COMMISSION FOR AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT (CAQM)
1. Context
A synthesis of studies on the causes of air pollution in Delhi, sought by the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in the National Capital Region, has found that the largest contributor to winter pollution is secondary particulate matter at 27%, followed by transport at 23%, biomass burning at 20% including municipal solid waste and crop-residue burning, dust at 15% and industry at 9%
2. Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)
- The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) in the National Capital Region (NCR) and nearby areas was initially established through an ordinance in 2020, which was subsequently replaced by an Act of Parliament in 2021.
- Its primary mandate is to enhance coordination, conduct research, identify issues, and address challenges related to air quality and associated concerns.
- At its inception, the CAQM comprised 15 members, including current and former officials from the Ministry of Environment and other Union government departments, along with representatives from various State governments, NGOs, and other organizations. Currently, the commission, led by Rajesh Verma, has expanded to 27 members.
- The CAQM succeeded the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA), which was created by the Supreme Court in 1998. Unlike the CAQM, the EPCA lacked statutory authority, which experts criticized as limiting its ability to enforce compliance among defiant agencies.
- Nevertheless, several initiatives now overseen by the CAQM, such as the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)—a framework of temporary emergency measures to combat air pollution—were originally implemented under the EPCA's guidance
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Powers of CAQM
The Commission for Air Quality Management in the National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021, empowers the CAQM to undertake any necessary measures, issue directives, and address grievances aimed at safeguarding and enhancing air quality in the NCR and surrounding regions. According to Section 14 of the Act, the commission is authorized to take strict action against officials who fail to comply with its directives
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3. Supreme Court on CAQM
- The Supreme Court recently criticized the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) for delays in enforcing stricter anti-pollution measures as Delhi's air quality worsened.
- Despite the Air Quality Index (AQI) reaching hazardous levels, the CAQM postponed the implementation of Stage 4 measures under the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), prompting the Court to question the lack of urgency in addressing the crisis.
- The justices emphasized that such measures should be triggered as soon as AQI levels indicate severe pollution to prevent further deterioration.
- The Court also highlighted systemic failures, including inadequate action against stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana, and criticized the CAQM for focusing on meetings without concrete enforcement of rules.
- It warned against scaling down measures prematurely and stressed the need for stricter penalties and immediate action to curb pollution sources effectively
4. Challenges
- Although the CAQM formulates strategies and coordinates with various agencies, the actual implementation of these measures rests with the respective agencies.
- A CAQM official noted that the commission has significantly improved coordination and planning efforts.
- For instance, while paddy stubble burning—a major contributor to severe air pollution—occurs primarily in October and November, discussions with State officials begin as early as February and continue throughout the season.
- In 2022, the CAQM collaborated with Punjab and Haryana to develop action plans for managing stubble burning, which are reviewed and updated annually.
5. Way Forward
Discussing the challenges faced, the official acknowledged that while the commission has focused heavily on tackling stubble burning in the past, there is now a shift towards addressing multiple pollution sources. Moving forward, greater emphasis will be placed on controlling dust and vehicular emissions alongside agricultural pollution
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For Prelims: Graded Response Action Plan, National Capital Region (NCR),Environmental pollution(prevention control)Authority (EPCA).
For Mains:
1. What is GRAP? What is the Delhi-NCR action plan as air pollution increases? (250 words).
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Source: The Hindu
GREAT NICOBAR ISLAND PROJECT
1. Context
With some sections of the ₹92,000-crore Great Nicobar Island mega-infrastructure project “nearing approval”, members of the Tribal Council in Little and Great Nicobar on Thursday alleged that they are being pressured by the district administration to “surrender our ancestral lands” to make way for the project.
2.What is the Great Nicobar Island Project?
- The Great Nicobar Island Project is a significant infrastructure development initiative undertaken by the Indian government on Great Nicobar Island, part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Indian Ocean. The project aims to transform the island into a strategic and economic hub.
- A deep-draft international container transshipment terminal is planned to be developed at Galathea Bay. This port is expected to serve as a key shipping hub in the region, facilitating trade and reducing dependency on transshipment ports in other countries
- An international airport is proposed to improve connectivity to the island, both for tourism and strategic purposes. This airport will be capable of handling wide-bodied aircraft and will enhance the island's accessibility
- To support the infrastructure and population growth, a gas- and solar-based power plant will be developed. This plant aims to provide a reliable and sustainable energy source for the island's needs
- A modern township with residential, commercial, and recreational facilities is planned to accommodate the increased population and workforce that the project will attract. This township is expected to have state-of-the-art amenities and infrastructure
Strategic and Economic Importance
- Great Nicobar Island is situated near the Malacca Strait, one of the world's busiest shipping lanes. Developing this island will enhance India's strategic presence in the Indian Ocean Region, particularly in terms of maritime security and trade control
- The project aims to boost the local economy by creating job opportunities and attracting investments. Improved infrastructure and connectivity are expected to stimulate tourism and other economic activities on the island
- Enhancing connectivity through the transhipment port and international airport will integrate Great Nicobar Island more closely with the global and regional trade networks, potentially making it a key logistical and commercial hub
Environmental and Social Considerations
- The project has raised concerns about its potential impact on the island's rich biodiversity and ecosystems. Great Nicobar Island is home to unique flora and fauna, including endangered species. Ensuring sustainable development practices and environmental protection measures will be crucial
- There are concerns about the impact on local communities, particularly indigenous tribes such as the Nicobarese and Shompen. Ensuring that their rights and livelihoods are protected is a key consideration for the project
- The project's emphasis on using renewable energy sources like solar power and promoting eco-friendly practices is an effort to mitigate environmental concerns. However, balancing development with conservation will be an ongoing challenge
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Great Nicobar
Great Nicobar is the largest of the Nicobar Islands, part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands in India. It is located in the Indian Ocean, near the western entrance of the Malacca Strait, which is a key maritime route for international trade.
