The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) is an Indian law that was enacted in 1967 to effectively prevent unlawful activities that pose a threat to the sovereignty and integrity of India.

Key highlights of the UAPA

• Objective: The primary objective of the UAPA is to provide law enforcement agencies with effective tools to combat terrorism and other activities that threaten the security of the nation.
• Definition of Unlawful Activities: The act defines unlawful activities to include actions that intend to or support the cession of a part of the territory of India or disrupt the sovereignty and integrity of the country.
• Powers of Designation: The government has the authority to designate an organization as a terrorist organization if it believes that such an organization is involved in terrorism. This designation has significant legal consequences, including the freezing of assets.
• Powers of Arrest and Detention: The UAPA provides law enforcement agencies with powers of arrest and detention to prevent individuals from engaging in unlawful activities. The act allows for preventive detention to curb potential threats before they materialise.
• Banning of Terrorist Organizations: The government can proscribe organizations as terrorist organizations, making their activities illegal. This includes banning these organisations, freezing their assets, and taking other measures to curb their operations.
• Admissibility of Confessions: The UAPA allows for confessions made to police officers to be admissible in court, subject to certain safeguards. This provision has been a point of contention, with concerns about potential misuse and coercion.
• Designation of Individuals as Terrorists: In addition to organizations, the UAPA allows the government to designate individuals as terrorists. This designation carries legal consequences, including restrictions on travel and freezing of assets.
• Amendments and Stringency: Over the years, the UAPA has undergone several amendments to strengthen its provisions and make it more effective in dealing with emerging threats. However, these amendments have also been criticized for potential violations of civil liberties.
• International Cooperation: The UAPA allows for cooperation with foreign countries in matters related to the prevention of unlawful activities. This includes extradition of individuals involved in such activities.

3. Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Human Rights

The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and human rights lie in the impact the act can have on various fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India and international human rights standards.

The key points connecting the UAPA and human rights:

• The UAPA allows for preventive detention, which means individuals can be detained without formal charges based on suspicions of involvement in unlawful activities. This raises concerns about the right to liberty, as individuals may be deprived of their freedom without the presumption of innocence until proven guilty.
• The admissibility of confessions made to police officers under the UAPA raises issues related to the right against self-incrimination. There is a risk that such confessions might be obtained under duress or coercion, compromising the fairness of legal proceedings.
• Designating individuals as terrorists and proscribing organizations without due process may impinge on the right to a fair trial. This includes the right to be informed of charges, the right to legal representation, and the right to present a defense.
• The UAPA provides authorities with the power to proscribe organizations as terrorist organizations, limiting their activities. Critics argue that this may infringe upon the right to freedom of association, particularly when such designations are made without sufficient evidence or proper legal procedures.
• The potential for misuse of the UAPA to target individuals or organizations critical of the government raises concerns about freedom of expression. If the act is used to suppress dissent or stifle legitimate political or social activities, it can undermine this fundamental right.
• The UAPA grants authorities the power to intercept communications and conduct surveillance on individuals suspected of engaging in unlawful activities. This raises concerns about the right to privacy, as individuals may be subjected to intrusive surveillance without adequate safeguards.
• Human rights standards require that any restrictions on rights, such as those imposed by the UAPA, must be proportionate and necessary for achieving a legitimate aim. Critics argue that the broad scope of the UAPA may lead to disproportionate measures that unduly restrict individual rights.
• The UAPA's compatibility with international human rights standards, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), is a critical point of consideration. Ensuring that the act aligns with these standards is essential to upholding human rights principles.

4. Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Article 22 of the Constitution

The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Article 22 of the Indian Constitution lie in how the UAPA's provisions for arrest and detention intersect with the constitutional safeguards provided under Article 22. 

• Article 22 provides certain protections to individuals who are arrested or detained. It outlines the rights of arrested individuals, emphasizing safeguards to prevent arbitrary or unlawful detention.
• Article 22(1) states that every person who is arrested and detained shall be informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest. This provision ensures that individuals are aware of the reasons behind their arrest, preventing arbitrary or secret detentions.
• Article 22(1) also guarantees the right of an arrested person to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of their choice. This ensures that individuals have access to legal assistance during the legal process, contributing to a fair and just legal system.
• The UAPA includes provisions for preventive detention, allowing authorities to detain individuals to prevent them from committing certain offences. However, Article 22(4) allows preventive detention only under specific circumstances, and certain safeguards must be followed, such as providing the detenu with the grounds for detention and an opportunity to make a representation against the detention.
• Article 22(4) further mandates that a person detained under a law providing for preventive detention must be afforded the earliest opportunity to make a representation against the detention. Additionally, the case of every person detained is required to be placed before an advisory board within three months.
• The UAPA allows for confessions made to police officers to be admissible in court, subject to certain safeguards. However, this provision has been a point of concern concerning Article 22, as confessions obtained under duress or coercion may violate the right against self-incrimination.
• Article 22(2) ensures the right to be brought before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours of arrest, excluding the time necessary for the journey. This provision aims to prevent prolonged detention without judicial oversight and contributes to the right to a speedy trial.

Source: The Indian Express

EXCLUSIVE ECONOMIC ZONE (EEZ)

An Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) is a maritime zone that extends beyond a country's territorial sea and is established by coastal nations according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The EEZ provides a sovereign state with certain rights regarding the exploration and use of marine resources within that zone.

Key features of an EEZ include:

1. Resource Rights: The coastal state has the exclusive rights to explore, exploit, conserve, and manage natural resources found in the waters, seabed, and subsoil within the EEZ. This includes resources like fish, oil, gas, and minerals.

2. Sovereign Rights: The nation holds sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources, both living (like fish) and non-living (such as oil and gas) within the EEZ.

3. Jurisdiction: The coastal state has the authority to regulate various activities within the zone, including scientific research, environmental protection, and the construction of artificial islands or structures for economic purposes.

