• Climate finance entails substantial financial investments directed toward initiatives aimed at either mitigating or adapting to the impacts of climate change.
• In the context of adaptation, it involves proactively addressing the anticipated adverse effects of climate change and implementing measures to prevent or minimize potential damage.
• For instance, constructing infrastructure to safeguard coastal communities against rising sea levels is a tangible example of adaptation measures.
• Conversely, in the realm of mitigation, the focus is on curbing the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere, thereby lessening the severity of climate change impacts.
• Mitigation efforts encompass strategies such as increasing the utilization of renewable energy sources, expanding forest cover, and other measures designed to reduce overall GHG emissions.

Developing nations demand climate finance for several reasons:

• Developed nations have historically emitted far more greenhouse gases than developing nations. Since the Industrial Revolution, the Global North has emitted a disproportionate share of the greenhouse gases that are now causing climate change. While developing nations are now rapidly increasing their emissions, the historical responsibility for the problem lies primarily with developed countries.
• Developing countries are disproportionately vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and changes in agricultural productivity. They often lack the resources to adapt to these changes and build resilience.
• Developing countries have limited financial resources to invest in clean energy technologies and other climate solutions. They need financial assistance from developed countries to bridge the gap and make these investments.
• The principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) is enshrined in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. This principle recognizes that all countries have a responsibility to address climate change, but that developed countries have a greater responsibility due to their historical emissions and greater financial capacity.
• Many argue that developed countries have a moral obligation to help developing countries address climate change, as they are the ones who are most vulnerable to its impacts and have the least responsibility for causing the problem.

International Agreements

The demand for climate finance is backed by international agreements, including:

• The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) agreement established the principle of CBDR and required developed countries to provide financial assistance to developing countries.
• 2009 Copenhagen Accord Developed countries committed to providing $100 billion per year by 2020 to developing countries.
• The 2015 Paris Agreement reaffirmed the commitment to provide $100 billion per year by 2020 and extended it to 2025.

• As of 2021, the UNFCCC standing committee's analysis suggests that developing countries require a minimum of $5.8 trillion by 2030 to fulfil the objectives outlined in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
• These contributions serve as a framework for their initiatives to both reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
• This translates to an annual need of around $600 billion, a figure significantly below the commitments made by developed nations.
• Complicating matters further, a report from the London School of Economics notes that the lack of available data, tools, and capacity in several countries may result in underestimations of these financial needs.
• Additionally, the UNFCCC estimate does not encompass the substantial expenses incurred by governments to address the impacts of extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and wildfires attributed to climate change.
• These costs are now being considered separately under the funding mechanism for loss and damage, announced by countries at COP27 in 2022 and officially launched during COP28. However, the scale and replenishment cycle of this mechanism remains unclear.
• In a report from 2022, Nicholas Stern, a prominent climate economist, estimated that an annual investment of approximately $2 trillion will be necessary by 2030 to assist developing countries in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions and coping with the consequences of climate breakdown.

Different organizations provide contrasting figures on the amount of climate finance reaching developing countries.

• The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), largely composed of wealthy nations, reported $83.3 billion provided in 2020.
• Oxfam challenges the data, accusing developed countries of inflating their contributions by as much as 225%. Their estimate places the real value of climate finance provided in 2020 at $21-24.5 billion.
• Developed countries are criticized for offering much of the funding as non-concessional loans, adding to debt burdens in developing nations.
• A study by CARE International revealed that 52% of climate finance between 2011-2020 was diverted from existing development budgets, including critical areas like health, education, and women's rights.

Concerns and implications

• The discrepancy in reported figures raises questions about transparency and accountability in climate finance.
• The prevalence of non-concessional loans increases debt burdens and limits the effectiveness of climate finance in developing countries.
• Diverting funds from essential development priorities can exacerbate existing challenges in developing nations.

6. The Way Forward

The question of how much climate finance reaches developing countries remains contested. Deeper scrutiny and transparency are needed to ensure effective resource allocation and support meaningful climate action in vulnerable nations while safeguarding their development priorities.