Here are some key aspects of Great Nicobar:
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3. Strategic Importance
- The Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean region are critically important for India's strategic and security interests, especially as the Chinese People’s Liberation Army Navy aims to increase its presence in these waters.
- India is concerned about the buildup of Chinese naval forces at key Indo-Pacific chokepoints, particularly Malacca, Sunda, and Lombok. China's efforts to extend its influence in the area include constructing a military facility on the Coco Islands in Myanmar, located just 55 km north of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
- Earlier this year, The Indian Express reported significant upgrades to the military infrastructure on the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
- This includes modernizing airfields and jetties, creating new logistics and storage facilities, establishing a base for military personnel, and enhancing surveillance capabilities.
- The goal of these upgrades is to support the deployment of more military forces, larger warships, aircraft, missile batteries, and troops.
- Maintaining close surveillance over the area surrounding the archipelago and establishing a strong military presence on Great Nicobar is crucial for India's national security
4. Environmental Concerns
- The proposed infrastructure upgrade has faced opposition due to its potential ecological threat to the islands. Wildlife conservation researchers, anthropologists, scholars, civil society members, and the Congress party have raised concerns about the devastating impact on the Shompen, a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) of hunter-gatherers, who have an estimated population of a few hundred individuals residing in a tribal reserve on the island.
- Critics claim the project infringes on the rights of the tribal population and will harm the island’s ecology, including the felling of nearly a million trees. There are fears that the port project will damage coral reefs, affecting the local marine ecosystem, and pose a threat to terrestrial species like the Nicobar Megapode bird and leatherback turtles, which nest in the Galathea Bay area.
- A statement by senior Congress leader and former Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh highlighted that the proposed port is in a seismically active zone, which experienced permanent subsidence of about 15 feet during the 2004 tsunami.
- The statement also accused the local administration of insufficiently consulting the Tribal Council of Great and Little Nicobar Islands as required by law.
- In November 2022, the tribal council withdrew a no-objection certificate it had issued for the diversion of about 160 sq km of forest land, citing inadequate information provided to them.
- In April 2023, the Kolkata Bench of the National Green Tribunal (NGT) chose not to interfere with the environmental and forest clearances granted to the project. However, the Tribunal ordered the formation of a high-power committee to review the clearances. There is still no clarity on whether the committee, mainly composed of government representatives, has submitted its report
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For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), Great Nicobar Island, Coastal Regulation Zones, Turtles, Dolphins, Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), Mangroves, Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve
For Mains: Significance and Issues Related to Great Nicobar Island Project
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Previous Year Questions
1. Which one of the following pairs of islands is separated from each other by the ‘Ten Degree Channel’? (2014) (a) Andaman and Nicobar Answer (a) 2. Which of the following have coral reefs? (2014)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only Answer (a) 3. In which one of the following places is the Shompen tribe found? (2009) (a) Nilgiri Hills Answer (b) |
Source: indianexpress
FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT (FDI)
1. Context
India’s net foreign direct investments (FDI) remained negative for the fourth consecutive month in November 2025, with outflows exceeding inflows by $446 million that month, an analysis of latest data from the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) shows.
2. FDI in India
- India's net foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows experienced a decline, decreasing by nearly 31% to $25.5 billion during the first 10 months of the 2023-24 fiscal year. The Finance Ministry attributed this decline to a broader trend of slowing investments in developing countries, while expressing optimism for a potential increase in investments in the current calendar year.
- Although global FDI flows overall saw a 3% rise to approximately $1.4 trillion in 2023, economic uncertainty and elevated interest rates impacted global investment, resulting in a 9% decrease in FDI flows to developing nations, as outlined in the Ministry's February assessment of economic performance.
- Reflecting the global trend of reduced FDI flows to developing countries, gross FDI inflows to India also experienced a slight decline, from $61.7 billion to $59.5 billion during the period from April 2023 to January 2024. In terms of net inflows, the corresponding figures were $25.5 billion versus $36.8 billion. The decrease in net inflows was primarily attributed to an increase in repatriation, while the decline in gross inflows was minimal.
- While a modest uptick in global FDI flows is anticipated for the current calendar year, attributed to a decrease in inflation and borrowing costs in major markets that could stabilize financing conditions for international investment, significant risks persist, according to the Ministry. These risks include geopolitical tensions, elevated debt levels in numerous countries, and concerns regarding further fragmentation of the global economy
3. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) refers to the investment made by individuals, businesses, or governments from one country (the home country) into another country (the host country) with the objective of establishing a lasting interest or significant degree of influence in the foreign business or enterprise
Key Aspects:
- FDI involves the transfer of funds and resources from one country to another. This capital inflow can help stimulate economic growth in the host country by providing funds for investment in infrastructure, technology, and other areas.
- FDI often leads to the creation of jobs in the host country. When foreign companies establish subsidiaries or invest in existing businesses, they typically hire local employees, which can help reduce unemployment and improve living standards
- Foreign investors often bring advanced technologies, processes, and management practices to the host country. This technology transfer can enhance the host country's productivity, competitiveness, and industrial capabilities
- FDI can provide access to new markets for both the host country and the investing company. Foreign investors can tap into the host country's consumer base, while the host country gains access to the investing company's global distribution networks.
- FDI can contribute to overall economic development in the host country by promoting industrialization, improving infrastructure, and fostering innovation and entrepreneurship.
4.FDI Routes in India
India has several routes through which Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) can enter the country. These routes are regulated by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), and they define the conditions, limits, and sectors in which FDI is allowed
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Automatic Route: Under the automatic route, FDI is allowed without the need for prior approval from the RBI or the government. Investors only need to notify the RBI within a specified time frame after the investment is made. This route is available for most sectors, except those that are prohibited or require government approval.
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Government Route: In sectors or activities that are not covered under the automatic route, FDI requires government approval. Investors must apply for approval through the Foreign Investment Facilitation Portal (FIFP) or the Foreign Investment Promotion Board (FIPB), depending on the sector.
4.1. Examples
- Under the automatic route, FDI of up to 100% is allowed for manufacturing of automobiles and components.