An EEZ typically extends up to 200 nautical miles (370 kilometers) from the coastline, but it can be modified based on specific geographical conditions or agreements between neighboring countries. It's important to note that while coastal states have rights within their EEZs, other nations have the freedom of navigation and overflight through these zones, as well as the right to lay submarine cables and pipelines in accordance with international law

 

3.Rights of the country in the EEZ

Within their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), countries have specific rights granted by international law, primarily defined by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

Some of these rights include:

• The coastal state has the exclusive right to explore and exploit natural resources, both living (like fish) and non-living (such as oil, gas, and minerals), within its EEZ
• Nations can conduct various economic activities, including fishing, mining, and the extraction of oil and gas, subject to their own regulations and in compliance with international agreements and environmental conservation principles
• Coastal states have the right to conduct scientific research and surveys related to marine ecosystems, resources, and environmental factors within their EEZ
• Countries are responsible for the conservation and management of the marine environment within their EEZ, ensuring that activities carried out do not harm the ecosystem or endanger marine life
• The coastal state has regulatory jurisdiction over the EEZ, allowing it to establish and enforce laws related to customs, immigration, sanitation, and other matters concerning economic activities and environmental protection within this zone
• Nations can construct artificial islands, installations, and structures for economic purposes within their EEZ, provided they comply with international regulations and environmental safeguards
• While coastal states have exclusive rights to the resources within their EEZ, other countries have the freedom of navigation and overflight through these zones for purposes like shipping, laying cables, and conducting military activities, as permitted by international law

4.Key Terms regarding EEZ

Territorial Waters

The territorial waters of a nation encompass all water regions under its authority, consisting of internal waters, the territorial sea, contiguous zone, the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and potentially extending to the continental shelf.

Territorial Sea

The territorial sea is a concept in international law that refers to the belt of coastal waters extending from a country's baseline (usually the low-water line along the coast) outwards for up to 12 nautical miles (22.2 kilometers), as recognized by the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

Contiguous Zone

The contiguous zone is an area of water that extends beyond a country's territorial sea, stretching up to 24 nautical miles (44.4 kilometers) from the baseline. In this zone, a coastal state can exert limited control for the purpose of preventing or punishing infringements of its customs, fiscal, immigration, or sanitary regulations within its territory or territorial sea. While it allows for certain enforcement measures, it doesn't grant full sovereignty, unlike the territorial sea

 

5. India and Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

• India has an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that extends up to 200 nautical miles (370 kilometers) from its coastline.
• Within this zone, India holds exclusive rights for exploring, exploiting, conserving, and managing natural resources, both living and non-living, such as fish, oil, gas, minerals, and other marine resources.
• The EEZ of India is significant, offering opportunities for economic activities like fishing, offshore energy exploration, scientific research, and environmental protection.
• India exercises jurisdictional control over this zone, regulating various activities and safeguarding the marine environment in accordance with international laws, including the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
• Additionally, while India has exclusive rights to the resources within its EEZ, other nations have the freedom of navigation and overflight through these waters, respecting India's sovereign rights and complying with international laws and agreements.

5.Way forward

 

The vessel with 21 Indians and one Vietnamese crew managed to sail on its power after the attack and reached Mumbai on Monday escorted by the Indian Coast Guard Ship (INGS) Vikram. Upon arrival, a Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal team carried out a preliminary assessment of Chem Pluto and analysis of the area of attack and debris found on the ship points towards a drone attack, the Navy said. “However, further forensic and technical analysis will be required to establish the vector of attack, including type and amount of explosive used,” it stated. A joint investigation by various agencies is also underway.

 

 

For Prelims: Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), UNCLOS, Contigous Zone   For Mains: General Studies II - International Law and Governance regarding EEZ

 

Previous Year Questions   1.With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2022) 1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention. 2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea. 3. The Exclusive Economic zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. Which of the statements given above are correct? A.1 and 2 only B.2 and 3 only C.1 and 3 only D.1, 2 and 3 Answer (D)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

DIGILOCKER

 

 

 

1. Context

 

 

The National Conference on ‘DigiLocker-Enabling Paperless Access for All’, held this week, in New Delhi. The Conference brought senior government officials, leaders from the technology and financial sectors, educationists, and digital governance experts together. The conference underscored the transformative role of DigiLocker in facilitating paperless governance, inclusive education, and secure digital services, which is a critical milestone in the nation’s ongoing Digital Trust Revolution

 

2. About DigiLocker

 

• DigiLocker, introduced in 2015, serves as a platform for users to store their digital documents securely. This versatile app finds utility in various scenarios, including passport applications, academic record verification, and identification during travel.
• Positioned as part of the Indian government’s initiative to reduce paper usage, DigiLocker facilitates easy access, verification, and storage of essential documents in a digital wallet format, ensuring swift retrieval and presentation to authorities when needed.
• With over 270 million registered users and nearly 6.7 billion documents retrieved through the platform as of early May, DigiLocker has emerged as a popular choice for individuals seeking to streamline their document management process.
• Documents such as Aadhaar cards, insurance policies, PAN records, and driving licenses can be securely stored and accessed through the app.
• According to DigiLocker’s website, documents issued through the platform are accorded the same validity as their physical counterparts, in compliance with Rule 9A of the Information Technology (Preservation and Retention of Information by Intermediaries providing Digital Locker facilities) Rules, 2016, as notified on February 8, 2017, vide G.S.R. 711(E).

 

3. Benefits and Advantages

 

• Users are increasingly embracing DigiLocker, drawn by its promise of a paperless solution for accessing and managing digital documents.
• The platform ensures that individuals can effortlessly access the most up-to-date versions of their documents online, enabling them to validate their identity and credentials swiftly whenever necessary.
• This feature is particularly advantageous for verifying officials, as it helps thwart the use of fake or outdated documents, as well as poor-quality print copies that may lack crucial details.
• Moreover, DigiLocker empowers users by eliminating the need to carry multiple sets of physical documents while on the move.
• Instead, documents can be conveniently fetched or stored on a local device, ensuring ease of access wherever they go.
• In theory, these digital documents hold the same validity as their physical counterparts, providing users with a credible alternative for verification purposes.
• Utilizing the app can contribute to faster service delivery, enhancing overall efficiency in document processing and verification procedures.