RIGHT TO PRIVACY

The right to privacy is a fundamental human right and legal concept that protects individuals from unwarranted intrusion into their personal lives, affairs, or information. It encompasses several key aspects:

• Personal information: Protection of an individual's personal data and control over how it's collected, used, and shared.
• Physical privacy: The right to have personal space free from intrusion, such as in one's home or private property.
• Communication privacy: Protection of personal communications, including phone calls, emails, and other forms of correspondence.
• Bodily privacy: The right to make decisions about one's own body and medical treatments without interference.
• Territorial privacy: Freedom from surveillance in public and private spaces.
• Information privacy: Control over the collection, use, and dissemination of personal information.

The right to privacy is recognized in various international human rights documents, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and is enshrined in many national constitutions and laws. However, the extent and interpretation of privacy rights can vary between jurisdictions

3. What are the constitutional provisions related to the Right to Privacy?

The Right to Privacy, while not explicitly mentioned in many constitutions, is often derived from broader fundamental rights and principles. In India, the Right to Privacy has been recognized through judicial interpretation and is now considered a fundamental right.

Article	Provision	Explanation
Article 21	Right to Life and Personal Liberty	States that "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law." The Supreme Court in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) vs. Union of India (2017) held that the Right to Privacy is an intrinsic part of the Right to Life and Personal Liberty under Article 21
Article 19(1)(a)	Freedom of Speech and Expression	Guarantees the freedom of speech and expression. Privacy is linked to this right as it is essential for the effective exercise of this freedom.
Article 19(1)(d)	Freedom of Movement	Guarantees the right to move freely throughout the territory of India. Privacy is essential for the exercise of this right, ensuring individuals can move without unwarranted intrusion.
Article 14	Right to Equality	Guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the laws. The Right to Privacy is seen as necessary to protect the dignity and autonomy of individuals, which are essential aspects of equality.

 

 

Judicial Interpretations and Their Contributions:

 

Case	Year	Contribution
Kharak Singh vs. State of Uttar Pradesh	1963	The Supreme Court first recognized the concept of privacy, though it did not explicitly declare it a fundamental right
Gobind vs. State of Madhya Pradesh	1975	The Court acknowledged that the right to privacy is a part of personal liberty under Article 21, though it was not given definitive recognition
Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) vs. Union of India	2017	The Supreme Court unanimously declared that the Right to Privacy is a fundamental right, protected under Articles 14, 19, and 21 of the Constitution. This judgment overruled previous contradictory rulings and firmly established privacy as a fundamental right

 

 

4.Way Forward

While the fundamental principles of granting bail—ensuring the accused’s presence during trial and preventing tampering with evidence—remain the same, foreigners typically face stricter bail conditions due to higher perceived flight risks and complexities in legal jurisdictions. The court aims to balance these factors while ensuring justice and fair treatment

 

 

 

For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance For Mains: GS-II: Polity, Constitution

 

Previous Year Questions 1.‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India? (UPSC CSE 2021) (a) Article 15 (b) Article 19 (c) Article 21 (d) Article 29 Answer (c) The Right to Privacy in India is protected under Article 21 of the Constitution of India. This was explicitly established by the landmark judgment of the Supreme Court of India in the case of Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India in 2017 Mains 1.Examine the scope of Fundamental Rights in the light of the latest judgement of the Supreme Court on the Right to Privacy. (UPSC CSE 2017)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

PROJECT CHEETAH

 

1. Context

Botswana Wednesday formally announced the translocation of eight cheetahs to India amid President Droupadi Murmu’s state visit

2. Why was Project Cheetah launched?

• India's cheetah relocation program is perhaps among the most ambitious of its kind in the world.
• The attempt is to, over the next decade, bring in five to 10 animals every year until a self-sustaining population of about 35 is established.
• Unlike, cheetahs in South Africa and Namibia, which live in fenced reserves, India's plan is to have them grown in natural, unfenced, wild conditions.
• At Kuno, only six of the 17 adults are in the wild with the rest lodged in large, specially designed enclosures to help the animals acclimatize to Indian conditions.
• The plan is to release all the animals into the open by the yearend. The animals are radio-collared and tracked 24/7. 

3. How do cheetahs die?

• The South African study also documented the causes of mortality, where it could be established, for 293 cheetah deaths.
• It found that holding camps caused 6.5% of cheetah deaths, immobilization/ transit caused 7.5% of deaths, and another 0.7% were caused by tracking devices. This added up to almost 15%  so, one in every seven cheetah deaths was attributed to handling and management.
• Predation turned out to be the biggest killer in the study, accounting for 53.2% of cheetah mortality. Lions, leopards, hyenas, and jackals were primarily responsible. Several other wildlife including warthogs, baboons, snakes, elephants, crocodiles, vultures, zebras, and even ostriches killed cheetahs.
• It is well documented that cheetahs suffer very high cub mortality up to 90% in protected areas mainly due to predation. Consequently, nearly 80% of all cheetahs throughout their range in Africa are found living outside of protected parks and reserves.