- For the manufacturing of electric vehicles (EVs), 100% FDI is allowed under the automatic route.
- In single-brand retail trading, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% allowed under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required.
- Multi-brand retail trading (supermarkets and department stores) with FDI is permitted in some states, subject to certain conditions and restrictions. The FDI limit is typically capped at 51%.
- FDI in the insurance sector is allowed up to 74%, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is needed
- In the telecom sector, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route. Beyond 49%, government approval is required
- In the defense sector, FDI up to 74% is allowed under the automatic route, with government approval required for investments beyond 49%
- In most segments of the media and broadcasting sector, including print and digital media, 100% FDI is allowed, with up to 49% under the automatic route
4.2.Sectors where FDI Prohibited
- FDI is prohibited in the atomic energy sector, which includes activities related to the production of atomic energy and nuclear power generation.
- FDI is generally prohibited in the gambling and betting industry, which includes casinos and online betting platforms
- FDI is not allowed in the lottery business, except for state-run lotteries
- FDI is prohibited in chit funds, which are traditional Indian savings and credit schemes.
- Nidhi companies are non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) that facilitate mutual benefit funds. FDI is typically not permitted in these entities
- While FDI is allowed in single-brand retail trading, it is generally prohibited in multi-brand retail trading of agricultural products. Some states have allowed it under specific conditions, but this remains a highly regulated area.
- FDI is not allowed in the trading of transferable development rights (TDRs) pertaining to the construction of real estate
5. Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs)
Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) refer to foreign individuals, institutions, or funds that invest in financial assets in a country, such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities. FPIs are distinct from Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs), who typically make long-term investments in companies and assets to establish a lasting interest
Key Aspects:
- FPIs invest in a country's financial markets, primarily by buying and selling securities traded on stock exchanges and fixed-income instruments like bonds and government securities
- FPIs often seek to diversify their investment portfolios by spreading their investments across different asset classes, sectors, and countries. This diversification helps manage risk and enhance returns
- FPIs have the flexibility to buy and sell securities in the secondary market, providing liquidity to the market and contributing to price discovery
- FPIs typically have a shorter investment horizon compared to Foreign Direct Investors (FDIs). They may engage in short-term trading or hold securities for a few months to a few years.
- FPIs are subject to regulatory frameworks and restrictions in the countries where they invest. These regulations are designed to ensure that foreign investments do not pose undue risks to the local financial markets and economy.
6.Foreign Portfolio vs. Foreign Direct Investment
| FPI (Foreign Portfolio Investment) | FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) |
| FPI involves the purchase of financial assets such as stocks, bonds, mutual funds, and other securities in a foreign country. These investments are typically made with the intention of earning returns on capital and do not result in significant control or ownership of the underlying businesses | FDI entails making an investment in a foreign country with the primary objective of establishing a lasting interest and significant control or influence over a business enterprise or physical assets. FDI often involves the acquisition of a substantial ownership stake (typically at least 10%) in a company or the establishment of new business operations. |
| FPI is generally characterized by a shorter investment horizon. Investors in FPI may engage in trading and portfolio rebalancing activities, and their investments are often more liquid. The focus is on earning capital gains and income from investments. | FDI is characterized by a longer-term commitment. Investors in FDI intend to engage in the day-to-day management or decision-making of the business, contribute to its growth and development, and generate profits over an extended period. |
| FPI investors typically have little to no influence or control over the companies in which they invest. They are passive investors who participate in the financial markets and rely on market dynamics to drive returns. | FDI investors actively participate in the management and decision-making of the businesses they invest in. They often seek to exercise control over company operations and strategy, which may include appointing board members or key executives. |
| FPI investments are often made through financial instruments like stocks, bonds, and securities. Investors may use instruments like mutual funds or exchange-traded funds (ETFs) to gain exposure to foreign markets | FDI investments involve a direct equity stake in a company, either through share acquisition or the establishment of a subsidiary or branch in the host country. FDI can also involve the purchase of real assets such as land, factories, or infrastructure |
| FPI can provide short-term capital inflows, but it may be more susceptible to market volatility and sudden capital outflows. It may not have as direct an impact on job creation and economic development as FDI. | FDI often contributes to long-term economic development by creating jobs, stimulating infrastructure development, transferring technology and expertise, and enhancing the competitiveness of local industries |
| FPI investments are subject to regulations that vary by country and may include foreign ownership limits, reporting requirements, and tax considerations. | FDI is subject to regulations that can be more stringent and may involve government approval, sector-specific conditions, and investment protection measures |
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For Prelims: Economic and Social Development-Sustainable Development, Poverty, Inclusion, Demographics, Social Sector Initiatives, etc
For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment
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Previous Year Questions
1. Both Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) and Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) are related to investment in a country. (UPSC CSE 2011)
Which one of the following statements best represents an important difference between the two?
A.FII helps bring better management skills and technology, while FDI only brings in capital
B.FII helps in increasing capital availability in general, while FDI only targets specific sectors C.FDI flows only into the secondary markets, while FII targets primary market
D.FII is considered to the more stable than FDI
Answer (B)
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Source: indianexpress
AVERAGE MONSOON RAINFALL
1. Context
The past year was not only a surplus monsoon year, with India receiving above-normal rainfall right from May through October. It was also a year of relatively moderate temperatures
2. Trends of Rainfall in India
- Based on trends for 1961-2010, India’s normal annual rainfall is about 1176.9mm. Of this, nearly 74.8%, or 880.6 mm (88.06 cm), occurs during the Southwest monsoon from June to September. This is the LPA rainfall for the monsoon, the figure that has been revised.
- Before the revision, the distribution of the rest of the rainfall was 3.4% during winter (January-February); 11.2% in the pre-monsoon season (March-May), and 10.5% during the post-monsoon season (October-December).
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Image Source: The Indian Express3. What is LPA?
- It is the rainfall recorded over a particular region for a given interval (like month or season) average over a long period like 30 years, 50 years, etc.
- The amount of rain that falls every year varies from region to region and from month to month.