4.  Safeguards and Vulnerabilities

 

• DigiLocker, a flagship initiative of the Ministry of Electronics & IT (MeitY) under the Digital India programme, is positioned as a government-approved application maintained with stringent security measures overseen by officials.
• Aligning with Digital India's vision, DigiLocker aims to provide citizens with a secure platform for accessing documents on a public cloud.
• According to DigiLocker's website, the platform incorporates standard security protocols to safeguard user data.
• These measures include 2048 Bit RSA SSL encryption, multi-factor authentication (OTP verification), consent systems, timed logouts, and regular security audits.
• Despite these precautions, being a repository for citizens' information and documents, DigiLocker remains an attractive target for potential hackers seeking to exploit vulnerabilities and compromise user data.
• A potential vulnerability in DigiLocker's sign-up flow was highlighted on June 2, 2020, raising concerns about potential account compromises.
• However, prompt action was taken following a CERT-In alert and assistance from an independent researcher. DigiLocker assured users that the vulnerability was swiftly patched, ensuring the safety of user data.
• According to the Google Play Store, DigiLocker data is not shared with third parties, and all data is encrypted during transit. The information collected by DigiLocker includes optional files and documents, as well as user details such as name, email (optional), and user IDs. 

 

 

5. Challenges with DigiLocker

 

Despite its benefits, DigiLocker faces several challenges that hinder its widespread adoption and effectiveness.

• Individuals who are unfamiliar with smartphones or struggle with navigating apps may encounter difficulties in downloading DigiLocker, using OTPs for authentication, and retrieving their credentials independently. This poses a significant challenge, particularly for those without access to assistance or support.
• Illiterate individuals face challenges in utilizing DigiLocker, as they may struggle with reading instructions or navigating the app interface. This further exacerbates the digital divide and limits access to essential services for marginalized populations.
• DigiLocker requires precise matching of user-submitted details with issuer data, leading to issues for individuals with multiple names, aliases, or inconsistent spellings across certificates. Even minor discrepancies, such as variations in capitalization or initials, can result in retrieval failures, frustrating users and impeding the seamless access to documents.
• The acceptance of virtual documents via DigiLocker varies among government authorities and law enforcement agencies in India. While some entities mandate the presentation of virtual documents, others insist on original hard copies, leading to confusion and inconsistency in document review processes.

 

6. Way Forward

 

DigiLocker can emerge as a robust platform that not only addresses existing challenges but also contributes to India's digital transformation agenda, enabling seamless access to essential documents and services for all citizens.

 

For Prelims: Digilocker, Digital India For Mains:  1. Discuss how DigiLocker, as a flagship initiative under the Digital India programme, is contributing to India's digital transformation agenda. Highlight its significance in promoting paperless governance and enhancing citizen access to essential documents. (250 Words)

Source: The Hindu

 

 

COMPETITION COMMISSION OF INDIA

 

 

1. Context

 

The Competition Commission of India has approved the acquisition of certain shareholding of IL JIN Electronics (India) Private Limited (IL JIN/Target) by ChrysCapital Fund X (CC Fund X), Two Infinity Partners (Two Infinity), and Raptor Investments Limited (Raptor) (collectively Acquirers).

 

2. Competition Commission of India

• The Competition Commission of India (CCI) is a regulatory authority established in India to promote and protect fair competition in the marketplace.
• It was established under the Competition Act, 2002, and became fully functional in 2009.
• The primary objective of the CCI is to prevent anti-competitive practices, ensure a level playing field for businesses, and promote consumer welfare
• The Competition Commission of India (within the Ministry of Corporate Affairs) has been established to enforce the competition law under the Competition Act, 2002.
• It should be noted that on the recommendations of Raghavan committee, the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 (MRTP Act) was repealed and replaced by the Competition Act, 2002
• The Commission consists of a Chairperson and not more than 6 Members appointed by the Central Government
• It is the statutory duty of the Commission to eliminate practices having an adverse effect on competition, promote and sustain competition, protect the interests of consumers and ensure freedom of trade carried on by other participants, in markets in India as provided in the Preamble as well as Section 18 of the Act.
• The Commission is also mandated to give its opinion on competition issues to government or statutory authority and to undertake competition advocacy for creating awareness of competition law.
• Advocacy is at the core of effective competition regulation. Competition Commission of India (CCI), which has been entrusted with implementation of law, has always believed in complementing robust enforcement with facilitative advocacy. It is a quasi-judicial body.

 

3. Key functions and responsibilities 

Here are some key functions and responsibilities of the Competition Commission of India:

1. Competition Advocacy: The CCI engages in advocacy and education activities to promote competition awareness among businesses, government agencies, and the public.

2. Antitrust Enforcement: The CCI investigates and takes action against anti-competitive agreements, abuse of dominance by companies, and anti-competitive mergers and acquisitions. It can impose penalties and remedies on entities found to be in violation of competition laws.

3. Merger Control: The CCI reviews and approves or disapproves mergers, acquisitions, and combinations that may have an adverse impact on competition in the Indian market. It assesses whether these transactions are likely to cause a substantial lessening of competition.

4. Market Studies and Research: The CCI conducts studies and research to understand market dynamics, competition issues, and emerging trends. This information helps in formulating policies and recommendations to improve competition.

5. Competition Advocacy: The commission engages in advocacy efforts to promote competition principles and practices among businesses, government agencies, and the public.

6. Consumer Protection: While primarily focused on promoting competition, the CCI also indirectly promotes consumer welfare by ensuring that markets remain competitive and that consumers have choices and access to fair prices.

