussing concerns.
| Writing in 2014 from the perspective of his organisation’s philanthropic activities, Bill Gates said of the ‘developing’ tag, “Any category that lumps China and the Democratic Republic of Congo together confuses more than it clarifies. Some so-called developing countries have come so far that it’s fair to say they have developed. A handful of failed states are hardly developing at all. Most countries are somewhere in the middle.” |
4. Importance of Global South
- What sets the terms Global North and South apart are that first, they are arguably more accurate in grouping like countries together, measuring similarly in terms of wealth, indicators of education and healthcare, etc.
- Another commonality between the South countries is that most have a history of colonisation, largely at the hands of European powers.
- Secondly, this classification trains more focus on the Global South. When leaders such as Jaishankar mentioned, they are also pointing to the region’s historical exclusion from prominent international organisations such as the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
- As bodies like the UN and the IMF are involved in major decision-making that affects the world in terms of politics, economy and society, the exclusion is seen by these countries as contributing to their slower growth.
- As a result, the idea that the South can together advocate for common causes has
come up, as underlined by the External Affairs Minister.
| Interestingly, when Jaishankar criticised the expectation of India to take a stance on the Ukraine war and rebuke Russia in June this year, China’s state-owned newspaper Global Times praised the comments. This is where the idea of ‘SouthSouth’ cooperation comes in. |
- Why the concept is being reiterated now partly because of the economic emergence of some of these South countries, such as India and China, in the last few decades.
- Many consider the world to now be multipolar rather than one where the US alone dominates international affairs.
- The progress achieved by many Asian countries is also seen as challenging the idea that the North is ideal.
- As Samuel P Huntington wrote in his 1996 book ‘The Class of Civilizations and the Remaking of Global Order, “East Asians attribute their dramatic economic development not to their import of Western culture but rather to their adherence to their own culture.”
5. Criticism of the classification
- Some of the earlier terms’ criticisms apply here, too, such as the argument that the term is too broad.
- In the ongoing debate about North countries paying for funding green energy, having historically contributed to higher carbon emissions, many in the Global North have objected to China and India’s exclusion from this, given their increasing industrialisation.
- There is also the question of whether the South simply aims to replace the North and the positions it occupies, again continuing a cycle in which a few countries accumulate crucial resources.
- Much controversy currently surrounds the question of whether elites of the global South and ‘rising powers’ genuinely have the intention to challenge the dominant structures of global capitalist development.
- In the rise of Asia, the continued neglect of Africa has been questioned as well.
- China is increasingly making inroads here through the Belt and Road Initiative for developing infrastructure.
- But whether that results in a win-win situation for both parties or focuses on profit for only China remains to be seen.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: G20, Global South, Global North, Cold war, Post-Cold War, UNSC, UN, IMF, Russia and Ukraine War, SouthSouth Cooperation
For Mains:
1. What is Global South? Discuss the significance and impact of Global South in India. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
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For Prelims
1. In which one of the following groups are all the four countries members of G20? (UPSC 2020) (a) Argentina, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey 1. Ans: (a) For Mains
1. “The broader aims and objectives of WTO are to manage and promote international trade in the era of globalization. But the Doha round of negotiations seem doomed due to differences between the developed and the developing countries.” Discuss in the Indian perspective. ( UPSC 2016)
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Source: The Indian Express
DIVERSITY IN JUDICIARY
1. Context
P. Wilson, senior advocate and Rajya Sabha MP of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) party, has introduced a private member Bill to amend the Constitution in order to bring diversity in judicial appointments and set up regional benches of the Supreme Court
2. What does the Constitution provide?
Article 124 of the Constitution states that the President appoints judges of the Supreme Court in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI). In the same manner, Article 217 lays down that High Court judges are appointed by the President after consulting the CJI, the concerned High Court’s Chief Justice, and the Governor of the respective State. Further, under Article 130, the Supreme Court is to function from Delhi, unless the Chief Justice of India, with the approval of the Central Government, designates another location as its seat
3. What is the collegium system?
- According to the constitutional framework, judicial appointments were made by the government in consultation with the judiciary until the 1980s.
- In the First Judges Case (1981), the Supreme Court ruled that the executive had primacy in appointing judges, on the ground that it is democratically accountable to the people.
- However, to safeguard judicial independence and prevent political influence, the Supreme Court in the Second Judges Case (1993) introduced the collegium system for appointments. This position was reaffirmed in the Third Judges Case (1998).
