• The BrahMos missile is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyeniya. Its name is a portmanteau of the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
• BrahMos is known for its speed and versatility. It is the fastest cruise missile in the world, capable of reaching speeds of up to Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound). This makes it extremely difficult for enemy defenses to intercept.
• The missile has both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities, meaning it can target both land-based targets and naval vessels. Its precision and range make it a potent weapon for both offensive and defensive purposes. It's deployed across various platforms including land, sea, and air.
• The BrahMos missile has become a significant asset in the Indian military's arsenal, providing a formidable deterrent and offensive capability. It's continuously being upgraded to enhance its capabilities and adapt it to different platforms and operational requirements

3. Evolution of Brahmos

• During the early 1980s, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam spearheaded the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, initiating the creation of various indigenous missiles such as Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, and Nag, each with diverse capabilities and operational ranges.
• In the early 1990s, India's strategic leadership recognized the necessity for cruise missiles—guided projectiles maintaining nearly constant speeds throughout their trajectories—to deliver sizable warheads with pinpoint accuracy over extensive distances.
• This requirement emerged prominently following the deployment of cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War.
• In 1998, an Inter-Governmental Agreement was formalized in Moscow between Dr. Kalam, then heading the DRDO, and N V Mikhailov, Russia's Deputy Defence Minister at the time.
• This agreement laid the foundation for BrahMos Aerospace, a collaborative venture between DRDO and the Russian space company NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM), with the Indian side holding 50.5% ownership and the Russians 49.5%. The venture derived its name from two rivers—Brahmaputra in India and Moskva in Russia.
• Subsequently, in 1999, the development of missiles commenced within the laboratories of DRDO and NPOM after BrahMos Aerospace secured funding from both governments. The first successful test launch occurred in 2001 from a specifically engineered land-based launcher

4.Significance of Brahmos

• The BrahMos missile is equipped with a solid propellant booster engine, comprising two stages. Initially, the first stage accelerates the missile to supersonic speeds, after which it detaches. Subsequently, the liquid ramjet, constituting the second stage, propels the missile to nearly three times the speed of sound during its cruise phase.
• Notably, the missile exhibits a minimal radar signature, enhancing its stealth capabilities, and can follow various trajectories.
• As a "fire and forget" weapon, it can maintain a cruising altitude of 15 km and descend to as low as 10 meters to effectively strike its target.
• Classified as "standoff range weapons," cruise missiles like BrahMos are launched from a distance substantial enough to evade defensive countermeasures, a feature common among the arsenals of major militaries worldwide.
• Compared to subsonic cruise missiles, BrahMos boasts three times the speed, 2.5 times the flight range, and extended operational capabilities. With export versions available, BrahMos serves as a crucial asset in defense diplomacy initiatives.
• In 2022, an air-launched variant of BrahMos underwent testing from a frontline SU-30MKI aircraft, while an advanced sea-to-sea variant was also tested from the INS Visakhapatnam during the same year.
• However, BrahMos was embroiled in controversy in 2022 when Pakistan alleged that an unarmed Indian missile had inadvertently landed within its territory on March 9, 2022. The Ministry of Defence attributed the incident to a technical malfunction resulting in accidental firing.
• Though the government initiated a high-level inquiry, the specific missile involved was not officially disclosed. Nonetheless, experts inferred from its trajectory that it bore the hallmarks of BrahMos