7. Regulation of Anti-Competitive Practices: The CCI addresses practices such as price-fixing, bid rigging, and abuse of market power that can harm competition and consumers.

8. Legal Proceedings: The CCI has the authority to conduct investigations, hold hearings, and pass orders. Its decisions can be appealed to higher courts in India.

4. What is the Competition Act?

 

• The Competition Act, 2002, as amended by the Competition (Amendment) Act, 2007, follows the philosophy of modern competition laws.
• The Act prohibits anti-competitive agreements, and abuse of dominant position by enterprises and regulates combinations (acquisition, acquiring of control and M&A), which causes or likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within India
• In accordance with the provisions of the Amendment Act, the Competition Commission of India and the Competition Appellate Tribunal have been established
• The government of India replaced Competition Appellate Tribunal (COMPAT) with the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) in 2017
• The provisions of the Competition Act relating to anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominant position were notified on May 20, 2009

Competition is the best means of ensuring that the ‘Common Man’ or ‘Aam Aadmi’ has access to the broadest range of goods and services at the most competitive prices. With increased competition, producers will have maximum incentive to innovate and specialize. This would result in reduced costs and wider choice to consumers. A fair competition in market is essential to achieve this objective. Our goal is to create and sustain fair competition in the economy that will provide a ‘level playing field’ to the producers and make the markets work for the welfare of the consumers

 

5. What is Cartelisation?

Cartels can be difficult to define. According to CCI, a “Cartel includes an association of producers, sellers, distributors, traders or service providers who, by agreement amongst themselves, limit, control or attempt to control the production, distribution, sale or price of, or, trade in goods or provision of services”

The International Competition Network, which is a global body dedicated to enforcing competition law, has a simpler definition. The three common components of a cartel are:

• an agreement;
• between competitors;
• to restrict competition.

6. Way forward

CCI needs to revisit its definition of ‘relevant market’. In the age of digital world, defining relevant market has been a tough task for regulators world-wide. Technological developments like Web 3.0, AI, IoT, Blockchain and issues like data protection and privacy, search bias, platform neutrality, confidentiality, etc, have created a need for a robust competition law. Such a law should meet the demands of the technological era we live in.

 

 

For Prelims: Statutory board, Constitutional body For Mains: 1.Discuss the role and functions of the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in promoting and ensuring fair competition in the Indian market 2.Examine the challenges and limitations faced by the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in effectively regulating and promoting competition in the digital economy

 

Previous year Questions  1. Competition Commission of India is which kind of body? (RSMSSB Sanganak 2018) A. Statutory body B. Constitutional. C. Single Member D. Private Answer (A)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

EUROPEAN FREE TRADE ASSOCIATION (EFTA)

 

 

1. Context

 

 

A senior team of negotiators from the European Union (EU) visited New Delhi from 3 to 7 November 2025 for negotiations with Indian counterparts on the proposed India–EU Free Trade Agreement (FTA). The week-long discussions were part of ongoing efforts to advance negotiations towards a comprehensive, balanced, and mutually beneficial trade agreement.

 

 

 2. About European Free Trade Association

 

The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) is an intergovernmental organization that aims to facilitate free trade and economic cooperation among its member states. EFTA was established on May 3, 1960, as an alternative trade bloc to the European Economic Community (EEC), which later evolved into the European Union (EU). The founding members of EFTA were Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.

The key aspects of EFTA

EFTA comprises four member countries: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland. The organization has experienced changes in membership over the years, with some countries joining or leaving.

• EFTA's primary objectives include promoting free trade and economic cooperation among its member states. It aims to facilitate the reduction or elimination of barriers to trade in goods and services, enhance economic relations, and foster mutual understanding and collaboration in various economic sectors.
• While EFTA is a distinct organization, its member states often have close economic ties with the European Union. EFTA countries have developed various agreements and arrangements with the EU to facilitate trade and economic cooperation. However, EFTA member states are not part of the EU Customs Union or the EU Single Market.
• EFTA has engaged in numerous free trade agreements (FTAs) with countries and regions around the world. These agreements aim to reduce or eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers, promoting the flow of goods and services. EFTA countries have FTAs with countries in Europe, Asia, Africa, and South America.
• The EFTA Surveillance Authority oversees the application of EFTA's rules in its member states. It monitors compliance with agreements, including ensuring that competition rules and other regulations are adhered to by member countries.
• The EFTA Court serves as the judicial body for the EFTA states. It handles disputes related to the interpretation and application of EFTA law. The court's decisions contribute to the legal framework of EFTA's trade and economic agreements.
• Over the years, EFTA has seen changes in its membership. Some countries have joined, while others have left. Accession to EFTA involves negotiations and the fulfillment of certain criteria, reflecting the organization's commitment to free trade and economic cooperation.
• EFTA member countries have diverse and developed economies. They are known for their high living standards, economic stability, and competitiveness. The organization provides a platform for these countries to collaborate and engage in trade with partners around the world.
• While trade is a central focus, EFTA member states also collaborate in other areas, including research and development, innovation, and cultural exchanges. The organization serves as a forum for discussing and addressing various economic and policy issues.

Main Goals of EFTA

• To promote free trade and economic integration among its member states.
• To strengthen member states' economies and improve their competitiveness on the global market.
• To cooperate with other countries and international organizations to further liberalize trade and promote economic development.

Institutional Structure

• The EFTA Council is the organization's highest governing body, consisting of representatives from each member state. It meets regularly to discuss and decide on important matters related to EFTA's objectives and activities.
• The EFTA Secretariat, based in Geneva, Switzerland, provides administrative support and facilitates communication among member states.
• EFTA actively engages in negotiations and establishes free trade agreements (FTAs) with various countries and regions outside the organization, contributing to the expansion of economic cooperation.