- Under the collegium system, appointments to the Supreme Court are recommended by a body comprising the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
- For High Court appointments, the collegium includes the CJI and two senior-most Supreme Court judges. The collegium initiates proposals for appointments and forwards its recommendations to the Central Government.
- While the government may return a recommendation for reconsideration, if the collegium reiterates its view, the appointment becomes binding.
- The collegium system has played a significant role in maintaining judicial independence from the executive in matters of appointments. However, it has faced criticism for its opacity and limited accountability.
- Concerns have also been raised about alleged favoritism, including the appointment of relatives of sitting judges. In 2014, Parliament enacted the 99th Constitutional Amendment to establish the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), which was intended to recommend judicial appointments.
- The proposed NJAC was to include the CJI, two senior Supreme Court judges, the Union Law Minister, and two eminent persons.
- However, in 2015, the Supreme Court struck down the NJAC, holding that it violated the basic structure of the Constitution by undermining judicial independence. As a result, the collegium system continues to govern judicial appointments today
4. About this new private member's bill
- The collegium system prioritizes merit while recommending appointments to the higher judiciary. However, it has been criticized for not adequately representing the country’s social diversity.
- For example, among judges appointed to the higher judiciary between 2018 and 2024, only about one-fifth were from Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward Classes (OBC).
- The representation of women has remained below 15%, while that of religious minorities is under 5%.
- A Private Member’s Bill seeks to address this imbalance by mandating proportional representation for SCs, STs, OBCs, women, and religious minorities in appointments to the Supreme Court and High Courts, in line with their population share.
- The Bill also proposes that the Central Government must notify collegium recommendations within a maximum period of 90 days.
- Access to the Supreme Court is another concern, as it functions solely from Delhi, making it difficult for many citizens to approach the apex court. Additionally, over 90,000 cases were pending before the Supreme Court as of January 2026.
- To tackle these challenges, the Bill suggests establishing regional benches of the Supreme Court in New Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, and Chennai.
- These benches would exercise the Court’s full jurisdiction, except in matters involving substantial constitutional questions, which would continue to be heard by the Constitution Bench at the principal seat in Delhi.
5. Way Forward
The responsibility for promoting social diversity in judicial appointments largely rests with the judiciary, particularly through the collegium mechanism. The proposed Private Member’s Bill assumes significance because it seeks to establish a constitutional mandate to achieve greater inclusivity. As a long-term measure, the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) could be reconsidered with a more diversified composition. Its structure may be expanded to include members from the legislature, the Bar Council, and academia, similar to appointment frameworks followed in countries such as South Africa and the United Kingdom. Such a model would make the consultative process more representative and participatory, while ensuring adequate inclusion of SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities, and women.
Furthermore, as suggested earlier by Parliamentary Committees and the Law Commission, regional benches of the Supreme Court can be created within the existing constitutional framework. The Court could begin by establishing a bench in one region on a pilot basis and subsequently expand to other regions within a defined timeframe
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For Prelims: Collegium system, National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), Supreme court, Article 124, 99th Constitutional Amendment Act
For Mains:
1. Discuss the evolution of the Supreme Court of India from its inauguration in 1950 to the present day. How has its structure and capacity evolved to meet the changing demands of the legal landscape? (250 Words)
2. Examine the constitutional provisions that govern the Supreme Court of India. How do these provisions delineate the powers, jurisdiction, and composition of the Supreme Court? (250 Words)
3. What are the key features of the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) Act, and how did it differ from the Collegium system? (250 Words)
4. How does the appointment process of judges in the Supreme Court of India, emphasise the role of the Collegium system? What are the concerns associated with this system, and do you believe reforms are necessary? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. In India, Judicial Review implies (UPSC 2017)
A. the power of the Judiciary to pronounce upon the constitutionality of laws and executive orders
B. the power of the Judiciary to question the wisdom of the laws enacted by the Legislatures
C. the power of the Judiciary to review all the legislative enactments before they are assented to by the President
D. the power of the Judiciary to review its own judgments given earlier in similar or different cases
3. Consider the following statements:
1. The motion to impeach a Judge of the Supreme Court of India cannot be rejected by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha as per the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
2. The Constitution of India defines and gives details of what constitutes 'incapacity and proved misbehaviour' of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India
3. The details of the process of impeachment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India are given in the Judges (Inquiry) Act, of 1968.