5. Types of  BrahMos

• The BrahMos missile system is strategically deployed across various fronts, encompassing land-based formations along border regions, BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft stationed in both the Northern and Southern theaters, and ships and submarines fitted with BrahMos capabilities in naval operations. This integrated setup constitutes a formidable triad, adept at addressing evolving demands in multidimensional warfare scenarios.
• To adapt to dynamic warfare requirements, ongoing efforts are focused on upgrading the BrahMos system, with emphasis on enhancing range, maneuverability, and accuracy.
• Current development initiatives include testing versions with extended ranges of up to 350 km, surpassing the original's 290 km limit. Furthermore, plans are underway for versions with even greater ranges, potentially reaching up to 800 km, and featuring hypersonic speeds. Concurrently, endeavors are directed towards reducing the size and radar signature of existing iterations while augmenting their overall capabilities.
• Across all three branches of the Armed Forces, BrahMos variants are subject to regular testing, including those presently in development.
• Land-Based: The land-based BrahMos setup comprises mobile autonomous launchers, typically housing four to six launchers, each armed with three missiles capable of near-simultaneous firing.
• These batteries are strategically deployed along India's land borders in various theaters. Upgraded versions of the land attack variant, capable of cruising at 2.8 Mach, boast precision striking capabilities with ranges of up to 400 km.
• Advanced iterations with enhanced range and speeds of up to 5 Mach are reportedly in the developmental pipeline. Notably, the ground systems of BrahMos are lauded for their streamlined design and minimal componentry.
• Ship-Based: Since 2005, the Navy has been inducting BrahMos missiles on its frontline warships, enhancing their ability to engage sea-based targets beyond the radar horizon. The naval variant has demonstrated efficacy in both sea-to-sea and sea-to-land engagements.
• These missiles can be deployed individually or in salvos of up to eight, with staggered firing intervals. This capability enables them to effectively target groups of frigates equipped with modern missile defense systems.
• Air-Launched: The successful flight testing of BrahMos from a Sukhoi-30MKI against a sea-based target in the Bay of Bengal on November 22, 2017, marked a significant milestone. Subsequent tests have validated its effectiveness.
• The BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft, boasting a range of 1,500 km without mid-air refueling, serve as a pivotal strategic deterrent along both land borders and the strategically vital Indian Ocean Region. The Indian Air Force is actively integrating BrahMos with 40 Sukhoi-30 fighter jets across various airbases.
• Submarine-Launched: This variant can be launched from depths of approximately 50 meters below the water surface. The missile, stored in a canister, is vertically launched from the pressure hull of the submarine, employing distinct configurations for underwater and surface flights. Successful testing of this version was first conducted in March 2013 from a submerged platform off the coast of Visakhapatnam

6. Brahmos Missile Series

The BrahMos missile series is a family of supersonic cruise missiles developed jointly by India and Russia. Named after the Brahmaputra River in India and the Moskva River in Russia, the BrahMos series is renowned for its speed, precision, and versatility.

Here are some key variants within the BrahMos missile series:

• BrahMos Block-I: The initial variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring a range of approximately 290 km. It is capable of striking both land-based and naval targets with high accuracy.

• BrahMos Block-II: An upgraded version with enhanced capabilities, including improved range and accuracy. It incorporates advanced technologies to further enhance its effectiveness in various operational scenarios.

• BrahMos Block-III: This variant features additional upgrades aimed at improving its range, maneuverability, and stealth capabilities. It is designed to overcome evolving threats and maintain its position as a potent deterrent.

• BrahMos-A: The air-launched variant of the BrahMos missile, integrated onto Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft of the Indian Air Force. It significantly extends the reach of the missile, allowing for precision strikes against ground and naval targets.

• BrahMos-N: The naval variant of the BrahMos missile, deployed on Indian Navy warships. It provides a formidable anti-ship and land-attack capability, enhancing the offensive capabilities of naval fleets.

• BrahMos-ER: The extended-range variant of the BrahMos missile, currently under development, aimed at achieving ranges beyond the existing capabilities. It will further enhance the strategic reach of the BrahMos series, allowing for precision strikes at longer distances.

• BrahMos-NG: A next-generation variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring reduced size and weight while maintaining high performance. It is designed for compatibility with a wider range of platforms, including aircraft, submarines, and surface vessels

ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE

 

1. Context

India’s new National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (NAP-AMR 2.0) — (2025-29) — has been released at a time when Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is affecting human health, veterinary practices, aquaculture, agriculture, waste systems and the entire food chain. 

2. What is Anti Microbial Resistance?

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicine making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread severe illness, and death.

3. Emergence and spread of AMR

• AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes.
• Antimicrobial-resistant organisms are found in people, animals, food, plants, and the environment (in water, soil, and air).
• They can spread from person to person or between people and animals, including from food of animal origin.
• The main drivers of antimicrobial resistance include the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials, lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) for both humans and animals, and poor infection and disease prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms. Poor access to quality, affordable medicines, vaccines, and diagnostics, lack of awareness and knowledge, and lack of enforcement of legislation.

4. Factors causing AMR in India

Inappropriate consumption of board-spectrum (last resort) antibiotics is high because of changing prescription practices in the healthcare system due to the non-availability of a narrow spectrum of antibiotics.

Inappropriate antibiotics use among the general public like self-medication to avoid the financial burden.

A large proportion of sewage is disposed of untreated into receiving water bodies, leading to gross contamination of rivers with antibiotic residues, and antibiotic-resistant organisms.