Current Status of EFTA

• Despite not being part of the EU, EFTA members maintain close economic ties with the EU through a series of bilateral agreements.
• They participate in the European Single Market and are part of the Schengen Area, allowing for the free movement of goods, services, capital, and people.
• EFTA remains an important economic player in Europe, with a combined GDP of over €1 trillion and a population of over 13 million.

 

Benefits of EFTA Membership

• EFTA's free trade agreements and common market have led to a significant increase in trade and investment between member states and their trading partners.
• EFTA's focus on free trade and economic cooperation has helped to stimulate economic growth in member states.
• By cooperating on research and development, innovation, and education, EFTA member states have become more competitive in the global market.
• EFTA membership has contributed to a higher standard of living and greater prosperity for the citizens of member states.

 

Challenges for EFTA

• The EU remains EFTA's largest trading partner, but it also poses a significant challenge. The EU's larger size and economic power give it an advantage in negotiations, and some EFTA businesses have expressed concerns about being at a disadvantage compared to their EU counterparts.
• With the ongoing integration of the EU, EFTA needs to ensure that it remains relevant and attractive to potential members and trading partners. The association needs to continue to find ways to differentiate itself from the EU and to offer unique benefits to its members.
• The global economy is constantly evolving, and EFTA needs to be able to adapt to these changes. The association needs to focus on emerging markets and new technologies to ensure that its members remain competitive in the long term.

 

3. The Way Forward

 

EFTA remains a vital economic force in Europe. The association is well-positioned to continue to prosper in the coming years, thanks to its strong member states, its focus on free trade and economic cooperation, and its adaptability. By continuing to adapt to the changing global economy and by finding ways to differentiate itself from the EU, EFTA can ensure that it remains a relevant and successful organization for its members in the years to come.

 

 

For Prelims: European Union, free trade, European Free Trade Association, European Economic Community   For Mains:  1. Examine the impact of Switzerland's policy on tariff-free entry for all industrial goods on India's potential gains from the ongoing India-EFTA Free Trade Agreement negotiations. (250 Words) 2. Discuss the strategies and opportunities for EFTA to remain relevant, differentiate itself, and adapt to the evolving global economy. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1.‘Broad-based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA)’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of negotiations held between India and (2017) (a) European Union (b) Gulf Cooperation Council (c) Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (d) Shanghai Cooperation Organization Answer (a) 2. Consider the following countries: (2018) Australia Canada China India Japan USA Which of the above are among the ‘free-trade partners’ of ASEAN? (a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 (b) 3, 4, 5 and 6 (c) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (d) 2, 3, 4 and 6 Answer (c) 3. The term ‘Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership’ often appears in the news in the context of the affairs of a group of countries known as (2016) (a) G20 (b) ASEAN  (c) SCO  (d) SAARC Answer (b)

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

COMPTROLLER AUDITOR GENERAL OF INDIA (CGI)

 

 

1.Context

 

The Comptroller and Auditor-General (CAG) of India has granted in-principle approval for the creation of two new specialised cadres for more centralisation.

 

2. Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG)

• The Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) of India is a constitutional authority responsible for auditing and overseeing the financial operations of the Government of India and state governments. The role of the CAG is defined in the Constitution of India, primarily in Article 148
• The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) plays a pivotal role within the democratic framework, ensuring transparency, accountability, and financial integrity in the government's operations.
• It actively contributes to upholding the separation of powers between the legislature and executive by verifying that the government's financial activities align with legislative intentions.
• Through its audit discoveries and recommendations, the CAG advocates for good governance practices, aiding governments in streamlining operations, minimizing inefficiencies, and adhering to financial discipline.
• In the evolving landscape of India's democracy, the CAG's role becomes increasingly crucial, promoting good governance and safeguarding the interests of the people.
• Notably, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments represent a significant advancement in India's democratic structure, establishing tiers of self-governance below the state level.
• The roots of organized local governance in India trace back to the historical "Janpadi and Pancha" system. Looking ahead to independent India, the recommendations of the 1958 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee laid the groundwork for a three-tier structure for rural self-governance, ultimately materializing in the 73rd and 74th amendments.

3. Appointment and Tenure of CAG

• The President of India appoints the CAG.
• The appointment is made based on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, who consults with other authorities
• The President is required to consult with:
  • The Speaker of the Lok Sabha (House of the People).
  • The Vice President, who is also the Chairman of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).
  • The Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha.
• The qualifications for the appointment of the CAG are similar to those of a judge of the Supreme Court
• The CAG holds office for a term of six years from the date they assume office or until they attain the age of 65, whichever is earlier.
• The CAG can be removed from office only in the manner and on the grounds prescribed for the removal of a judge of the Supreme Court
• The constitutional provisions related to the appointment of the CAG are primarily outlined in Article 148 of the Indian Constitution

4. Functions and Powers

• The primary function of the CAG is to audit the accounts related to the revenue and expenditure of the Government of India and state governments
• The CAG also audits the accounts of bodies and authorities substantially financed by the government
• The CAG audits the accounts of public sector undertakings and other entities where the government has a substantial financial stake
• The CAG audits the accounts of various statutory bodies and authorities to ensure compliance with financial regulations and legal requirements

• The audit reports prepared by the CAG are submitted to the President of India in the case of the central government and to the Governors in the case of state governments.
• These reports are then laid before each House of Parliament or the State Legislature.
• The CAG operates independently and is not subject to the control or influence of the executive in the performance of their duties.
• The CAG has the authority to access all records, books, and documents related to the accounts being audited

5. CAG of India vs CAG of the United Kingdom

 

Subject	CAG of India	CAG of the United Kingdom
Constitutional Status	Constitutional authority	Not a constitutional office, part of the National Audit Office (NAO)
Appointment	Appointed by the President of India	Appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister
Independence	Independent	Emphasizes independence but appointment process may raise questions
Functions	Audits government accounts, conducts performance audits	Audits central government departments, agencies, and public bodies
Reports	Submitted to the President/Governors, laid before Parliament/State Legislatures	Reports directly to the UK Parliament
Legal Framework	Outlined in the Constitution of India	Based on various statutes, operates under the Public Audit Act 2001
Role in Public Accounts Committees (PACs)	Plays a crucial role in assisting PACs at central and state levels	Supports the UK Parliament's Public Accounts Committee

6.How Independently does the Office of CAG Function?