4. If the motion for the impeachment of a Judge is taken up for voting, the law requires the motion to be backed by each House of the Parliament and supported by a majority of the total membership of that House and by not less than two-thirds of total members of that House present and voting.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 B. 3 only C. 3 and 4 only D. 1, 3 and 4
4.The power to increase the number of judges in the Supreme Court of India is vested in (UPSC 2014)
A. the President of India B. the Parliament C. the Chief Justice of India D. the Law Commission 5.The power of the Supreme Court of India to decide disputes between the Centre and the States falls under its (UPSC P 2014)
A. advisory jurisdiction B. appellate jurisdiction. C. original jurisdiction D. writ jurisdiction Answers: 1-A, 2-A, 3-C, 4-B, 5-C
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Source: The Hindu
DENOTIFIED, NOMADIC, SEMI-NOMADIC TRIBES (DNTs)
1. Context
On January 30, the Union government assured community leaders from Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) that the Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India had agreed to enumerate these communities in the upcoming second phase of the Census due in 2027.
2. Who are the Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)?
- Communities now described as denotified, nomadic, and semi-nomadic tribes were once branded as “criminal” by colonial authorities. British administrators believed that certain groups were inherently inclined toward criminal activity.
- This belief was formalized through the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) of 1871, enacted in the same year as the commencement of systematic population censuses in India.
- The CTA of 1871 aimed at the registration, monitoring, and regulation of communities labelled as criminal tribes and eunuchs. It defined such groups as tribes, gangs, or classes of people supposedly predisposed to committing non-bailable offences.
- While presenting the Act, the then Member for Law and Order, T.V. Stephens, argued that India’s caste-based social structure justified this approach. He claimed that “professional criminals” were entire tribes whose ancestors had been offenders for generations, whose social customs compelled them to commit crimes, and whose descendants would inevitably violate the law.
- The Government of India repealed the CTA in 1952, after the law had undergone multiple amendments. With its repeal, the communities earlier classified as criminal were officially “denotified,” and subsequently came to be known as Denotified Tribes (DNTs).
- However, the same year also witnessed the enactment of habitual offender laws across various States. Although these laws removed the idea of inherited criminality, they introduced the category of “habitual offenders.”
- In practice, this resulted in the continued surveillance and marginalisation of the same communities—no longer labelled as criminals by birth, but still subjected to systemic targeting under a different legal framework
3. History of their Enumeration
- Although both the Criminal Tribes Act (CTA) and the first synchronous Census operations in India commenced in 1871, Census documents began explicitly referring to “criminal tribes” only from 1911 onward.
- The provincial Census reports of 1911 and 1931 shed light on how these communities were officially recorded and categorized under that label. The 1931 Census marked the final instance when such groups were distinctly enumerated.
- After the repeal of the CTA and the subsequent denotification of these communities, later Censuses discontinued their separate identification. This decision was consistent with the post-Independence policy that caste enumeration—except for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes—was unnecessary.
- Efforts to address the condition of these communities, however, had already begun prior to their formal denotification. In 1949, the government established the Ayyangar Commission to examine related issues.
- By 1952, with the recognition of “backward classes” as a category distinct from SCs and STs, many denotified groups were included in such lists under the term “Vimukt Jatis.”
- Over the decades following Independence, most of these communities were gradually incorporated into the categories of SCs, STs, or Other Backward Classes.
- In 1998, noted writer Mahasweta Devi and scholar G. N. Devy initiated the Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes Rights Action Group (DNT-RAG).
- Their advocacy contributed to the creation of a technical advisory group and eventually led to the formation of the first National Commission for Denotified, Nomadic and Semi-Nomadic Tribes under the chairmanship of B. S. Renke.
- This Commission submitted its recommendations for the welfare of DNTs in 2008. Subsequently, another national commission was constituted under Bhiku Ramji Idate, which presented its report in 2017.
- Each of these commissions underscored the fundamental challenge of properly identifying and classifying DNT communities, emphasizing that comprehensive and accurate categorization would require a dedicated Census enumeration.
- According to the Idate Commission’s most recent assessment, nearly 1,200 communities were identified as belonging to the DNT category, most of which had already been placed within the existing SC, ST, or OBC lists.