 

5. Reasons for the recent increase in the use of antibiotics in India

• The high disease burden
• The rising income
• The easy and cheap availability of these medicines to the public.
• The uncontrolled sales of antibiotics
• Poor Public health infrastructure
• Lack of awareness regarding the misuse of antibiotics.

6. Government Initiatives that help to curb Antimicrobial Resistance In India

The Union Health Minister of India in the International Conference on Anti-Microbial Resistance stated that the first step in addressing the problem of AMR is to avoid the need for antibiotics at all in the first place. Improved water, vaccination, and sanitation may control inappropriate antibiotic use indirectly. The main government policies that help in this process are:

• Through the Swacch Bharat Program, the government has taken active steps to improve hygiene and sanitation and reduce the environmental spread of pathogens.
• Vaccination is an equally important public health measure, and through Mission Indradhaniush, India has set itself an ambitious goal of increasing routine immunization coverage to 90% within just a few years.

6.1 Red Line Campaign

The Union health ministry's Anti-Microbial Resistance awareness campaign urges people not to use medicines marked with a red vertical line, including antibiotics, without a doctor's prescription.

These medicines are called the 'Medicines with the Red Line.

To check the irrational use of antibiotics, the 'red line' will help the users to differentiate them from the drugs.

This campaign is aimed at discouraging unnecessary prescription and the counter sale of antibiotics causing drug resistance for several critical diseases including TB, malaria, urinary tract infection, and even HIV. 

7. WHO's Global plan on Anti-Microbial Resistance?

• To improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education, and training.
• To Strengthen the knowledge and evidence base through surveillance and research.
• To reduce the incidence of infection through effective sanitation, hygiene, and infection prevention measures.
• To Optimize the use of antimicrobial medicines in human and animal health.
• To develop the economic case for sustainable investment that takes account of the needs of all countries and to increase investment in new medicines, diagnostic tools, vaccines, and other interventions.

8. Global efforts

8.1 Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP): Globally, countries committed to the framework set out in the Global Action Plan1 (GAP) 2015 on AMR during the 2015 World Health Assembly and committed to the development and implementation of multisectoral national action plans.

8.2 Tripartite Joint Secretariat on Antimicrobial Resistance: Tripartite joint secretariat (FAO, OIE, and WHO) has been established and is hosted by WHO to drive multi-stakeholder engagement in AMR.

8.3 World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW): WAAW was previously called World Antibiotic Awareness Week. From 2020, it will be called world Anti-Microbial Awareness Week. It is a global campaign that aims to raise awareness of antimicrobial resistance worldwide.

8.4 Global Antimicrobial Resistance and use surveillance system (GLASS): WHO launched it in 2015 to continue filling knowledge gaps and to inform strategies at all levels. GLASS has been conceived to progressively incorporate data from surveillance of AMR in humans, surveillance of the use of Antimicrobial medicines, and AMR in the food chain and the environment.

 

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UN Environment Programme, the World Health Organization (WHO), World Organisation for Animal Health, Mission Indradhaniush, Red Line Campaign. For Mains: 1.Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered one of the most significant challenges the world faces today. Discuss.

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India? ( UPSC CSE 2019) Genetic predisposition of some people Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases Using antibiotics in livestock farming Multiple chronic diseases in some people Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Answer: (b)

 Source: Down to Earth

 

 

BIOREMEDIATION

 

 

1. Context

 

Human waste is leading to a world where access to clean air, water and soil is becoming increasingly difficult. The solution is two-pronged — reduce waste and clean up the waste already made.

 

 

2. What is Bioremediation?

 

• Bioremediation, in simple terms, refers to using biological agents to revive or clean polluted environments.
• It relies on microorganisms — including bacteria, fungi, algae, and even certain plants — to capture, break down, or neutralise hazardous substances like petroleum spills, pesticides, plastics, and heavy metals. These organisms treat the contaminants as nutrients, decomposing them into safer end-products such as carbon dioxide, water, and organic acids.
• In some situations, they can also alter toxic metals into more stable, less harmful forms that do not seep into soil or groundwater.
• Bioremediation is generally classified into two categories. In situ bioremediation involves treating pollutants at the site itself, for instance by introducing oil-degrading bacteria directly onto an ocean spill.
• Ex situ bioremediation, on the other hand, requires excavating the contaminated soil or water, processing it at a specialised facility, and then returning it once it is detoxified.
• Contemporary bioremediation blends conventional microbiology with advanced biotechnology.
• Emerging tools allow scientists to study biological systems more precisely, identify molecules with beneficial traits, and reproduce them under controlled conditions — such as in wastewater treatment systems or on farmlands.
• For instance, genetically engineered microbes are being developed to break down stubborn pollutants like plastics and persistent oil residues that natural organisms cannot efficiently degrade