• The office of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) is designed to function independently to ensure impartiality and integrity in auditing government expenditures. The independence of the CAG's office is crucial for maintaining transparency, accountability, and public trust in the financial management of the government
• The CAG is a constitutional authority, and its independence is enshrined in the Constitution of India. This constitutional status provides a strong foundation for the CAG's autonomy.
• The CAG is appointed by the President of India based on the recommendations of the Prime Minister in consultation with other authorities. The appointment process aims to ensure the CAG's impartiality and independence
• The CAG holds office for a fixed term of six years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier. This security of tenure helps insulate the CAG from external pressures
• The conditions of service of the CAG, once appointed, cannot be varied to their disadvantage. This ensures that the CAG can perform their duties without fear of adverse changes in service conditions
• The CAG operates independently and is not subject to the control or influence of the executive in the performance of their duties. This separation is crucial for conducting objective and unbiased audits.

7.What is the Public Accounts Committee (PAC)?

• The Public Accounts Committee (PAC) is a parliamentary committee that plays a crucial role in overseeing government expenditures and ensuring financial accountability.
• Its primary function is to examine the audit reports prepared by the supreme audit institution (such as the Comptroller and Auditor General, CAG) and to scrutinize the government's financial transactions, policies, and programs.
• Members of the PAC are typically drawn from the legislature and reflect the political composition of the parliament or legislative body
• The PAC is headed by a Chairperson, who is usually a member of the opposition party to ensure impartiality.
• The primary mandate of the PAC is to examine the audit reports produced by the supreme audit institution, which highlights instances of financial irregularities, inefficiencies, or non-compliance with laws and regulations.
• The PAC scrutinizes government expenditures to ensure that public funds are used efficiently and effectively
• The PAC often follows up on its recommendations to ensure that the government has taken appropriate actions in response to identified issues
• The PAC enhances public accountability by holding the government accountable for its financial decisions and ensuring transparency in the use of public funds
• The PAC plays a critical role in upholding democratic principles by ensuring that public funds are utilized in the best interest of the citizens and that the government is held accountable for its financial decisions

 

For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance For Mains: General Studies II: Appointment to various Constitutional posts, powers, functions and responsibilities of various Constitutional Bodies

Source: indianexpress

 

GRAVITATIONAL WAVES

 

1. Context

On September 14, 2015, researchers using a pair of giant detectors in the U.S. detected gravitational waves for the first time — a century after Albert Einstein predicted their existence  in his general theory of relativity. For their contributions to building these detectors, called the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatories (LIGO), Rainer Weiss, Kip Thorne, and Barry Barish were awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 2017.

2. Gravitational Waves

• Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of spacetime. They are disturbances or waves that propagate through space, similar to waves on the surface of a pond.
• Gravitational waves are generated by the acceleration or motion of massive objects, such as colliding black holes, merging neutron stars, or the early moments of the universe's formation.
• According to Eienstein's theory of general relativity, gravity is not simply a force but the curvature of space-time caused by the presence of mass and energy.
• When massive objects accelerate or undergo changes in motion, they create disturbances in spacetime, which propagate outward as gravitational waves.
• Gravitational waves carry energy and momentum and can travel through the universe at the speed of light. They stretch and compress spacetime as they pass through, causing the distances between objects to alternatively increase and decrease.
• However, these changes in spacetime are incredibly small and require highly sensitive instruments to detect them.
• Direct detection of gravitational waves provides a new way to study of the universe.
• By observing and analyzing gravitational wave signals, scientists can gain insights into the nature of massive objects, and the dynamics of cosmic events, and test the predictions of general relativity in extreme conditions.
• Gravitational wave astronomy opens up a new window to explore the cosmos and deepen our understanding of the universe.

Image Source: DW

3. Gravitational Waves: From Einstein to Recent Detection

Einstein's Proposal (1916):

• Einstein proposed gravitational waves as ripples in spacetime.
• Described gravity as the distortion caused by matter in space and time.

Direct Detection Achieved (2016):

• Scientists successfully detected gravitational waves directly.
• Indirect evidence had been relied upon since the 1970s.

Role of Pulsars in Recent Research:

• Recent research heavily relied on pulsars, dense remnants of exploded stars.
• Pulsars spin at extraordinary speeds and provided crucial data.

Generation and Effects of Gravitational Waves:

• Gravitational waves generated by dense objects in orbital motion.
• Waves physically stretch and compress space-time as they travel.

Data Collection by NANOGrav Collaboration:

• Latest report's data collected by NANOGrav Physics Frontiers Center.
• Comprises over 190 scientists from the United States and Canada.
• Data collected over a 15-year period.

4. Gravitational Wave Background and Black Hole Discoveries

• Universe's gravitational wave background is compared to the hum of a large gathering. Individual voices (waves) cannot be distinguished.
• Gravitational waves generated by distant black holes were initially detected seven years ago.
• Black holes are incredibly dense objects with intense gravity that traps even light.
• Gravitational waves can be produced by the motion of black holes and other massive objects.
• Previous research utilized the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO).
• Recent discovery provides evidence of gravitational wave hum in a smaller frequency range.
• Frequencies are significantly smaller (around 10-12 orders of magnitude) than those detected by LIGO. The wavelengths of these waves span light years.
• The most straightforward explanation involves pairs of supermassive black holes orbiting each other in our cosmic neighborhood.
• Alternative explanations could involve new physics related to the early stages of the universe near the Big Bang (approximately 13.8 billion years ago).