- In addition, the Commission identified approximately 268 denotified communities that remained unclassified. A study commissioned by NITI Aayog and conducted by the Anthropological Survey of India recommended appropriate classification for these 268 groups. However, the findings of this study have not been implemented and currently remain pending consideration
4. What is their Status now?
- In several States, Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) have been included within backward class categories, as well as in the SC and ST lists. In some instances, they have benefited from reservation policies, particularly where sub-classification has ensured targeted distribution of benefits.
- Additionally, certain State governments have introduced welfare measures designed specifically for these communities.
- Despite these initiatives, DNT representatives contend that the social stigma attached to them has persisted even after their denotification, largely due to the continued enforcement of laws such as the Habitual Offenders Act.
- They argue that such legal frameworks have perpetuated discrimination, leaving most DNT communities socially, economically, educationally, and politically marginalized.
- Only a limited number of relatively settled groups have managed to achieve some degree of advancement by leveraging available opportunities.
- Although the Idate Commission had proposed the establishment of a permanent national body dedicated to DNTs, the first government led by Narendra Modi concluded that a Welfare Board would be adequate, given that most DNT communities had already been accommodated within the SC, ST, or OBC categories.
- Subsequently, the Ministry of Social Justice introduced the SEED (Scheme for Economic Empowerment of DNTs) programme to support livelihood generation, education, housing, and healthcare initiatives for these groups.
- However, only a small portion of the allocated ₹200 crore budget has reportedly been utilized over the past five years. A major implementation challenge has been the requirement that beneficiaries obtain a DNT certificate for eligibility.
- This certification is meant to exist alongside SC, ST, or OBC status where applicable. Community leaders across various States have consistently raised concerns that DNT certificates are not being issued in most regions, despite repeated communications from the Central government.
- Official data indicates that only a limited number of districts across a handful of States currently provide such certification.
- This administrative bottleneck has intensified demands among DNT groups for a distinct constitutional category, equivalent to SC, ST, and OBC classifications. Advocates argue that such recognition would standardize the issuance of DNT certificates nationwide.
- There have also been calls for internal sub-categorisation within the DNT grouping to address disparities in levels of backwardness among different communities.
- Furthermore, leaders and organizations such as the All India Denotified Nomadic Tribes Development Council have framed their campaign for separate classification as a quest for formal acknowledgment of the historical discrimination and stigma imposed upon them.
- They maintain that colonial authorities branded them as “criminal” primarily because of their resistance to foreign rule.
- Some community representatives also emphasize that their ancestors had served as defenders against external invasions, including during periods preceding colonial rule, and had histories of opposing certain Islamic regimes
5. Way Forward
Beyond verbal commitments to community representatives that they would be included in official counts, there has been no clarity regarding the methodology or mechanism for carrying out such enumeration.
Organizations representing Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) have explicitly called for the inclusion of a dedicated column or question in Census questionnaires to enable their proper identification. This position has also been supported by scholars such as G. N. Devy, who have consistently advocated for a separate Census exercise specifically focused on DNT communities.
Nevertheless, official statements from the Union Government suggest that there is currently no plan to introduce a separate classification category for DNTs in the Census
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For Prelims: Scheduled Tribes, Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups, Kudmis, Mundas, Oraons, Santhals, Article 366 (25), Article 342, Backward Classes Commission 1955, the Advisory Committee (Kalelkar), on Revision of SC/ST lists (Lokur Committee), 1965 and the Joint Committee of Parliament on the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Bill 1967 (Chanda Committee), 1969, Goa, Daman & Diu Reorganization Act 1987
For Mains:
1. Who are Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups? Discuss the criterion for the specification of a community as Scheduled tribes. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India: (UPSC 2019)
1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.
2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.
4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 2, 3 and 4 C. 1, 2 and 4 D. 1, 3 and 4
Answer: C 2. With reference to the history of India, "Ulgulan" or the Great Tumult is the description of which of the following events? (UPSC 2020) A. The Revolt of 1857
B. The Mappila Rebellion of 1921
C. The Indigo Revolt of 1859 - 60
D. Birsa Munda's Revolt of 1899 - 1900
Answer: D 3. When did the Tana’ Bhagat Movement start? (Jharkhand Civil Service 2015)
A. April 1912 B. April 1913 C. April 1914 D. April 1915
Answer: C
4. Consider the following statements about the Santhal Hool of 1855 - 56: (UPSC CAPF)
1. The Santhals were in a desperate situation as tribal lands were leased out
2. The Santhal rebels were treated very leniently by British officials
3. Santhal inhabited areas were eventually constituted separate administrative units called Santhal parganas
4. The Santhal rebellion was the only major rebellion in mid-19th century India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1, 3 and 4 D. 1 and 3 only