 

3. Significance of bioremediation for India

 

• India’s fast-paced industrial growth has taken a significant toll on the environment. Even though pollution levels are showing gradual improvement, major rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna continue to be burdened with untreated household waste and industrial discharge.
• Additional threats — including oil spills, pesticide accumulation, and heavy metals — continue to endanger natural ecosystems as well as human health.
• Conventional methods of environmental clean-up are costly, require high energy inputs, and sometimes generate new forms of pollution.
• In contrast, bioremediation provides a more affordable, scalable, and eco-friendly solution — particularly valuable in a country where large areas of soil and water are contaminated but financial and technological resources remain limited.
• India’s rich biological diversity further strengthens this approach. Native microbial species, already adapted to local climate and conditions such as extreme heat or salinity, often perform better than foreign microbial strains

 

4. India's Position regarding bioremediation

 

 

• Bioremediation is slowly becoming more prominent in India, although much of the work is still at the trial or experimental stage. The Department of Biotechnology (DBT), through its Clean Technology Programme, has been funding various initiatives and promoting collaboration between academic institutions, government research bodies, and industry players.
• The CSIR–National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI) is actively involved in developing and implementing bioremediation-related projects.
• At the Indian Institutes of Technology, scientists have tested innovations such as a cotton-based nanocomposite that can absorb oil spills, and others have discovered microbial strains capable of breaking down hazardous contaminants in soil.
• The private sector is also beginning to participate. Startups like Biotech Consortium India Limited (BCIL) and Econirmal Biotech are providing microbial products aimed at treating polluted soil and wastewater.
• Despite this growth, large-scale deployment still encounters obstacles. Key issues include inadequate understanding of local contamination conditions, the diverse and complex nature of pollutants, and the absence of uniform national standards for bioremediation practices

 

5. Global Scenario

 

• Countries around the world are already incorporating bioremediation into their environmental management systems. Japan uses combinations of microbes and plants as part of its urban waste treatment approach.
• In the European Union, multinational projects are funded to deploy microorganisms for cleaning oil spills and rehabilitating former mining regions. China, under its national soil pollution control programme, has prioritised bioremediation and is using genetically enhanced microbial strains to revive degraded industrial zones.
• For India, the potential is significant. Bioremediation can rejuvenate polluted rivers, recover degraded land, and decontaminate industrial areas, while simultaneously generating employment in fields such as biotechnology, environmental services, and waste-treatment industries.
• It can also complement existing government initiatives like Swachh Bharat Mission, Namami Gange, and various clean-technology programmes

 

6. Challenges

 

• Releasing genetically modified organisms into natural ecosystems requires strict oversight to avoid unforeseen ecological consequences.
• If testing is insufficient or containment measures fail, such interventions may create new challenges even as they attempt to address existing ones.
• Meaningful public participation will also be essential to ensure wider acceptance of emerging biotechnologies.
• To expand bioremediation safely, India will need updated biosafety regulations, proper certification mechanisms, and a skilled workforce.

7.Bioremediation - Advantages

Environmentally Friendly

• Uses natural organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and plants.

• Breaks down pollutants into harmless by-products like water, CO₂, or organic acids.

• Minimises secondary pollution compared to chemical or mechanical treatments.

Cost-Effective

• Generally cheaper than traditional remediation methods that require heavy machinery, chemicals, or high energy consumption.

• Suitable for developing countries with limited cleanup budgets.

Sustainable and Self-Propagating

• Microorganisms can multiply and continue degradation without continuous human intervention.

• Supports long-term ecological restoration.

Versatile

• Effective against a wide range of contaminants: petroleum oils, pesticides, plastics, sewage sludge, heavy metals (in altered forms), and industrial effluents.

• Can be applied to soil, groundwater, wastewater, marine environments, and sediments.

In Situ Application Reduces Disturbance

• Many bioremediation processes can occur directly at the contaminated site.

• Eliminates the need to transport hazardous material, reducing risk and cost.

 Enhances Soil and Water Quality

• Restores soil fertility by promoting microbial diversity and organic content.

• Improves water quality in rivers, lakes, wetlands, and groundwater systems.

Scalable and Adaptable

• Can be applied on small patches of polluted land as well as large, industrially degraded regions.

• Indigenous microbial strains adapt well to local environmental conditions.