4. Were these unfortunate cheetah deaths unexpected?

• The Cheetah Project did anticipate high mortality. The criteria for the project’s short-term success was only “50% survival of the introduced cheetah for the first year”. That would be 10 out of 20.
• As a result, the Madhya Pradesh government set a six-month deadline for readying Gandhisagar in the Chambal river valley in Mandsaur and Nimach districts for the cheetahs. There is also talk about moving a few animals from Kuno to the safety of an 80-sq-km fenced area in Rajasthan’s Mukundra Hills Tiger Reserve.
• The focus, therefore, is shifting from the project’s stated purpose that of establishing the cheetah in an open landscape as a free-roaming and self-sustaining population occupying thousands of square miles to managing the African imports as a few pocket populations in fenced-in or restricted areas.

5. How successful has Project Cheetah been so far?

• In September 2023, it will be one year since a batch of eight cheetahs from Namibia arrived in India.
• They were followed by 12 others from South Africa in February 2023. The official Cheetah Action Plan, the guiding document behind the project, observes that even half the cheetahs surviving the first year would be “an indicator of success”.
• Independent critics have, however, argued that there are some basic flaws in the project. For one, it is a mistake to have had all 20 cheetahs at Kuno as there is too little space and prey, given that the animal is a courser and needs larger fields of play.
• Some animals should have gone to the Mukundara reserve in Rajasthan. Forest officials in Madhya Pradesh have also admitted that they are stretched.
• However, the officials in the National Tiger Conservation Authority, the nodal agency of the Environment Ministry tasked with coordinating the project, say that Kuno is capable of hosting the first lot of animals and future batches will be sent to other reserves.
• The experience of raising cheetahs in fenced reserves in Africa can’t be replicated in India, say, experts, because India’s cultural values promote coexistence with beasts, and that underpinned the success of tiger, lion, and leopard conservation programs.

For Prelims: Kuno National Park, National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), Project Cheetah, Chambal river valley, and South Africa.

Previous year Question

1. Recently there was a proposal to translocate some of the lions from their natural habitat in Gujarat to which one of the following sites? (UPSC 2017) A. Corbett National Park B. Kuno Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary C. Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary D. Sariska National Park Answer: B 2.Consider the following: (2012) Black-necked crane Cheetah Flying squirrel Snow leopard Which of the above are naturally found in India? (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer (b) Black-necked crane - Naturally found in India, especially in the northern regions such as Ladakh. Cheetah - Historically present in India but is currently extinct in the wild. Flying squirrel - Naturally found in India, particularly in forests. Snow leopard - Found in the high-altitude regions of the Himalayas in India. Thus, the species that are currently naturally found in India are the Black-necked crane, Flying squirrel, and Snow leopard

Source: The Hindu

 

 

RARE EARTH ELEMENTS

 

 

1.Context

 

China may have agreed to pause for one year its sweeping export controls on rare earths, but this hiatus offers only partial relief to global rare-earths users after a tumultuous few months. It is being seen more as a window of opportunity to restrategise, till China weaponises trade in these elements again..

 

2.About rare earth metals

 

Rare earth elements or rare earth metals are a set of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table  the 15 lanthanides, plus scandium and yttrium, which tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides, and have similar chemical properties

 

The 17 rare earths are cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and yttrium (Y)

 

Despite their classification, most of these elements are not really “rare”. One of the rare earths, promethium, is radioactive

Source:Thermo Fisher Scientific

 

 

3.Applications of rare earths

• These elements are important in technologies of consumer electronics, computers and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, healthcare, environmental mitigation, and national defence, among others
• Scandium is used in televisions and fluorescent lamps, and yttrium is used in drugs to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cancer
•  Rare earth elements are used in space shuttle components, jet engine turbines, and drones
• Cerium, the most abundant rare earth element, is essential to NASA’s Space Shuttle Programme
• In recent years, rare earths have become even more important because there has been an increase in demand for green energy
• Elements like neodymium and dysprosium, which are used in wind turbine motors, are sought-after more than ever as wind mills across the world continue to grow
• Moreover, the push for switching from internal combustion cars to electric vehicles has also led to a rise in demand for rare earth magnets made from neodymium, boron, and iron and batteries