Answer: D
5. After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government? (UPSC 2018)
1. The territories called 'Santhal Paraganas' were created.
2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
6. The National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC) was formed by insertion of Article ______ in the Constitution of India. (SSC CGL 2020)
A. 328B B. 338A C. 338B D. 328A
Answer: B
7. With reference to the Parliament of India, which of the following Parliamentary Committees scrutinizes and reports to the House whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-laws, etc. conferred by the Constitution or delegated by the Parliament are being properly exercised by the Executive within the scope of such delegation? (UPSC 2018)
A. Committee on Government Assurances
B. Committee on Subordinate Legislation
C. Rules Committee
D. Business Advisory Committee
Answer: B
8. Justice Madan B Lokur committee was set up to take steps to (Haryana Civil Services 2021)
A. Look into violation of environment rules.
B. Prevent stubble burning
C. Draft new water policy
D. Regulate digital lending
Answer: B
9. Match the pairs - (Committees on Media) (MPSC 2019)
(A) (Name) (B) (Year)
(a) Chanda Committee (i) 1982
(b) Kuldip Nayar Committee (ii) August, 1977
(c) Verghese Committee (iii) March, 1977
(d) P.C. Joshi Committee (iv) 1964
1. (a) – (i), (b) – (ii), (c – (iii), (d) – (iv)
2. (a) – (i), (b) – (iii), (c – (ii), (d) – (iv)
3. (a) – (iv), (b) – (iii), (c – (ii), (d) – (i)
4. (a) – (iv), (b) – (ii), (c – (iii), (d) – (i)
Answer: 3
10. Consider the formation of the following States and arrange these in chronological order : (UPPSC Combined State Exam 2021)
1. Goa
2. Telangana
3. Jharkhand
4. Haryana
Select the correct answer from the codes given below.
A. 1, 2, 3, 4 B. 4, 1, 3, 2 C. 3, 2, 4, 1 D. 4, 3, 1, 2
Answer: 2
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Source: The Hindu
FOREST RIGHTS ACT
1. Context
Over the last six months, the Odisha government has been shutting down Forest Rights Act (FRA) Cells that were set up under State and Central schemes to accelerate the implementation of the Forest Rights Act, 2006
2. Key Takeaways
- The ST Commission is caught in a row with the Union Environment Ministry over the latest Forest Conservation Rules (FCR), 2022.
- The row is over the potential violation of provisions enshrined in the Scheduled Tribes and Other Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 was dubbed the Forest Rights Act (FRA).
3. The involvement of NCST in the Act
- The Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change in June 2022 notified the forest (Conservation Rules, 2022, which prescribed the mechanism for the diversion of Forest land for non-forest purposes.
- These amended rules have omitted a clause (Present in 2014 and 2017 Rules) that explicitly required any proposal to mandatorily have the consent of local tribespeople and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) of the area, before proceeding for Stage 1 clearance.
- The FCR, 2022 has allowed applying entities to go for the consent of locals, represented by the Gram Sabha after Stage 1 or even after Stage 2 clearance.
- According to the FRA, 2006, in case of a dispute over forest land, precedence has to be given to the rights of STs and OTFDs, who live in and off the forest and its resources, over any other party.
4. NCST demands
- In September 2022, NCST Chairperson Harsh Chouhan shot off a letter to Environment Minister Bhupendra Yadav, highlighting the potential consequences of FCR, 2022, recommending that they be put on hold and the previous Rules, which provided for the consent clause, be strengthened.
- The ST panel argued that the previous versions of the Rules provided a legal space for ensuring the completion of the processes for recognition and vesting of rights under the FRA in areas where forests are being diverted.
- The ST Commission noted that it made little sense to take the consent of tribals and forest dwellers after an applicant had got Stage 1 clearance.
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By then, the applicant would be invested in the project and would then have the incentive to "pursue the State It said governments or Union Territories" to divert the land at the earliest.
The NCST added that the FCR, 2022 provided for compensatory Afforestation, but nowhere did it prescribe safeguards or a mechanism for compliance with FRA.
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- Further, the NCST's Working Group found that FRA compliance was in trouble even under the old rules.
It said currently, nearly 25, 000-30, 000 hectares of forest land were being diverted every year. - It cited a study by the Centre for Environment and Development, ATREE to note: " Out of 128 applications for forest diversion for mining, over 100 had been processed between 2009 and 2018".