Supports Circular Economy & Green Jobs

• Creates employment opportunities in biotechnology, environmental consulting, waste management, and research.

• Integrates with green technology initiatives like Swachh Bharat Mission, Namami Gange, and waste-to-wealth programmes.

 

 

8. Way forward

 

 

To move forward, several steps are crucial. First, the country must establish uniform national guidelines for bioremediation methods and microbial use. Second, setting up regional centres that bring together universities, industries, and local authorities can improve understanding of site-specific problems and help select suitable technologies. Lastly, engaging the public can build trust and communicate the idea that microbes are valuable partners in environmental cleanup rather than dangers

 

 

 

For Prelims: bioremediation, microorganisms , In situ bioremediation   For Mains: GS III - Environment and ecology

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Bioremediation is most effective in which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020) A) Solid waste management B) Water purification C) Oil spills D) None of the above Answer (C) Mains 1.Examine the role of bioremediation in environmental sustainability (UPSC CSE GS III 2019)

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

CYCLONES

 

 

1. Context

 

 At least 153 people have been killed in Sri Lanka after landslides and flooding caused by Cyclone Ditwah, officials said on Saturday, with 191 others missing and more than half a million affected nationwide.

 

2. What is a Cyclone

• A cyclone is a low-pressure system that forms over warm waters. Essentially, it is a system of high-speed winds rotating around a low-pressure area, with the winds blowing counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
• According to the World Meteorological Organization, “Tropical cyclones are one of the biggest threats to life and property even in the formative stages of their development.
• Cyclonic winds move across nearly all regions of the Earth except the equatorial belt and are generally associated with rain or snow
• They include several different hazards that can individually cause significant impacts on life and property, such as storm surge, flooding, extreme winds, tornadoes and lighting.
• Combined, these hazards interact with one another and substantially increase the potential for loss of life and material damage.”
• Cyclones occur chiefly in the middle and high latitude belts of both hemispheres. In the Southern Hemisphere, where most of the terrestrial surface is covered by the oceans, cyclones are distributed in a relatively uniform manner through various longitudes
• Characteristically, they form in latitudes 30° to 40° S and move in a generally southeasterly direction, reaching maturity in latitudes around 60°. 
• Cyclones that form closer to the Equator (i.e., at latitudes 10° to 25° north and south over the oceans) differ somewhat in character from the extratropical variety. Such wind systems, known as tropical cyclones, are much smaller in diameter. 
• Whereas extratropical cyclones range from nearly 1,000 to 4,000 km (620 to 2,500 miles) across, tropical cyclones typically measure only about 100 to over 1,000 km in diameter.

 

 

PC: Brittanica

 

3. Types of cyclones

3.1.Tropical Cyclones

Cyclones developed in the tropics region (the majority confined to 10⁰– 30⁰ N and S of the equator) are called tropical cyclones.

• tropical cyclones have a thermal origin, and they develop over tropical seas during certain seasons. Pre-existing low pressure, large sea surface with a temperature higher than 27° C, and the presence of the Coriolis force are a must for tropical cyclone formation.
  
  
• At these locations, the local convectional currents acquire a whirling motion because of the Coriolis force generated by the earth’s rotation. After developing, these cyclones advance till they find a weak spot in the trade wind belt.
  
  
• Tropical cyclones always originate in large water bodies.

3.2.Temperate Cyclone

Temperate cyclones (Mid-Latitude cyclones), also known as Extratropical cyclones, are active over the mid-latitudinal regions between 35° latitude and 65° latitude in both hemispheres.

• They have a dynamic origin and cyclone formation is due to frontogenesis (interaction of cold and warm fronts). When the warm-humid air masses from the tropics meet the dry-cold air masses from the poles and thus a polar front is formed as a surface of discontinuity. The cold air pushes the warm air upwards from underneath. Thus, a void is created because of the lessening of pressure. The surrounding air rushed in to occupy this void and coupled with the earth’s rotation, a temperate cyclone is formed. 
• Temperate cyclones can originate on both landmass or water.

4.How do cyclones form?