- The IMD also maintains LPAs for every meteorological region of the country.
- This number ranges from 61 cm for the drier Northwest India to more than 143 cm for the wetter East and Northeast India.
- The LPA of the season rainfall over the country as a whole for the period 1971-2020 is 87 cm.
4. When is the LPA revised?
- It is an international convention to verify the quantum of annual and seasonal monsoon rainfall once in a decade. The monsoon season’s LPA rainfall acts as a baseline figure calculated over 50 years.
- The LPA is revised if required, depending on any variations observed from the rainfall data obtained from the network of rain gauges.
- In 2002, the IMD operated 1,963 rain gauges located across 523 districts.
- As of 2020, rainfall data was being collected from 4,132 rain gauges spread uniformly across 703 districts.
- Between 2005 and 2010, India’s LPA was taken at 89.04 cm. Between 2011 and 2015, the IMD revised it to 88.75 cm.
- It was 88.06 cm between 2018 and 2021. From the upcoming monsoon, the revised LPA will be 87 cm.
5. How much rainfall does India receive in a year?
IMD maintains five rainfall distribution categories on an all-India scale. These are:
- Normal: When the percentage departure of actual rainfall is +/-10% of LPA.
- Below normal: when the departure of actual rainfall is less than 10% of LPA, that is 90-96% of LPA.
- Above normal: when actual rainfall is 104-110% of LPA.
- Deficient: when the departure of actual rainfall is less than 90% of LPA.
- Excess: when the departure of actual rainfall is more than 110% of LPA.
6. Why it has been Downgraded?
- The monsoon season rainfall shows an epochal behavior.
- The monsoon can shift between dry and wet epochs (30 to 50-year periods) in certain decades.
- The reduction in rainfall is thus due to the natural multi-decadal rainfall variability. Decadal variability between 1901 and 2020 shows the southwest monsoon rainfall underwent a dry epoch between 1901 and 1921. This was followed by a wet epoch that prevailed till 1970.
- Since 1971, the monsoon has been passing through a dry epoch that persists to date.
- The decadal mean value will reach near normal during 2021-2030. The decadal mean value for the ongoing decade is predicted to be around minus 1.4 to 1.5.
- Normally, the realized monsoon rainfall remains below normal for most years in a decade during a dry epoch.
- Rainfall is normal or above normal during most of the years in a decade when it is a wet epoch.
| For Prelims: India Meteorological Department (IMD), Long Period Average (LPA), Northeast India, Monsoon behavior, Climate Change, and Southwest monsoon rainfall. |
Previous year Questions
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1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
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Source: The Indian Express
WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM (WEF)
1. Context
Presenting as one of the world’s largest and most investment-ready markets for clean energy at the World Economic Forum (WEF) 2026, India sought investments of $300 billion –$350 billion in the sector by 2030
2.World Economic Forum
The World Economic Forum (WEF) is an international organization that was founded in 1971. It is a Swiss nonprofit foundation based in Geneva, Switzerland. The WEF is best known for its annual meeting in Davos, a mountain resort in Switzerland, which brings together political leaders, business executives, academics, and other influential figures from around the world to discuss and collaborate on global issues
The World Economic Forum (WEF) was founded by Professor Klaus Schwab. He established the organization in 1971, and the first meeting of the WEF took place in Davos, Switzerland, in that same year. Klaus Schwab, a German economist and engineer, envisioned the WEF as a platform where business leaders, politicians, academics, and other stakeholders could come together to discuss and collaborate on global economic issues.
Over the years, the World Economic Forum has grown into a prominent international organization, hosting annual meetings in Davos that attract a diverse group of participants from various sectors. The WEF has played a significant role in fostering dialogue and cooperation among leaders to address global challenges and shape economic policies
3. What is the Purpose of the World Economic Forum (WEF)?
The World Economic Forum (WEF) has several key purposes, and its mission is to improve the state of the world. The organization aims to achieve this mission through various activities and initiatives:
- The WEF provides a platform for leaders from the public and private sectors, academia, and civil society to engage in open and constructive dialogue. The goal is to foster a shared understanding of global challenges and to encourage collaboration in finding innovative solutions
- The WEF seeks to promote cooperation and collaboration among different stakeholders, including governments, businesses, international organizations, and non-governmental organizations, to address global challenges. These challenges include economic issues, social inequality, environmental sustainability, and technological disruptions
- Through its meetings, reports, and initiatives, the WEF aims to shape global agendas by identifying key issues and trends that impact the world economy and society. The organization strives to provide insights and recommendations to inform decision-makers and influence policy development
- The WEF is committed to advancing inclusive and sustainable economic growth. It addresses issues related to social inclusion, gender equality, and environmental stewardship, advocating for policies that benefit a broad spectrum of society
- The WEF emphasizes the importance of collaboration between the public and private sectors. It believes that effective solutions to global challenges often require coordinated efforts and partnerships between governments and businesses
- The WEF serves as a hub for thought leadership, bringing together experts and leaders to share ideas and insights on a wide range of topics. It contributes to shaping intellectual discourse on economic, social, and technological issues
- In addition to its annual meeting in Davos, Switzerland, the WEF organizes regional meetings and initiatives to address specific challenges and opportunities in different parts of the world. This regional engagement helps tailor solutions to local contexts
- The WEF produces reports, research papers, and publications that provide in-depth analysis of global trends and challenges. These publications contribute to the understanding of complex issues and inform discussions among policymakers and business leaders
4.World Economic Forum and India
The World Economic Forum (WEF) engages with India through various initiatives, events, and partnerships to address economic, social, and environmental challenges.