 

 4. China's export restrictions and impact on India

 

• China has imposed restrictions on the export of seven rare earth elements (REEs) — dysprosium, gadolinium, lutetium, samarium, scandium, terbium, and yttrium — which are part of the 17 REEs.
• The country dominates the global refining of heavy REEs, giving it substantial control over critical supply chains, ranging from consumer electronics to defense. Although these measures do not constitute a complete export ban, they may cause temporary supply disruptions, as exporters navigate the permit process.
• India may not face an immediate disruption due to these restrictions. Despite government efforts to enhance domestic manufacturing of semiconductors and defense systems, the more sophisticated phases of production largely take place abroad, particularly in China and Japan. Japan, in anticipation of such issues, has already built stockpiles to buffer against REE-related supply shocks.
• Recognizing the strategic importance of REEs, India is aware that it holds around 6% of global deposits. However, the country’s capacity for mining and refining is minimal, largely due to the environmental challenges associated with such operations.
• India does extract some light REEs through its state-run firm, Indian Rare Earths Ltd, including monazite from coastal sands in Kerala. Nonetheless, imports still play a role.
• According to a recent statement by the Ministry of Mines in the Lok Sabha, India imported approximately 2,270 tonnes of REEs in 2023–24. Consequently, the national approach involves a mix of increasing domestic output and maintaining import channels

 

5. Way Forward

 

To support the strategic use of essential resources such as rare earth elements, India has launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM). This initiative aims to strengthen the country’s supply chain for critical minerals by boosting domestic production and establishing alternative international supply partnerships. According to a presentation by the Ministry of Mines in January, global events like China’s export restrictions, the Russia–Ukraine conflict, and other geopolitical factors have exposed vulnerabilities in the global critical mineral supply, underscoring the urgency of diversifying sources.

As part of the NCMM, the Indian government plans to oversee or support around 1,200 mineral exploration projects. It also intends to offer exploration licenses to encourage private sector participation and conduct auctions for additional critical mineral blocks

 

 

For Prelims: Applications of rare earths, rare earth elements For Mains: 1.Europe’s largest known deposit of rare earth elements found in Sweden: Could the discovery change geopolitics?

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called ‘rare earth metals’. Why? (2012) China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (c)

 

Source:indianexpress

 

 

GRADED RESPONSE ACTION PLAN(GRAP)

 

1.Context

Delhi’s festive season means many things: Lights, joy, sweets, and, of course, our most devoted seasonal visitor — pollution. The capital is now enveloped in a poisonous blanket that is thicker than the fog, even before the winter has properly come. In this gas chamber, suffocation and celebration coexist

2.What is a Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP)

In 2014, when a study by the WHO found that Delhi was the most polluted city in the world, panic spread in the center and the state government. Approved by the supreme court in 2016, the plan was formulated after several meetings that the Environmental Pollution (Prevention and Control) Authority (EPCA) held with state government representatives and experts. The result was a plan that institutionalized measures to be taken when air quality deteriorates.

The plan was notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forests & Climate change in 2017.

GRAP works only as an emergency measure.

 

It institutionalized measures to be taken when air quality deteriorates.

1. The plan is incremental- therefore, when the air quality moves from 'poor' to 'very poor, the measures listed under both sections have to be followed.

2. It prevents PM10 and PM2.5 levels from going beyond the 'moderate' national AQI category.

 

Authorities from both Haryana and UP had informed EPCA at the time that they would put in the required measures by winter 2020 for the supply of electricity from the grid.

3.Has GRAP Helped?

• The biggest success of GRAP has been in fixing accountability and deadlines.
• For each action to be taken under a particular air quality category, executing agencies are marked.
• In a territory like Delhi, where a multiplicity of authorities has been a long-standing impediment to effective governance, this step made a crucial difference.

4.Measures that are taken in other states

• one criticism of the EPCA, as well as GRAP, has been the focus on Delhi. While other states have managed to delay several measures, citing a lack of resources, Delhi has always been the first to have stringent measures enforced.
• When the air quality shifts from poor to very poor, the measures listed under both sections have to be followed since the plan is incremental in naturality reaches the severe+ stage, GRAP talks about shutting down schools and implementing the odd-even road-space rationing scheme. 