- It added that 74 proposals had Stage 2 approval, 46 had Stage 1 approval (in principle), with just five rejected and four closed for other reasons.
- None of the rejections was for non-compliance with FRA.
- The study also found that 14 of these cases (all post-2014) had been cleared with an FRA compliance report, despite, this being far from the "ground reality".
5. About NCST
- The National Commission for Scheduled Tribes is a constitutional body that was established by the Constitution (89th Amendment) Act, 2003.
- The Commission is an authority working for the economic development of Scheduled Tribes in India.
This amendment replaced the National Commission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes with two distinct commissions which are:
- National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC)
- National Commission for scheduled Tribes (NCST)
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Article 366 (25) of the Constitution, Scheduled Tribes are those communities that are scheduled in by article 342 of the Constitution.
Also, Article 342 of the Constitution says that: The Scheduled Tribes are the tribes or tribal communities or part of or groups within these tribes and tribal communities which have been declared as such by the President through a public notification.
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5.1. Composition of NCST
- The NCST consists of one chairperson, one vice-chairperson and three full-time members.
- Out of the three members, there should compulsorily be one lady member.
- Tenure of the members is 3 years.
5.2. Functions of NCST
- It investigates and monitors issues related to safeguarding the provisions for Scheduled Tribes under the Constitution and evaluating the working of those safeguards.
- NCST will inquire into specific complaints concerned with the deprivation of rights and safeguards of the STs.
- The commission participates and advises on the planning process for the socio-economic development of the STs and also evaluates the progress of the various developmental activities.
- The President will be presented with an annual report on the working of those safeguards.
- Apart from annual reports, other reports also will be submitted to the President as and when necessary.
- The Commission will also give reports on what measures are to be taken by both the central and various state governments for the effective execution of the measures and safeguards for the protection, development and welfare of the STs.
- Other functions of NCST are related to the welfare, protection, development and advancement of the STs.
6. Forest Rights Act
- The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, commonly known as the Forest Rights Act of India, is often referred to as the Tribal Rights Act or the Tribal Land Act.
- It was enacted in 2006 and recognises the rights of tribal communities that live in the forest as well as other traditional forest dwellers to the forest resources that were essential to their ability to provide for a variety of needs, including subsistence, habitation and other sociocultural requirements.
- The forest management policies, including the Acts, Rules and Forest Policies of Participatory Forest Management policies in both colonial and post-colonial India, did not, till the enactment of this Act., recognize the symbiotic relationship of the STs with the forests, reflected in their dependence on the forests as well as in their traditional wisdom regarding conservation of the forests.
| The Act encompasses Rights of Self-cultivation and Habitation which are usually regarded as Individual rights; and Community Rights such as Grazing, Fishing and access to Water bodies in the forest, Habitat Rights for PVTGs, Traditional Seasonal Resources access to Nomadic and Pastoral Communities, access to biodiversity, community right to intellectual property and traditional knowledge, recognition of traditional customary rights and right to protect, regenerate or conserve or manage any community forest resource for sustainable use. |
- It also provides rights to the allocation of forest land for developmental purposes to fulfil the basic infrastructural needs of the community.
- In conjunction with the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Settlement Act, 2013 FRA protects the tribal population from eviction without rehabilitation and settlement.
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The Act further enjoins upon the Gram Sabha and rights holders the responsibility of conservation and protection of bio-diversity, wildlife, forests, adjoining catchment areas, water sources and other ecologically sensitive areas as well as to stop any destructive practices affecting these resources or cultural and natural heritage of the tribals.The Gram Sabha is also a highly empowered body under the Act, enabling the tribal population to have a decisive say in the determination of local policies and schemes to impact them.
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Thus the Act empowers the forest dwellers to access and use the forest resources in the manner that they were traditionally accustomed, to protect, conserve and manage forests, protect forest dwellers from unlawful evictions and also provides for basic development facilities for the community of forest dwellers to access facilities of education, health, nutrition, infrastructure etc.