Here are some aspects of the relationship between the World Economic Forum and India:
- The WEF organizes the annual India Economic Summit, which brings together leaders from government, business, academia, and civil society to discuss and collaborate on key issues facing India. The summit focuses on topics such as economic growth, innovation, sustainability, and social development
- The WEF holds regional meetings around the world, and India has been a host for some of these events. These regional meetings provide a platform for addressing specific challenges and opportunities in the Indian context
- The WEF emphasizes public-private cooperation, and it works with Indian leaders and businesses to foster collaboration between the government and private sector. This collaboration aims to address challenges and promote inclusive economic growth
- The WEF publishes the Global Competitiveness Report, which assesses the competitiveness of countries based on various factors. India's performance in these reports is closely watched by policymakers and businesses to understand the country's economic strengths and areas that need improvement
- The WEF engages in various initiatives and partnerships in India. For example, it has been involved in projects related to sustainable development, digital transformation, and healthcare. These initiatives often involve collaboration between different stakeholders to find innovative solutions to complex issues
- The WEF explores the impact of emerging technologies on the global economy, and India, being a major player in the technology and innovation space, is often a focus of discussions. The Fourth Industrial Revolution and the implications of technology on industries and society are common themes in WEF discussions
- Given India's diverse population and socio-economic challenges, the WEF emphasizes the importance of inclusive growth. Discussions often revolve around strategies and policies that can ensure that economic development benefits a broad spectrum of society
- The WEF produces reports and insights specific to India, providing analysis and recommendations on issues ranging from economic development to social inclusion. These reports contribute to informed decision-making by policymakers and business leaders in the country
5.Reports released by World Economic Forum
The World Economic Forum (WEF) regularly releases reports on various global issues, providing insights, analysis, and recommendations for policymakers, business leaders, and the public.
Some of the notable reports released by the WEF include:
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Global Competitiveness Report: The WEF's Global Competitiveness Report assesses the competitiveness of countries based on a range of factors, including infrastructure, macroeconomic stability, health, education, innovation, and more. It provides a comprehensive analysis of the global economic landscape.
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Global Risks Report: The Global Risks Report, published annually by the WEF, identifies and analyzes the most significant risks facing the world. It covers economic, environmental, geopolitical, societal, and technological risks, highlighting potential challenges that may impact global stability.
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Global Gender Gap Report: This report assesses gender disparities in various countries, focusing on economic participation, educational attainment, health outcomes, and political empowerment. It aims to raise awareness about gender inequality and provide a basis for addressing these disparities.
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The Future of Jobs Report: The WEF's Future of Jobs Report explores the impact of technological developments, automation, and other trends on the global job market. It examines the skills required for the future and the potential transformations in industries and occupations.
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Global Information Technology Report: This report assesses the state of information and communication technology (ICT) around the world. It examines the readiness of countries to adopt and benefit from ICT, emphasizing its role in driving economic growth and social development.
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Global Enabling Trade Report: Focusing on trade and its facilitation, this report assesses the efficiency and effectiveness of trade policies and infrastructure in various countries. It aims to identify areas for improvement to promote smoother international trade.
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The Human Capital Report: This report evaluates countries based on their investments in human capital, including education and healthcare. It highlights the importance of human capital development for economic growth and competitiveness.
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Inclusive Development Index: The Inclusive Development Index assesses the inclusiveness of economic growth by considering factors such as income inequality, social inclusion, and environmental sustainability. It provides insights into how well countries are translating economic growth into improved well-being for their citizens
6. Way forward
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: General Studies II:Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.
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Previous Year Questions
1.The Global Competitiveness Report is published by the (UPSC CSE 2019)
A.International Monetary Fund
B.United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
C.World Economic Forum
D.World Bank
Answer (C)
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Source: indianexpress
HEAT WAVES
1. Context
The intense heatwave that struck south-eastern Australia in the second week of January 2026 was made significantly more intense and five times more likely by global warming and consequent climate change, according to a new analysis by the World Weather Attribution (WWA) group published January 22, 2026
2. About Heat Wave
- A heatwave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, a common phenomenon in India during the months of May-June and in some rare cases even extends till July.
- Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) classifies heat waves according to regions and temperature ranges. As per IMD, the number of heatwave days in India has increased from 413 over 1981-1990 to 600 over 2011-2020.
- This sharp rise in the number of heatwave days has resulted due to the increasing impact of climate change.
- The last three years have been La Niña years, which has served as a precursor to 2023 likely being an El Niño year. (The El Niño is a complementary phenomenon in which warmer water spreads westeast across the equatorial Pacific Ocean.)
- As we eagerly await the likely birth of an El Niño this year, we have already had a heat wave occur over northwest India.
- Heat waves tend to be confined to north and northwest India in El Niño years.
3. Understanding the Effects of Heat on the Body
Heat Exhaustion Occurs when excessive sweating leads to the draining of the body's resources, but it is not life-threatening. Recovery is possible by rehydrating and seeking cooler areas.
Heat stroke Results from an inability to regulate core body temperature, leading to severe symptoms and potential organ damage. Promptly reducing core temperature is crucial in these cases.
4. Symptoms and Medical care
Signs of heat stroke Extremely high body temperature without sweating, drowsiness, vomiting, reduced urination and impaired breathing.
Vulnerable populations Older adults, young children and individuals with comorbidities are more susceptible to heat-related impacts. However, heat stroke can affect individuals of any age.
5. Preventive Measure to Avoid Heat Stroke
Minimize exposure Stay indoors or seek shade during peak sunlight hours, especially between noon and 3 pm. Avoid strenuous activities during this time.
Stay hydrated Drink water regularly, even if not feeling thirsty. Consume hydrating fluids such as lassi, lemon water, buttermilk or ORS to maintain electrolyte balance.
Clothing and accessories Wear lightweight, light-coloured, loose-fitting cotton clothes. Use goggles, umbrellas and appropriate footwear for protection.
Home cooling Use curtains or shades to keep homes cool. Utilize damp clothes and cod baths to lower body temperature.
6. Role of Humidity and Night-time Temperatures
High humidity Increased perceived temperature and reduces the effectiveness of sweat evaporation, making it harder to cool down.
High night-time temperatures Light the body's recovery time, hindering the restoration of resources. Low night temperatures are essential for adequate recuperation.