5.Actions under GRAP

Severe+ or Emergency	(PM 2.5 OVER 300 300 µg/cubic metre or PM10 over 500µg/cu. m. for 48+ hours) Stop construction work. Stop entry of trucks into Delhi. Introduce odd/even schemes for private vehicles and minimize exemptions. Taskforce to decide any additional steps including shutting schools to stop.
Severe	(PM 2.5 OVER 250µg/cu. m. or PM10 over 430 µg/cu. m. ) Maximize power generation from natural gas to reduce generation from coal. Close brick kilns, hot mix plants, and stone crushers. More frequent mechanized cleaning of roads and sprinkling of water.
Very Poor	(PM2.5 121-250 µg/cu. m. or PM10 351-430 µg/cu.m. ) Increase bus and metro services. Stop the use of diesel generator sets. Enhance parking fee by 3-4 times. Apartment owners discourage burning fires in winter by providing electric heaters during winter. Advisories to people with respiratory and cardiac conditions to restrict outdoor movement.
Moderate to Poor	(PM2.5 61-120 µg/cu. m. or PM10 101-350 µg/cu. m.) Close/enforce pollution control regulations in brick kilns and industries. Heavy fines for garbage burning. Mechanized sweeping on roads with heavy traffic and water sprinkling.

 

6. The Air Quality Index (AQI)

• The AQI is a colour-coded index launched under the Swachh Bharat campaign to simplify the understanding of pollution levels.
• It helps convey the condition of the air and guides appropriate measures based on the severity of pollution.
• The AQI consists of six categories, each with a corresponding colour code: 'Good' (0-50), 'Satisfactory' (51-100), 'Moderately Polluted' (101-200), 'Poor' (201-300), 'Very Poor' (301-400) and 'Severe' (401-500).

 

7. Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM)

 

• The Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM) was established by the Government of India in October 2020 to address the persistent and severe problem of air pollution in the National Capital Region (NCR) and adjoining states.
• It was later given statutory backing through the Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas Act, 2021. The Commission functions under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
• The CAQM was created in response to the recurring air pollution crisis in Delhi and surrounding areas, which often see hazardous air quality levels, especially during the winter months.
• The problem is aggravated by factors such as stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana, industrial and vehicular emissions, and construction dust. Earlier, multiple agencies such as the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), state pollution control boards, and environment departments operated independently, leading to poor coordination and weak enforcement. The CAQM was envisioned as a centralized, permanent body to unify and coordinate efforts across states.
• The Commission’s jurisdiction extends to Delhi, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, covering areas adjoining the NCR. It is headed by a Chairperson appointed by the Central Government—typically a former Secretary to the Government of India or a Chief Secretary of a state.
• The body includes representatives from central ministries, state governments, the CPCB, ISRO, and NITI Aayog, along with experts in environmental science and pollution control.
• The CAQM is responsible for monitoring, coordinating, and implementing air quality management plans across its jurisdiction. It formulates policies to prevent and control air pollution, enforces existing environmental laws, and ensures that central, state, and local authorities act in a coordinated manner.
• The Commission also plays a critical role in tackling stubble burning, a major seasonal contributor to pollution in northern India. It has the authority to issue directions to central, state, and local authorities, and its orders override those of other agencies within its jurisdiction. Moreover, the Commission possesses powers of a civil court, enabling it to summon individuals, demand documents, and take punitive actions against violators.
• The establishment of CAQM marks an important step in India’s environmental governance. By creating a single authority with comprehensive powers, the government sought to move away from fragmented approaches and ensure consistent, region-wide enforcement.
• However, despite its potential, the Commission faces challenges such as jurisdictional overlaps, limited manpower, and the lack of strong enforcement mechanisms at the local level. Successful functioning of CAQM ultimately depends on the cooperation of states, technological monitoring, and public awareness

 

 

For Prelims and Mains

For Prelims: Graded Response Action Plan, National Capital Region (NCR),Environmental pollution(prevention control)Authority (EPCA). For Mains: 1. What is GRAP? What is the Delhi-NCR action plan as air pollution increases? (250 words).