6.1. Objective
- To undo the historical injustice that occurred to the forest-dwelling communities
- To ensure land tenure, livelihood and food security of the forest-dwelling Scheduled Tribes and other traditional forest dwellers
- To Strengthen the conservation regime of the forests by including the responsibilities and authority of Forest Rights holders for sustainable use, conservation of biodiversity and maintenance of ecological balance.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Forest Rights Act, NCST, NCSC, Forest Conservation Rules 2022, Traditional Forest Dwellers,
For Mains:
1.Discuss the powers and functions of the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes in protecting the rights of the Forest-dwellers in India. (250 Words)
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Source: The Hindu and Ministry of Tribal Affairs
CONSUMER PRICE INDEX (CPI)
1. Context
The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) on Thursday released the Consumer Price Index (CPI) data based on a new series with 2024 as base year, placing retail inflation in January 2026 at 2.75%.
2. Consumer Price Index
- The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a measure of the change in prices of a basket of goods and services that are commonly purchased by consumers. It is the most commonly used measure of inflation.
- The CPI is calculated by comparing the prices of the goods and services in the basket in a particular period to those of the same in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the CPI inflation rate.
- The CPI is calculated for eight different categories of goods and services Food and beverages, Housing, Clothing and footwear, Transport, Health, Education, Communication, Recreation and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The weights of each category in the CPI are determined by the expenditure patterns of urban households. For example, food and beverages have the highest weight in the CPI, followed by housing and transport.
- The CPI inflation rate is an important indicator of the cost of living.
- It is used by the government to set monetary policy and by businesses to make pricing decisions.
3. Wholesale Price Index
- The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) is a measure of the change in prices of goods and services at the wholesale level.
- It is calculated by comparing the prices of a basket of goods and services in a particular period to those of the same in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the WPI inflation rate.
- The WPI is calculated for 67 groups of commodities, which are further divided into 225 subgroups.
- The weights of each group and subgroup in the WPI are determined by the value of the goods and services produced in each group and subgroup.
- The WPI inflation rate is an important indicator of inflation at the wholesale level.
- It is used by businesses to make pricing decisions and by the government to set monetary policy.
4. Findings of the Report
4.1. Food inflation
- Food inflation in India remained high in August, at 9.94%. This was driven by rising prices of essential food items, such as cereals, pulses, vegetables, and oils.
- Eleven of the 12 items on the heavyweight food and beverages group of the CPI logged price increases, with oils and fats, the sole item logging a year-on-year decline in prices, posting its first sequential increase in nine months.
- Vegetables provided some relief, with tomatoes leading an appreciable month-on-month deflation of 5.88% in the 19-member basket.
- However, the cooking staples of potatoes and onions were among the seven items that continued to log sequential inflation (2.3% and 12.3%, respectively).
4.2. Monsoon deficit and rising crude oil prices
- The near-term inflation outlook is also made more uncertain by other factors, including a distinct deficit in monsoon rainfall.
- Besides the overall 10% shortfall, sharp regional and temporal anomalies in rain distribution have impacted either the sowing or the quality of produce of several farm items.
- Kharif's sowing of pulses had, as of September 8, recorded an 8.6% shortfall compared with the year-earlier period.
- Another inflation driver, crude oil, has also seen a steady rise in prices as the output cuts by major oil producers of the OPEC+ grouping start to bite.
- The price of India's crude basket had, as of September 12, climbed 7.2% from the average in August to $92.65/barrel, according to official data.
4.3. RBI measures to control inflation
- For the RBI, the latest inflation data further roils its interest rate calculus.
- Unless CPI inflation decelerates by an incredible 250 basis points in September to a 4.33% pace, price gains are certain to substantially overshoot the monetary authority's 6.2% forecast for the July-September quarter, leaving it with few real options to achieve its medium-term price stability goal of 4% inflation.
- As the RBI has been at pains to stress, failure to anchor inflation expectations risks hurting growth.
5. About the sticky Consumer Price Index (CPI)
- The sticky Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a subset of the CPI that includes goods and services that change prices relatively infrequently.
- These goods and services are thought to incorporate expectations about future inflation to a greater degree than prices that change more frequently.
- Some of the items included in the sticky CPI are Rent, Housing costs, Utilities, Education, Healthcare, Transportation, Household furnishings and appliances, Personal insurance, Recreation, and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The sticky CPI is often used by economists to measure inflation expectations.
- This is because prices of sticky goods and services are less likely to be affected by short-term changes in supply and demand, and are therefore more likely to reflect changes in inflation expectations.
- The sticky CPI is also used by central banks to set monetary policy.
- This is because the central bank wants to make sure that inflation expectations are anchored at a low level.
- If inflation expectations start to rise, the central bank may raise interest rates to bring them back down.