7. Linking Heatwaves to Climate Change and Global Implications
Rising global temperatures Climate Change contributes to increased heatwave frequency and intensity, impacting human health.
Health Risks and Socioeconomic Impact Heatwaves can cause additional deaths, public health emergencies, reduced labour productivity and disruptions to essential services.
8. Criteria for Declaring Heat Waves in India
- In plains maximum temperature of at least 40 °C or more
- In Hilly regions maximum temperature of at least 30 °C or more
- Severe heat wave departure from normal temperature exceeds 6.40 °C
9. Impact of heat waves on Health
Health impacts of heat Heat-related illnesses range from heat cramps to heatstroke and hyperthermia. Heat can also worsen existing conditions and lead to premature death.
Indirect health effects Heat affects human behaviour, disease transmission, health services, air quality and critical infrastructure.
10. Conclusion
- Addressing heatwave deaths in India requires a multi-faceted approach involving government intervention, public awareness and preventive measures.
- By understanding the effects of heat on the body, recognizing critical symptoms and implementing preventive strategies, the risk of heat-related illnesses and fatalities can be reduced.
- Additionally, acknowledging the role of climate change and preparing for future heat waves is essential for safeguarding public health.
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For Prelims: Heatwave, India Meteorological Department, National Disaster Management Authority, the Health Ministry, ORS, Humidity, high temperatures
For Mains:
1. Climate change is considered a contributing factor to the increased frequency and intensity of heat waves. Discuss the measures that can be taken at national and international levels to address climate change and minimize its impact on public health. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Arrange the following India Meteorological Headquarters in Chronological order of their establishment and select your correct answer from the codes given below: (UPPSC Civil Service 2018)
A. New Delhi
B. Kolkata
C. Shimla
D. Pune
1. C D A B 2. B A D C 3. D B C A 4. B C D A
Answer: 4
2. Consider the following statements: (MPSC Forest Services 2019)
(a) The Disaster Management Act was passed by the Parliament in 2005.
(b) The Union Home Minister Acts as a Chairperson of the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA).
(c) The NDMA may have not more than nine members including Vice-Chairman.
(d) The tenure of the members of NDMA shall be five years.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
1. (a), (b) and (c) 2. (a), (c) and (d) 3. (b), (c) and (d) 4. All above
Answer: 2
3. National Disaster Management Authority is headed by (CDS 2021)
A. the Prime Minister. B. the Home Minister C. the President. D. the Health Minister.
Answer: A
4. With reference to Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. Private and public hospitals must adopt it.
2. As it aims to achieve universal health coverage, every citizen of India should be part of it ultimately.
3. It has seamless portability across the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
5. Consider the following statement: (UPSC 2018)
1. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 replaced the Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954.
2. The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) is under the charge of the Director General of Health Services in the Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
6. What is the full form of ORS? (NHM UP CHO 2021)
A. Oral Recovered Solution
B. Oral Rehydration Salts
C. Oral Regenerate Salts
D. Oral Regenerate Solution
Answer: B
7. Consider the following statements with regard to atmospheric humidity: (UPSC ESE 2018)
1. Absolute humidity is the amount of water vapour per unit volume.
2. Hygrometer is used to measure relative humidity.
3. Dew point is the temperature at which the relative humidity is 75%.
Which of the above statements are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 1 and 3 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
8. Relative humidity is (ISRO Scientist Civil 2020)
A. Something concerned with air conditioning
B. The ratio of moisture present in air to the capability of air to hold maximum moisture
C. The ratio of actual humidity to absolute humidity
D. Representative of amount of moisture held in air
Answer: B
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Source: The Indian Express & WHO
PRODUCTION LINKED INCENTIVE (PLI) SCHEME
1. Context
India’s flagship incentive programme to build domestic battery manufacturing has delivered just 2.8 per cent of its targeted capacity, highlighting deep structural and policy bottlenecks in the country’s clean mobility supply chain, according to a new report by the Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis (IEEFA) South Asia and JMK Research.
2. About Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme
The Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme is an initiative by the Indian government to boost domestic manufacturing in specific sectors. It incentivizes companies, both domestic and foreign, to set up or expand production facilities in India by offering financial rewards based on incremental sales achieved over a set period.
- The government announces a PLI scheme for a particular sector with specific targets for production and sales.
- Companies apply for the scheme and submit their production plans.
- If selected, companies receive a percentage of their incremental sales (over a base year) as an incentive.
- The incentive amount varies depending on the sector and the level of incremental sales achieved.
- The scheme typically runs for several years, providing companies with long-term financial support.
3. Sectors with Current PLI Schemes
- Mobile phone manufacturing and specified electronic components have been successful in attracting major players like Apple and Samsung to set up production in India.
- Large-scale electronics manufacturing to boost domestic production of TVs, laptops, and other electronics products.
- High-efficiency solar PV modules to make India a global leader in solar energy production.
- Automobiles and auto components incentivize the production of electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and advanced auto components.
- Man-made fibre (MMF) apparel and textiles to boost domestic production of high-quality MMF textiles.
- White goods (air conditioners, refrigerators, etc.) to make India a global hub for white goods manufacturing.
4. Sectors Likely to See PLI Schemes in the Future
- The pharmaceuticals and medical devices sector is crucial for national health security and has the potential for significant growth.
- Green hydrogen and ammonia fuels are essential for achieving climate goals and could benefit from PLI support.
- Advanced manufacturing technologies include robotics, 3D printing, and artificial intelligence, which are crucial for future industries.
- The food processing sector has vast potential for value creation and job creation, and PLI could help address inefficiencies.
5. Benefits of the PLI Scheme
- PLI attracts investment and encourages companies to manufacture in India, reducing dependence on imports.
- New manufacturing units and increased production lead to job creation in various sectors.
- PLI attracts global companies with advanced technology, leading to knowledge transfer and skill development in India.
- Increased domestic production can lead to higher exports and strengthen the Indian economy.
6. Challenges in the PLI Scheme
- Companies need significant upfront investment to set up new production facilities, which can be a deterrent for some.