 

• A tropical cyclone originates in a region of low pressure, typically accompanied by clusters of thunderstorms. For this disturbance to evolve into a full-fledged cyclone, certain atmospheric and oceanic factors must align.
• The most crucial among these is a sufficiently warm sea surface — generally above 26.5°C — extending to a depth of around 50 metres. Moist air over such warm waters rises, cools, and condenses to form clouds, releasing latent heat in the process.
• This released heat warms the surrounding air, causing it to rise further and pull in more moist air from below, creating a self-sustaining cycle of convection.
• Another vital requirement is an unstable atmosphere, meaning that once air begins to rise, it continues to ascend instead of being forced downward. Additionally, the Coriolis effect — caused by Earth’s rotation — must be strong enough to induce a spinning motion.
• Because this effect is minimal near the equator, cyclones seldom form within about five degrees of latitude on either side of it.
• Low vertical wind shear is also necessary; if wind speed and direction differ greatly between the lower and upper atmosphere, the cyclone’s circulation can become disorganized and lose strength.
• As the system intensifies, a clearly defined centre known as the eye may develop. This calm, cloud-free zone is encircled by the eyewall — a ring of towering thunderstorms producing the strongest winds and heaviest rainfall.
• Near the surface, air spirals inward toward the low-pressure centre and ascends sharply at the eyewall, while at higher altitudes it spreads outward, completing the cyclone’s circulation pattern

5. How are cyclones named?

Cyclones that form in every ocean basin across the world are named by the regional specialised meteorological centres (RSMCs) and Tropical Cyclone Warning Centres (TCWCs). There are six RSMCs in the world, including the India Meteorological Department (IMD), and five TCWCs.

As an RSMC, the IMD names the cyclones developing over the north Indian Ocean, including the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, after following a standard procedure. The IMD is also mandated to issue advisories to 12 other countries in the region on the development of cyclones and storms.

 

 

For Prelims:  Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World For Mains: General Studies I: Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020) 1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only. 2. Only some cyclones develop an eye. 3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10°C lesser than that of the surroundings. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 Only B. 2 and 3 Only C. 2 Only D. 1 and 3 Only Answer (C) 2.In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclones do not originate. What is the reason? (UPSC Prelims GS1, 2015) (a) Sea surface temperatures are low (b) Inter-tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs (c) Coriolis force is too weak (d) Absence of land in those regions Answer (a)   1.Tropical cyclones are largely confined to South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? (GS-1, 2014) 2.The recent cyclone on the east coast of India was called “Phailin”. How are the tropical cyclones named across the world? (GS-1, 2013)

Source: indianexpress

 

 

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

 

 

1. Context

India’s GDP grew at a six-quarter high of 8.2% in the second quarter (July-September) of the financial year 2025-26, buoyed by a relatively strong performance of the manufacturing and services sectors, official data showed.

 

2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

 

Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. It is often used as a measure of a country's economic health

GDP provides insight into the overall economic health of a nation and is often used for comparing the economic output of different countries.

There are three primary ways to calculate GDP:

1. Production Approach (GDP by Production): This approach calculates GDP by adding up the value-added at each stage of production. It involves summing up the value of all final goods and services produced in an economy.

2. Income Approach (GDP by Income): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the incomes earned in an economy, including wages, rents, interests, and profits. The idea is that all the income generated in an economy must ultimately be spent on purchasing goods and services.

3. Expenditure Approach (GDP by Expenditure): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the expenditures made on final goods and services. It includes consumption by households, investments by businesses, government spending, and net exports (exports minus imports).

3. Measuring GDP

GDP can be measured in three different ways:

1. Nominal GDP: This is the raw GDP figure without adjusting for inflation. It reflects the total value of goods and services produced at current prices.

2. Real GDP: Real GDP adjusts the nominal GDP for inflation, allowing for a more accurate comparison of economic performance over time. It represents the value of goods and services produced using constant prices from a specific base year.

3. GDP per capita: This is the GDP divided by the population of a country. It provides a per-person measure of economic output and can be useful for comparing the relative economic well-being of different countries.

The GDP growth rate is the percentage change in the GDP from one year to the next. A positive GDP growth rate indicates that the economy is growing, while a negative GDP growth rate indicates that the economy is shrinking

The GDP is a useful measure of economic health, but it has some limitations. For example, it does not take into account the distribution of income in an economy. It also does not take into account the quality of goods and services produced.

Despite its limitations, the GDP is a widely used measure of economic health. It is used by economists, policymakers, and businesses to track the performance of an economy and to make decisions about economic policy

4. Gross Value Added (GVA)

 

Gross Value Added (GVA) is a closely related concept to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is used to measure the economic value generated by various economic activities within a country. GVA represents the value of goods and services produced in an economy minus the value of inputs (such as raw materials and intermediate goods) used in production. It's a way to measure the contribution of each individual sector or industry to the overall economy.