5. About LIGO

•  LIGO stands for the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory. It is a large-scale scientific experiment and observatory dedicated to the detection of gravitational waves.
• LIGO consists of two identical interferometers located in different parts of the United States, one in Livingston, Louisiana, and the other in Hanford, Washington.
• Each LIGO interferometer consists of two perpendicular arms, each measuring 4 kilometers (2.5 miles) in length.
• The interferometers use laser beams split into two and then recombined to create an interference pattern.
• The interference pattern is extremely sensitive to changes in the length of the arms caused by passing gravitational waves.
• When a gravitational wave passes through the observatory, it causes minuscule stretching and squeezing of space, which is detected as changes in the interference pattern of the laser beams.
• LIGO's precise instruments are designed to detect these incredibly tiny changes, allowing scientists to directly observe and study gravitational waves.
• LIGO's groundbreaking detection of gravitational waves in 2015 confirmed Einstein's predictions and opened up a new era of gravitational wave astronomy.

For Prelims: Gravitational waves, NANOGrav Physics Frontiers Center, Einstein's theory, Black holes, Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO). For Mains: 1. Explain the concept of gravitational waves and their significance in our understanding of the universe. How do they differ from other forms of waves? (250 Words)

 

Previous year questions 1. Consider the following phenomena: (UPSC 2018) 1. Light is affected by gravity. 2. The Universe is constantly expanding. 3. Matter warps its surrounding space-time. Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media? A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D   2. Recently scientists observed the merger of giant 'black holes' billions of light years away from the Earth. What is the significance of this observation? (UPSC 2019) A. 'Higgs boson particles' were detected B. 'Gravitational waves' were detected. C. Possibility of inter-galactic space travel through a 'wormhole' was confirmed. D. It enabled the scientists to understand 'singularity'. Answer: B   3. Which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC CDS 2017) 1. In June 2016, the LIGO group of scientists announced the detection of a second set of gravitational waves. 2. Gravitational waves were generated due to the merger of two black holes at about 1.4 billion light-years distant. 3. Gravitational waves were inserted due to the collision of two white dwarf stars at about 14 billion light-years distant. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B

 Source: The Indian Express

 

HIGH SEAS TREATY

 

 

1. Context

 

The High Seas Treaty was ratified by over 60 countries in September; it will now be enforced in January 2026. The treaty sets rules to preserve and use marine biodiversity sustainably and addresses threats from climate change, overfishing and pollution.

 

2. What are High Seas?

 

• Covering 64% of the ocean's surface and approximately 43% of the Earth's area, the high seas are home to around 2.2 million marine species and up to a trillion types of microorganisms. These international waters are open to all, granting equal rights for navigation, overflight, economic ventures, scientific research, and the establishment of infrastructure such as undersea cables.

• The lack of designated responsibility for the high seas has led to widespread issues such as resource overexploitation, biodiversity loss, pollution—including plastic waste—and ocean acidification. According to the United Nations, an estimated 17 million tonnes of plastic were dumped into oceans in 2021, a figure projected to rise in the years ahead.

• Concluded in March 2023, the treaty focuses on ocean areas beyond any nation's jurisdiction. National jurisdictions typically extend up to 200 nautical miles (370 km) from the coastline, known as exclusive economic zones (EEZs). Beyond these zones lie the high seas or international waters. This treaty, formally titled the Agreement on Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine Biological Diversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction, addresses the conservation and sustainable use of marine resources in these global commons

 

3. Key Objectives of High Seas Treaty

 

➤ Establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs), similar to designated protected forests and wildlife zones.
➤ Sustainable utilization of marine genetic resources and fair distribution of benefits derived from them.
➤ Implementation of environmental impact assessments for significant oceanic activities.
➤ Promotion of capacity-building initiatives and technology transfer

 

4.Key takeaways from High Seas

 

• Marine-Protected Areas (MPAs): MPAs are zones in the ocean where ecosystems and biodiversity are under stress from human activities or climate change. They are akin to national parks or wildlife sanctuaries on land. Activities within these areas will be strictly regulated, with conservation measures similar to those implemented in forest and wildlife reserves. Currently, only about 1.44% of high seas are protected, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

• Marine Genetic Resources: Oceans are home to an immense variety of life forms, many of which hold potential for applications like drug development. Genetic data from these organisms is being extracted and studied for potential benefits. The treaty aims to ensure that any resulting benefits, including financial ones, are equitably shared and not restricted by stringent intellectual property rights. Additionally, knowledge gained from these explorations is to remain openly accessible to all.

• Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs): The treaty mandates conducting prior environmental impact assessments for activities that could harm marine ecosystems or conservation efforts. These assessments must be made publicly available. EIAs are also required for activities within national jurisdictions if their impact extends to the high seas.

• Capacity Building and Technology Transfer: Emphasis is placed on capacity building and technology transfer to support countries, particularly small island nations and landlocked states, that lack the resources or expertise to participate effectively in conservation or sustainable exploitation of marine resources. The treaty seeks to alleviate the additional burden these nations might face, such as conducting environmental impact assessments

 

Ratification and Treaty   Ratification refers to the formal process through which a country commits to being legally obligated by the provisions of an international law. This is distinct from simply signing the law. Signing signifies a country’s agreement with the law's principles and its intention to adhere to them. However, until the country completes the ratification process— which differs across nations— it is not legally required to comply with the provisions of that law

 

 

5.UN Convention on Laws and Seas

 

• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) is a comprehensive international legal framework that establishes guidelines for the proper use and governance of seas and oceans globally. It outlines nations' rights and responsibilities concerning oceanic activities and addresses issues such as sovereignty, navigation, and exclusive economic rights. Territorial waters and Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) are demarcated based on UNCLOS provisions.

• According to UNCLOS, the Territorial Sea (TS) extends up to 12 nautical miles from a nation’s coastline. While a state exercises complete sovereignty over the waters within its TS, the EEZ grants the state exclusive economic rights over the resources beneath the sea's surface without full sovereignty.