- The application and approval process for PLI schemes can be lengthy and complex, discouraging some companies.
- The government needs to ensure the long-term sustainability of PLI schemes to avoid dependence on subsidies.
7. The Way Forward
The PLI scheme is a promising initiative with the potential to transform India's manufacturing landscape. By addressing the challenges and continuously improving its design, the government can further incentivize domestic production and boost India's economic growth.
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For Prelims: Production Linked Incentive scheme, industrial policy
For Mains:
1. Discuss the role of the government in promoting domestic manufacturing. Should the focus be on incentives like the Production Linked Incentive scheme or on creating a conducive business environment? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider, the following statements : (UPSC 2023) Statement-I : India accounts for 3.2% of global export of goods. Statement-II : Many local companies and some foreign companies operating in India have taken advantage of India's ‘Production-linked Incentive’ scheme. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct Answer: D |
Source: The Indian Express
ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE
1. Context
Imagine going to the hospital for a bacterial ear infection and hearing your doctor say, “We’re out of options.” It may sound dramatic, but antibiotic resistance is pushing that scenario closer to becoming reality for an increasing number of people
2. What is Anti Microbial Resistance?
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicine making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread severe illness, and death.
3. Emergence and spread of AMR
- AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes.
- Antimicrobial-resistant organisms are found in people, animals, food, plants, and the environment (in water, soil, and air).
- They can spread from person to person or between people and animals, including from food of animal origin.
- The main drivers of antimicrobial resistance include the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials, lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) for both humans and animals, and poor infection and disease prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms. Poor access to quality, affordable medicines, vaccines, and diagnostics, lack of awareness and knowledge, and lack of enforcement of legislation.
4. Factors causing AMR in India
Inappropriate consumption of board-spectrum (last resort) antibiotics is high because of changing prescription practices in the healthcare system due to the non-availability of a narrow spectrum of antibiotics.
Inappropriate antibiotics use among the general public like self-medication to avoid the financial burden.
A large proportion of sewage is disposed of untreated into receiving water bodies, leading to gross contamination of rivers with antibiotic residues, and antibiotic-resistant organisms.
5. Reasons for the recent increase in the use of antibiotics in India
- The high disease burden
- The rising income
- The easy and cheap availability of these medicines to the public.
- The uncontrolled sales of antibiotics
- Poor Public health infrastructure
- Lack of awareness regarding the misuse of antibiotics.
6. Government Initiatives that help to curb Antimicrobial Resistance In India
The Union Health Minister of India in the International Conference on Anti-Microbial Resistance stated that the first step in addressing the problem of AMR is to avoid the need for antibiotics at all in the first place. Improved water, vaccination, and sanitation may control inappropriate antibiotic use indirectly. The main government policies that help in this process are:
- Through the Swacch Bharat Program, the government has taken active steps to improve hygiene and sanitation and reduce the environmental spread of pathogens.
- Vaccination is an equally important public health measure, and through Mission Indradhaniush, India has set itself an ambitious goal of increasing routine immunization coverage to 90% within just a few years.
6.1 Red Line Campaign
The Union health ministry's Anti-Microbial Resistance awareness campaign urges people not to use medicines marked with a red vertical line, including antibiotics, without a doctor's prescription.
These medicines are called the 'Medicines with the Red Line.
To check the irrational use of antibiotics, the 'red line' will help the users to differentiate them from the drugs.
This campaign is aimed at discouraging unnecessary prescription and the counter sale of antibiotics causing drug resistance for several critical diseases including TB, malaria, urinary tract infection, and even HIV.
7. WHO's Global plan on Anti-Microbial Resistance?
- To improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education, and training.
- To Strengthen the knowledge and evidence base through surveillance and research.
- To reduce the incidence of infection through effective sanitation, hygiene, and infection prevention measures.
- To Optimize the use of antimicrobial medicines in human and animal health.
- To develop the economic case for sustainable investment that takes account of the needs of all countries and to increase investment in new medicines, diagnostic tools, vaccines, and other interventions.
8. Global efforts
8.1 Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP): Globally, countries committed to the framework set out in the Global Action Plan1 (GAP) 2015 on AMR during the 2015 World Health Assembly and committed to the development and implementation of multisectoral national action plans.
8.2 Tripartite Joint Secretariat on Antimicrobial Resistance: Tripartite joint secretariat (FAO, OIE, and WHO) has been established and is hosted by WHO to drive multi-stakeholder engagement in AMR.
8.3 World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW): WAAW was previously called World Antibiotic Awareness Week. From 2020, it will be called world Anti-Microbial Awareness Week. It is a global campaign that aims to raise awareness of antimicrobial resistance worldwide.
8.4 Global Antimicrobial Resistance and use surveillance system (GLASS): WHO launched it in 2015 to continue filling knowledge gaps and to inform strategies at all levels. GLASS has been conceived to progressively incorporate data from surveillance of AMR in humans, surveillance of the use of Antimicrobial medicines, and AMR in the food chain and the environment.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UN Environment Programme, the World Health Organization (WHO), World Organisation for Animal Health, Mission Indradhaniush, Red Line Campaign.
For Mains: 1.Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered one of the most significant challenges the world faces today. Discuss.
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India? ( UPSC CSE 2019)
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 Answer: (b) |
Source: Down to Earth
NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL
1. Context
The National Green Tribunal has ordered sewage treatment plants on drains meeting the Shivnath river in Chhattisgarh to be completed within six months, warning against discharge of untreated wastewater and calling for stricter compliance.
2. What is National Green Tribunal (NGT)?
- The National Green Tribunal (NGT) is a specialized judicial body established in India to handle cases related to environmental protection and conservation.
- It was established under the National Green Tribunal Act, of 2010, and its primary objective is to effectively and expeditiously address environmental disputes and promote sustainable development.
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With the establishment of the NGT, India became the third country in the world to set up a specialized environmental tribunal, only after Australia and New Zealand, and the first developing country to do so.
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NGT is mandated to make disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of the filing of the same.