GVA can be calculated using the production approach, similar to one of the methods used to calculate GDP. The formula for calculating GVA is as follows:

GVA = Output Value - Intermediate Consumption

Where:

• Output Value: The total value of goods and services produced by an industry or sector.
• Intermediate Consumption: The value of inputs used in the production process, including raw materials, energy, and other intermediate goods.

5. GDP vs GNP

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) are both important economic indicators used to measure the size and health of an economy, but they focus on slightly different aspects of economic activity and include different factors. Here are the key differences between GDP and GNP:

1. Definition and Scope:

   • GDP: GDP measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders, regardless of whether the production is done by domestic or foreign entities. It only considers economic activities that take place within the country.
   • GNP: GNP measures the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's residents, whether they are located within the country's borders or abroad. It takes into account the production of residents, both domestically and internationally.

2. Foreign Income and Payments:

   • GDP: GDP does not consider the income earned by residents of a country from their economic activities abroad, nor does it account for payments made to foreigners working within the country.
   • GNP: GNP includes the income earned by a country's residents from their investments and activities abroad, minus the income earned by foreign residents from their investments within the country.

3. Net Factor Income from Abroad:

   • GDP: GDP does not account for net factor income from abroad, which is the difference between income earned by domestic residents abroad and income earned by foreign residents domestically.
   • GNP: GNP includes net factor income from abroad as part of its calculation.

4. Foreign Direct Investment:

   • GDP: GDP does not directly consider foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into or out of a country.
   • GNP: GNP considers the impact of FDI on the income of a country's residents, both from investments made within the country and from investments made by residents abroad.

5. Measurement Approach:

   • GDP: GDP can be calculated using three different approaches: production, income, and expenditure approaches.
   • GNP: GNP is primarily calculated using the income approach, as it focuses on the income earned by residents from their economic activities.

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: GDP, GVA, FDI, GNP For Mains: 1.Discuss the recent trends and challenges in India's GDP growth 2.Examine the role of the service sector in India's GDP growth 3.Compare and contrast the growth trajectories of India's GDP and GNP

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.With reference to Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b) 2.A decrease in tax to GDP ratio of a country indicates which of the following? (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. Slowing economic growth rate 2. Less equitable distribution of national income Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a) Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC CSE GS3, 2020) Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE GS3, 2021)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

DELHI  AIR POLLUTION

 

1. Context

Each winter, as Delhi slips back into its familiar grey haze, India reaches for the same set of quick fixes, treating the pollution crisis as if it were temporary. Cloud seeding, smog towers, water sprinkling, odd-even rules, and festival crackdowns reappear in a predictable cycle. These are all high-visibility steps that promise urgency, but they change little on the ground (or in the air).

2.PIL on High Pollution level

• In March 1995, the Supreme Court, while hearing a plea by environmentalist and lawyer M.C. Mehta about Delhi’s polluting industries, noted that Delhi was the world’s fourth most polluted city in terms of concentration of suspended particulate matter (SPM) in the ambient atmosphere as per the World Health Organization’s 1989 report.
• The Court took note of two polluting factors — vehicles and industries, and in 1996 ordered the closure and relocation of over 1,300 highly-polluting industries from Delhi’s residential areas beyond the National Capital Region (NCR) in a phased manner.
•  In 1996, Mr. Mehta filed public interest litigation (PIL) alleging that vehicular emissions were leading to air pollution and that it posed a public health hazard. In the same year, a report about Delhi’s air pollution by the Centre for Science and Environment made the apex court issue a notice to the Delhi government to submit an action plan to curb pollution. Both matters were later merged

3.Perilous level of pollution in Delhi

• UrbanEmissions.Info re-analyzed the pan-India PM2.5 concentration from 1998 to 2020 and found that Delhi was the most polluted of all States/UTs each year through all 23 years. Delhi's annual PM2.5 levels increased by 40% from 80 g/ m3 to 111 g/m3.
•  Another study by the U.S. - based Health Effects Institute released this year, studying data between 2010 and 2019, also found Delhi to be the most polluted city in the world in terms of PM2.5 levels.
• In the winter of 2016, Delhi witnessed one of its worst incidents of pollution-induced smog, with PM2.5 and PM10 levels reaching a whopping 999 ug/m3 in parts of Delhi on November 1.