6. How India’s retail inflation is measured?
- India's retail inflation is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI), a basket of goods and services commonly purchased by urban households.
- The CPI is calculated by the National Statistical Office (NSO) every month.
- The CPI is calculated by comparing the prices of the goods and services in the basket in a particular month to those of the same in a base month.
- The base month is usually the previous year's corresponding month. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the CPI inflation rate.
- The CPI is calculated for eight different categories of goods and services, Food and beverages, Housing, Clothing and footwear, Transport, Health, Education, Communication, Recreation and Miscellaneous goods and services.
- The weights of each category in the CPI are determined by the expenditure patterns of urban households. For example, food and beverages have the highest weight in the CPI, followed by housing and transport.
- The CPI inflation rate is an important indicator of the cost of living in India.
- It is used by the government to set monetary policy and by businesses to make pricing decisions.
7. Calculation of Inflation
- Inflation is the rate at which the prices of goods and services increase over time.
- It is calculated by comparing the prices of a basket of goods and services in a particular period to the prices of the same basket of goods and services in a base period.
- The base period is usually the previous year's corresponding period. The difference in prices is expressed as a percentage, and this is the inflation rate.
There are two main ways to calculate inflation
1. Consumer Price Index (CPI): The CPI is a measure of the change in prices of a basket of goods and services that are commonly purchased by consumers. It is the most commonly used measure of inflation.
The CPI is calculated by the following formula:
CPI = (Cost of a basket of goods and services in current period / Cost of a basket of goods and services in base period) * 100
2. Producer Price Index (PPI): The PPI is a measure of the change in prices of goods and services that are produced by businesses. It is used to track inflation at the wholesale level.
The PPI is calculated by the following formula:
PPI = (Cost of a basket of goods and services at the wholesale level in the current period / Cost of a basket of goods and services at the wholesale level in the base period) * 100
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For Prelims: Consumer Price Index, Wholesale Price Index, Inflation, retail inflation, Producer Pirce Index, National Statistical Office, OPEC+, Crude oil, Kharif season, Monsoon,
For Mains:
1. Analyse the factors contributing to high food inflation in India in recent months. Discuss the impact of high food inflation on the Indian economy and suggest measures to mitigate it. (250 words)
2. Explain the concept of sticky inflation. What are the various factors that contribute to sticky inflation? Discuss the implications of sticky inflation for the Indian economy. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
Answer: C
2. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010)
1. The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) in India is available on a monthly basis only.
2. As compared to Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (CPI(IW)), the WPI gives less weight to food articles.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020)
1. The weightage of food in Consumer Price Index (CPI) is higher than that in Wholesale Price Index (WPI).
2. The WPI does not capture changes in the prices of services, which CPI does.
3. Reserve Bank of India has now adopted WPI as its key measure of inflation and to decide on changing the key policy rates.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
4. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
5. The Public Distribution System, which evolved as a system of management of food and distribution of food grains, was relaunched as _______ Public Distribution System in 1997. (SSC JE EE 2021)
A. Evolved B. Transformed C. Tested D. Targeted
Answer: D
6. Under the Antyodaya Anna Yojana, up to what quantity of rice and wheat can be purchased at a subsidised cost? (FCI AG III 2023)
A. 35 kg B. 40 kg C. 30 kg D. 25 kg E. 50 kg
Answer: A
7. As per the the National Statistical Office (NSO) report released on 7 January 2022, India's Gross domestic product (GDP) is expected to grow at ___________ per cent (in first advance estimates) in the fiscal year 2021-22? (ESIC UDC 2022)
A. 17.6 per cent B. 9.5 per cent C. 11 per cent D. 9.2 per cent E. None of the above
Answer: D
8. The main emphasis of OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) is on which of the following? (UKPSC 2016)
A. The production of petroleum
B. Control over prices of petroleum
C. Both (a) and (b)
D. None of the above
Answer: C
9. In the context of global oil prices, "Brent crude oil" is frequently referred to in the news. What does this term imply? (UPSC 2011)
1. It is a major classification of crude oil.
2. It is sourced from the North Sea.
3. It does not contain sulfur.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 2 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
10. The term 'West Texas Intermediate', sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of (UPSC 2020)
A. Crude oil B. Bullion C. Rare earth elements D. Uranium
Answer: C
11. With reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)
1. Area under rice cultivation is the highest.
2. Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds.
3. Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane.
4. Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: A
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Source: The Hindu