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The NGT has five places of sittings, New Delhi is the Principal place of sitting, and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai are the other four.
3. Structure of the National Green Tribunal (NGT)
- Chairperson: The NGT is headed by a full-time Chairperson who is a retired judge of the Supreme Court of India. The Chairperson is responsible for the overall administration and functioning of the tribunal.
- Judicial Members: The NGT consists of judicial members who are retired judges of either the Supreme Court or a High Court. These members have extensive legal knowledge and experience in handling environmental matters.
- Expert Members: The tribunal also includes expert members who possess expertise in areas such as environmental science, ecology, hydrology, and forestry. These members provide valuable technical insights and guidance in the resolution of environmental disputes.
- The NGT is organized into multiple benches located across different regions of India. These benches are responsible for hearing cases specific to their respective jurisdictions. Each bench is headed by a judicial member and consists of one or more expert members, as required.
4. What are the Important Landmark Judgements of NGT?
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has delivered several landmark judgments that have had a significant impact on environmental protection and conservation in India. Here are some of the important landmark judgments delivered by the NGT:
- Vardhaman Kaushik v. Union of India (2013): This case dealt with the issue of groundwater depletion due to illegal extraction by industries in Uttar Pradesh. The NGT directed the closure of industries that were extracting groundwater without proper permissions and ordered the payment of compensation for environmental damage caused.
- Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd. v. Rohit Prajapati & Ors. (2014): In this case, the NGT ordered the closure of an industrial unit in Gujarat for releasing untreated effluents into a water body, causing pollution and harm to the environment and public health.
- M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2014): The NGT issued a landmark judgment in this case regarding the pollution of the Yamuna River. It directed several measures to clean and rejuvenate the river, including the establishment of sewage treatment plants and the regulation of industries contributing to pollution.
- Subhash Chandra Sharma v. Union of India (2015): This case focused on the issue of air pollution caused by solid waste burning in open areas. The NGT imposed a ban on burning waste in open spaces and directed municipal authorities to take measures to manage waste effectively.
- Raghu Nath Sharma v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2016): The NGT ordered the closure of illegal hotels and structures in the eco-sensitive Rohtang Pass area of Himachal Pradesh to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
- Yamuna Muktikaran Abhiyan v. Union of India (2017): This case dealt with the rejuvenation of the Yamuna River and led to the NGT issuing directions to clean and restore the river, including measures to prevent encroachments and pollution.
- M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2017): The NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR) and directed authorities to take steps to prevent the use and sale of such plastic.
- Shailesh Singh v. Hotel Holiday Regency (2019): In this case, the NGT imposed heavy fines on a hotel in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, for causing air pollution by running diesel generators without proper emission control measures.
- Subhash Chandran vs. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (2020): This judgment highlighted the importance of safeguarding coastal areas and wetlands from unauthorized construction and development activities, emphasizing the need for stringent environmental norms.
- In Re: Report by Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2021): The NGT directed the formulation of guidelines for the regulation of groundwater extraction and management to prevent overexploitation and depletion.
5. What is a dissolved oxygen level?
- Dissolved oxygen (DO) level refers to the concentration of oxygen gas (O2) that is dissolved in a liquid, typically water.
- It is a crucial parameter in aquatic ecosystems as it directly affects the survival and well-being of aquatic organisms.
- In natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, and oceans, oxygen dissolves from the atmosphere through processes such as diffusion and aeration.
- Aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton also contribute to the production of oxygen through photosynthesis. However, the level of dissolved oxygen can fluctuate based on various factors, including temperature, altitude, water flow, pollution, and organic matter decomposition.
- Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic organisms because they rely on it for their respiration process, similar to how animals breathe oxygen from the air.
- Insufficient levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to hypoxia, a condition where organisms are deprived of the oxygen they need to survive. This can result in stress, reduced growth, reproductive issues, and even mortality in aquatic species.
Different species of aquatic organisms have varying tolerance levels for dissolved oxygen. For example:
- Fish and other aquatic animals often require dissolved oxygen levels between 4 to 6 milligrams per liter (mg/L) to thrive.
- Some species of fish, insects, and other aquatic organisms can tolerate lower levels of dissolved oxygen, even below 2 mg/L, while others require higher concentrations.
6. What are chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand?
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
- COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize and break down organic and inorganic substances present in water.
- It provides an indication of the total amount of pollutants that can be chemically oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent. COD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed.
- COD is useful in assessing the overall pollution load in a water sample, including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
- It is commonly used for industrial wastewater monitoring, as it provides a rapid estimation of the organic content and potential pollution levels. However, COD does not differentiate between different types of pollutants or indicate the potential impact on aquatic life.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
- BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms (bacteria) during the biological degradation of organic matter in water.
- It is a key indicator of the level of biodegradable organic pollutants present in water. BOD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed over a specific time period, usually 5 days (BOD₅).
- BOD is particularly important in assessing the impact of organic pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
- High BOD levels indicate that a water body may have a significant amount of organic pollutants, which can lead to oxygen depletion as microorganisms break down the organic matter. This oxygen depletion, known as hypoxia, can harm aquatic organisms and disrupt the ecological balance of the water body.
Comparing BOD and COD:
- BOD primarily measures the biologically degradable organic matter and provides information about the potential impact on aquatic life.
- COD measures both biologically and chemically degradable pollutants, giving an indication of the overall pollution load and oxygen demand.
- BOD is a more specific and ecologically relevant parameter, but it takes longer to determine (5 days), while COD can be measured more quickly.
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For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), National Green Tribunal Act, of 2010, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) as critical indicators for assessing water pollution and quality. (250 Words)
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Previous year Question1. How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)? (UPSC 2018)
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by the executive order of the Government.
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
2. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in consonance with which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2012)
1. Right of a healthy environment, construed as a part of the Right to life under Article 21
2. Provision of grants for raising the level of administration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1)
3. Powers and functions of Gram Sabha as mentioned under Article 243(A)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
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Source: The Indian Express