 

Previous Year Questions   1.In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of the Air Quality Index? (2016) Carbon dioxide  Carbon monoxide  Nitrogen dioxide  Sulfur dioxide  Methane  Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only  (b) 2, 3 and 4 only  (c) 1, 4 and 5 only  (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer (b)

SOURCE: The Indian Express

 

 

TROPICAL FORESTS

 

1. Context

In a bid to conserve the world’s tropical forests, a new fund was launched at a high-level event last week on the sidelines of the COP30 climate summit in Belém, Brazil. Known as the Tropical Forest Forever Facility (TFFF), the fund aims to raise and invest $125 billion, channeling returns to developing countries that conserve their forests.

2. Tropical Forests

• Tropical forests are diverse and complex ecosystems found in the equatorial regions of the world.
• They encompass a vast array of plant and animal species, making them one of the most biodiverse habitats on Earth.
• These forests play a crucial role in maintaining the planet's ecological balance, offering various ecological, environmental, and socio-economic benefits.

3. Characteristics

• Tropical forests are characterized by their high species richness, dense vegetation, and year-round warmth.
• They consist of several layers, including the emergent layer (tallest trees), canopy layer (dense foliage), understory layer (young trees and shrubs), and forest floor (decaying organic matter).
• The constant warmth and ample rainfall in tropical regions contribute to rapid growth and high levels of biological productivity.
• Tropical forests are biodiversity hotspots, housing an estimated 50-80% of the world's terrestrial species.
• This incredible diversity supports complex food webs and ecological interactions. From insects to mammals, birds to amphibians, these forests provide habitat for countless organisms, many of which are endemic and found nowhere else on the planet.

4. Carbon Reservoirs

• Tropical forests also play a critical role in global carbon cycling. The dense vegetation in these forests stores vast amounts of carbon, helping regulate atmospheric carbon dioxide levels and mitigate climate change.
• Through photosynthesis, trees absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen, contributing to the planet's oxygen supply.
• These forests provide a multitude of ecosystem services. They regulate local and global climates, influence rainfall patterns, prevent soil erosion, and support water purification.
• They also offer cultural and economic value to indigenous communities and host ecotourism activities, contributing to livelihoods.

5. Threats and Conservation

• Despite their significance, tropical forests face numerous threats. Deforestation for agriculture, logging, mining, and urbanization has led to habitat loss and fragmentation.
• This threatens the survival of many species and disrupts ecosystem functions. Climate change poses additional challenges, including rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns.
• Conservation efforts aim to mitigate these threats and preserve the unique biodiversity and ecological functions of tropical forests.
• Protected areas, sustainable logging practices, reforestation, and international agreements such as the Paris Agreement on climate change are crucial steps in ensuring the survival of these vital ecosystems.

6. Critical Temperature and Future of Tropical Forests

Estimation and Uncertainty:

• About 0.01% of leaves exceed critical temperature, but uncertainties persist in defining critical temperatures for tropical trees.
• Modelling indicates tropical forests can tolerate up to a 3.9°C temperature increase before potential tipping point.

Need for Action:

• Protection measures required to safeguard tropical forests from climate change impact.
• Uncertainties about critical temperature plasticity and leaf death's effect on tree death might alter predictions.

Climate Change Scenarios:

• 4°C temperature estimate aligns with the worst-case climate change scenario for tropical forests.
• Choices remain to determine the fate of these vital areas of carbon, water, and biodiversity.

Resilience and Thresholds:

• Previous studies show tropical forests' resilience to warming and drought effects on carbon uptake.
• Critical temperature functions as an upper limit, suggesting crossing the threshold is plausible within worst-case climate scenarios.

7. Impact of Deforestation and Climate Change on Tropical Forests

• Local Temperature Changes: Deforestation and fragmentation intensify temperature shifts alongside global warming.
• Critical Threshold Concern: The synergy of climate change and local deforestation might be pushing the hottest tropical forest areas close to or over the critical thermal threshold.
• Mitigation and Deforestation Reduction: Combining robust climate change mitigation efforts with decreased deforestation can safeguard vital carbon, water, and biodiversity domains from surpassing thermal critical limits.
• Importance of Tropical Forests: Tropical forests play a central role as carbon reservoirs and homes for global biodiversity.
• Sensitivity to Warming: These ecosystems are particularly sensitive to rising temperatures.
• Critical Temperature: A critical temperature around 46.7°C marks the point where photosynthetic processes in tropical trees begin to fail.
• Uncertain Leaf Temperatures: It's uncertain if the leaf temperatures experienced by tropical vegetation are approaching or will soon reach this threshold due to climate change.

8. Photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is a fundamental biological process that sustains life on Earth by capturing light energy from the sun and converting it into chemical energy stored in the form of glucose and other organic molecules.
• This process takes place in the chloroplasts of plant cells and is critical for providing oxygen, food, and energy to both plants and the organisms that consume them.

Process Overview

Photosynthesis involves several complex steps that occur in two main stages: the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions (also known as the Calvin cycle).

• Light-Dependent Reactions: These reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts. Chlorophyll and other pigments absorb light energy, which is then used to split water molecules into oxygen and protons. Oxygen is released as a byproduct, while the protons are used to generate a proton gradient that powers the synthesis of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), energy-rich molecules.
• Calvin Cycle (Light-Independent Reactions): Taking place in the stroma of chloroplasts, the Calvin cycle uses the ATP and NADPH generated in the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into glucose. This cycle involves a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that produce simple sugars and other organic compounds.

Importance

Photosynthesis is crucial for various reasons:

• Energy Source: It is the foundation of the food chain, as plants, algae, and some bacteria produce organic molecules that are consumed by herbivores and then passed up the trophic levels.
• Oxygen Production: Oxygen, released as a byproduct of photosynthesis, is essential for the respiration of organisms, including humans.
• Carbon Dioxide Regulation: Photosynthesis helps regulate atmospheric carbon dioxide levels by removing this greenhouse gas from the air and converting it into organic compounds.
• Energy Storage: Glucose and other organic molecules produced through photosynthesis store energy that can be used by plants for growth, reproduction, and other metabolic processes.

For Prelims: Tropical forests, carbon cycling, climate change, Paris Agreement on climate change, Photosynthesis, chloroplasts of plant cells, ATP (adenosine triphosphate), NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), and Calvin Cycle. For Mains: 1. Examine the significance of tropical forests as biodiversity hotspots and carbon reservoirs. Discuss the threats faced by these vital ecosystems, including deforestation, climate change, and habitat fragmentation. (250 words).

 

 

Previous year Question 1. Which of the following statements about tropical rainforests are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2021) 1. The soils of tropical rainforests are quite infertile. 2. The vegetation is evergreen, enabling photosynthesis to take place year around. 3. They have been described as 'deserts covered by trees'. 4. They are the most productive land-based ecosystem. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 2 and 4 only B. 1, 3, and 4 only C. 1, 2, and 3 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: D   2. "If rainforests and tropical forests are the lungs of the Earth, then surely wetlands function as its kidneys." Which one of the following functions of wetlands best reflects the above statement? (UPSC 2022) A. The water cycle in wetlands involves surface runoff, subsoil percolation, and evaporation. B. Algae form the nutrient base upon which fish, crustaceans, molluscs, birds, reptiles, and mammals thrive. C. Wetlands play a vital role in maintaining sedimentation balance and soil stabilization. D. Aquatic plants absorb heavy metals and excess nutrients. Answer: D   3. If the tropical rainforest is removed, it does not regenerate quickly as compared to the tropical deciduous forest. This is because (UPSC 2011) A. The soil of rain forest is deficient in nutrients. B. propagules of the trees in the rainforest have poor viability. C. The rainforest species are slow-growing. D. exotic species invades the fertile soil of rain forest. Answer: A   4. Consider the following States: 1. Arunachal Pradesh 2. Himachal Pradesh 3. Mizoram In which of the above States do 'Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests' occur? (UPSC 2015) A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: C

 Source: The Hindu

 

NON COMMUNICABLE DISEASES

 

1. Context

India has one of the highest burdens of Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) globally, with over 100 million people living with diabetes and another 136 million classified as pre-diabetic. Despite this, most diagnoses still rely on conventional tools and tests which often detect the disease only after significant damage has occurred. A new study published in the Journal of Proteome Research by researchers from IIT Bombay, Osmania Medical College, and Clarity Bio Systems suggests that tiny molecules in blood, known as metabolites, could serve as early warning signals for diabetes and its complications, particularly kidney disease

2. Non-Communicable Diseases

• Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are chronic medical conditions that are not caused by infectious agents and cannot be transmitted from person to person. These diseases typically have a long duration and progress slowly over time.
• NCDs are also referred to as chronic diseases and are often characterized by complex and multifactorial causes, including genetic, lifestyle, environmental, and behavioral factors.
• NCDs are a major global health concern, accounting for a significant proportion of morbidity, disability, and premature mortality worldwide.
• They impose a substantial burden on individuals, families, healthcare systems, and economies. Risk factors for NCDs include unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, tobacco use, harmful use of alcohol, and environmental factors such as air pollution.
• Prevention and control strategies for non-communicable diseases involve a combination of health promotion, early detection, access to quality healthcare services, lifestyle modifications, and effective management of existing conditions.
• Public health interventions aim to reduce NCD risk factors and promote healthy behaviors to mitigate the impact of these diseases on individuals and populations.