• UNCLOS provides overarching principles for fair access to ocean resources and the conservation of biodiversity and marine ecosystems. However, it does not detail the methods for achieving these goals. This gap is addressed by the High Seas Treaty, which functions as an implementation agreement under UNCLOS, similar to how the Paris Agreement operates within the framework of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

 

For Prelims: UN high seas, UN high seas treaty, UNCLOS,  Biodiversity of Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBJN), Exclusive Economic Zone, Territorial Waters. For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of the Treaty of High Seas and explain how to save our high seas from overfishing and pollution.

 

Previous year Question

1. Concerning the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements: ( UPSC 2022) A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from a baseline determined by the convention. Ships of all states, whether coastal or landlocked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured. Which of the statements given above is correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer : D

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

NIPAH VIRUS

 

 

1. Context

 

The Nipah virus (NiV) has emerged as a major zoonotic threat in India, with repeated outbreaks recorded since 2001. Case fatality rates range between 40% and 75%, depending on the level of clinical care available.

 

2. Nipah Virus

• Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic virus that can spread between animals and people.
• The natural host of NiV is fruit bats, also known as flying foxes.
• NiV can also infect pigs and people
• NiV infection can cause a range of illnesses, from asymptomatic infection to acute respiratory illness and fatal encephalitis. The case fatality rate for NiV infection is estimated to be between 40% and 75%
• The symptoms of NiV infection typically appear 4-14 days after exposure to the virus. The initial symptoms are similar to those of the flu, including fever, headache, and cough.
• In severe cases, the virus can cause encephalitis, which is a swelling of the brain. Encephalitis can lead to coma and death.
• NiV can be transmitted from animals to people through contact with infected saliva, urine, or other bodily fluids.
• It can also be transmitted through contact with contaminated food or water. Person-to-person transmission of NiV is possible, but it is rare.
• Nipah virus outbreaks have been reported in several countries in Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Bangladesh, India, and Singapore.
• The virus has caused sporadic outbreaks, with varying levels of severity

3.Transmission

 

• The first outbreaks of the Nipah virus among humans was reported from Malaysia (1998) and Singapore (1999).
• The virus takes its name from the village in Malaysia where the person in whom the virus was first isolated died of the disease.
• The transmission from animals happens mainly through consumption of contaminated food. According to the CDC, transmission can happen due to consumption of raw date palm sap or fruit that has been contaminated with saliva or urine from infected bats.
• Some cases of NiV [Nipah] infection have also been reported among people who climb trees where bats often roost.
• The animal host reservoir for this virus is known to be the fruit bat, commonly known as flying fox.
• Fruit bats are known to transmit this virus to other animals like pigs, and also dogs, cats, goats, horses and sheep
• Humans get infected mainly through direct contact with these animals, or through consumption of food contaminated by saliva or urine of these infected animals
• Since it was first identified in 1998-99, there have been multiple outbreaks of the Nipah virus, all of them in South and Southeast Asian nations. In Bangladesh, there have been at least 10 outbreaks since 2001.
  In India, West Bengal had seen an outbreak in 2001 and 2007, while Kerala had reported several cases in 2018, and isolated cases in 2019 and 2021.

4. Zoonotic diseases

Zoonotic diseases, also known as zoonoses, are infectious diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans. These diseases can be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, and they pose a significant public health concern worldwide. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted through direct or indirect contact with infected animals, their secretions, or contaminated environments. Some common examples of zoonotic diseases include:

1. Influenza: Various strains of influenza viruses can infect both animals and humans. Influenza viruses can undergo genetic changes, leading to new strains that have the potential to cause pandemics.

2. Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease that primarily affects mammals, including bats, dogs, and raccoons. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected animal and can be fatal if not treated promptly.

3. Salmonellosis: Caused by the bacterium Salmonella, this disease is often associated with contaminated food products, particularly those of animal origin such as poultry and eggs.

4. Lyme Disease: Transmitted by ticks, Lyme disease is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi and is commonly found in wildlife, particularly deer. Humans can become infected when bitten by an infected tick.

5. West Nile Virus: This mosquito-borne virus primarily circulates among birds but can be transmitted to humans through mosquito bites, leading to fever and, in some cases, severe neurological complications.

6. E. coli Infections: Certain strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) can cause gastrointestinal illness in humans. Contaminated food and water, as well as contact with infected animals, can lead to E. coli infections.

7. HIV/AIDS: While the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is primarily transmitted among humans, it is believed to have originated from the transfer of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) from non-human primates to humans, making it a zoonotic disease.

8. COVID-19: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is believed to have originated in bats and was likely transmitted to humans through an intermediate animal host, highlighting the zoonotic nature of the virus.

5. Way forward

Nipah virus is considered a serious public health concern due to its high mortality rate, the potential for person-to-person transmission, and the lack of specific treatments or vaccines. Surveillance and research efforts are ongoing to better understand and combat this virus. It's essential to stay updated on the latest information and follow public health guidelines if you live in or travel to regions where Nipah virus is known to be present.

 

For Prelims: Viruses, Bacteria, Immunity, Vaccine types For Mains: 1.Discuss the challenges in controlling viral diseases and the strategies employed by governments and international organizations in addressing viral epidemics. Highlight the lessons learned from recent viral outbreaks 2.Analyze the global problem of antibiotic resistance and its implications for healthcare. Suggest policy measures and interventions to combat the growing threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Viruses can affect (UPSC CSE 2016) 1.Bacteria 2. Fungi 3. Plants Select the correct code with the following code A.1 and 2 only B. 3 Only C. 1 and 3 D. 1, 2, 3 Answer (D) 2. Which of the following statements is/ are correct? (UPSC CSE 2013) 1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy 2.Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium 3.Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only  Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 Only B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 3 D. 1, 2, 3 Answer (A)

 

Source: indianexpress