4.Measures are taken to Curb Pollution

4.1.Environmental Pollution Control Authority of Delhi NCR (EPCA)

The Supreme Court, recognizing the need for technical assistance and advice in decision-making and implementation of its orders, asked the Ministry of Environment and Forests (now the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change — MoEFCC) to establish an authority for Delhi, leading to the creation of the Environmental Pollution Control Authority of Delhi NCR (EPCA) in 1998

• The EPCA submitted its report containing a two-year action plan in June of that year and the Supreme Court subsequently ordered the Delhi Trasport Corporation (DTC) bus fleet, taxis, and autos to switch to Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), and the phasing out of all pre-1990 autos.
• Other measures between the late 1990s and early 2000s included the complete removal of leaded petrol, removal of 15 and 17-year-old commercial vehicles, and a cap of 55,000 on the number of two-stroke engine auto rickshaws (which reports at the time said were contributing to 80% of pollution in the city).
• Coal-based power plants within Delhi were also converted to gas-based ones.

4.2.National Air Quality Programme (NAMP)

The Centre decided to establish a network of monitoring stations under the National Air Quality Programme (NAMP) to measure key pollutants. Under the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) specified by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), pollutants like PM10 (particulate matter with a diameter exceeding 10 microns), sulphur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides were measured.

4.3.Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

 The Supreme Court in November 2016 told Delhi and NCR authorities to form a plan to deal with the air pollution, and the MoEFCC in early 2017 came out with the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP), which involved coordination between multiple agencies in Delhi to activate pollution control measures corresponding to the increasing Air Quality Index (AQI) levels.

 5.Revised standards of Air quality 

The NAAQS was revised in 2009 to include 12 categories of pollutants including PM2.5 (particulate matter with a diameter under 2.5 microns) — noxious pollutants which can penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, resulting in cardiovascular and respiratory impacts.

 Particulate Matter (PM) is primarily generated by fuel combustion from different sectors, including transport, energy, households, industry, and agriculture. According to the revised NAAQS, the acceptable annual limit for PM2.5 is 40 micrograms per cubic metre (ug/m3) and 60 ug/m3 for PM10. The renewed WHO standards meanwhile, prescribe an accepted annual average of 5 ug/m3 for PM2.5 and 15 ug/m3 for PM10. While PM2.5 as a pollutant was only included in 2009

6.Causes Behind High Pollution level in Delhi

6.1.Rapid growth in Delhi’s population: Population density grew from 9,340 persons per sq km in 2001 to 11,320 persons per sq km in 2011

 6.2.Industrialization : The Najafgarh drain basin, which houses multiple industrial areas, is the most polluted cluster in India with its air and water being in the ‘critical’ category

 6.3.Urbanization: Increase in motorized private vehicle fleets led to the high concentration of air pollutants such as particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and ozone. From around 4.2 million motor vehicles registered in 2004 in Delhi alone, the registered vehicles increased to around 10.9 million in March 2018

7.Loopholes And Solutions

7.1.Holistic Policy Approach

Multiple researchers have alleged that the policy approach and measures taken by the Central and State authorities for specific polluting sectors over the years have been fragmented and often reactive

7.2.Public Transport

Due to the Supreme Court’s 55,000 cap on two-stroke auto rickshaws, the sector could not grow, leading to black marketing of permits. Studies note that between 1997 and 2011, Delhi’s population grew by 45% and registered cars and two-wheelers grew by 250%, meaning the lower availability of autos could have likely contributed to increased private vehicle ownership. Besides, Delhi still does not have the required public bus fleet vis-a-vis demand

7.3.Odd Even Formulae On Freight Vehicles

Although vehicular emissions contribute 25% to Delhi’s PM2.5 levels, passenger vehicles contribute just 8%, of which cars constitute 5%. This means that if all passenger vehicles within Delhi stopped operating, PM2.5 levels would reduce by an average of 8%, but the remaining 17%, contributed by heavy freight vehicles, would remain as it is not covered under the odd-even rule. Experts also point out that a coordinated response factoring in Delhi’s waste management has to be taken to reduce air pollution.

7.4.Delhi Waste Management

While the daily waste generation rate in Delhi is over 10,000 tons, the capacity of its already overflowing landfills to collect and manage garbage is under 6,000 tons. This leads to the practice of burning waste around residential areas

7.5.Stubble Burning

Burning of farm residue or stubble in Delhi’s neighbouring States, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan, researchers have emphasized the need for airshed management, along with improved machinery subsidies from the government and alternatives to crop burning. An airshed is a common geographic area where pollutants get trapped

 

For Prelims: Environmental Pollution Control Authority of Delhi National Air Quality Programme, Graded Response Action Plan For Mains  1.What are the causes of high pollution level in Delhi .suggest measures to control it?

 

 

 

 

Source:The Hindu