3. Findings of the Study on Non-communicable Diseases in India

• Diabetes and Prediabetes: India has 101 million people with diabetes and 136 million with prediabetes.
• High Blood Pressure: 315 million people in India were found to have high blood pressure.
• Obesity: Generalized Obesity: 254 million individuals in India were classified as obese. Abdominal Obesity: 351 million people in India had abdominal obesity.
• Hypercholesterolemia and High LDL Cholesterol: Hypercholesterolemia: 213 million individuals in India had high cholesterol levels. High LDL Cholesterol: 185 million people had elevated low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol.
• Study Details: The study was funded by the Indian Council of Medical Research and the Department of Health Research, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare. The Madras Diabetes Research Foundation coordinated the decade-long nationwide study. The findings of the study will be published in The Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology journal.

4. Significance of the Study on Non-communicable Diseases in India

• Comprehensive Epidemiological Research: The study is the first comprehensive epidemiological research paper on non-communicable diseases in India. It includes participants from 31 states and some Union Territories, with a large sample size of 1,13,043 individuals.
• Increased Prevalence of NDCs: The study reveals that diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and dyslipidemia are more common in India than previously estimated. It highlights the urgent need for preventive measures and healthcare interventions to address the high prevalence of these diseases.
• Rural Diabetes Explosion: While urban areas currently have higher rates of metabolic NCDs, except for prediabetes, the study warns of an upcoming diabetes explosion in rural India if left unregulated.
• Inter-regional Variations: The study identifies variations in disease prevalence among different states and regions. Goa, Puducherry, and Kerala have the highest diabetes prevalence, while Sikkim has a high prevalence of Prediabetes, and Punjab has the highest hypertension rates.
• Implications for Policy: The findings highlight the need for state-specific policies and interventions to address the rising epidemic of metabolic NCDs in India. Urgent actions are required to stabilize diabetes rates in developed states and control the increasing prevalence in other regions.
• Study Details: The research used a cross-sectional, population-based survey of adults aged above 20 years. The study employed a stratified, multistage sampling design and is titled "Metabolic non-communicable health report of India- the ICMR-INDIAB National Cross-sectional Study.

5. Impact of Rising NCDs in India:

• Increased Burden of Diabetics and Hypertensive Individuals: Over the past four years, India has experienced a significant increase in the number of people affected by diabetes and hypertension. Generalized and abdominal obesity are contributing factors to this growing burden.
• Warning Signs for Future Health Issues: The study serves as an early warning, highlighting that if left uncontrolled, this population is at high risk of developing non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and life-altering medical conditions, including strokes.
• Dual Problem of Malnutrition and Obesity: Experts explain that India faces a dual problem of malnutrition and obesity. Although surplus food is available, factors such as exposure to fast food, lack of sleep, inadequate exercise, and increased stress contribute to the perfect environment for NCDs to thrive.

6. Addressing the Rising NCDs

• The solution to combating NCDs lies in adopting a wellness approach and embracing a lifestyle that includes a healthy diet and regular exercise.
• The Health Ministry recognizes four major NCDs Cardiovascular diseases, cancers, chronic respiratory diseases, and diabetes.
• These diseases share common behavioral risk factors, including unhealthy diet, lack of physical activity, and tobacco and alcohol use.
• The Health Ministry has implemented Programs to strengthen health infrastructure and develop human resources.
• Health-promotion initiatives and awareness campaigns focus on prevention, early diagnosis, and ensuring appropriate referrals for NCDs.

For Prelims: Non-Communicable Diseases, Diabetes, and Prediabetes, Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and ICMR. For Mains: 1. Explain the significance of the study on metabolic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in India and their implications for public health policies. (250 Words).

 Source: The Hindu