Recent research suggests that the Stone Age, traditionally known for the use of stone tools by humans and their ancestors, could also be accurately described as the ‘Wood Age’. This insight comes from the study of ancient wooden artefacts, revealing advanced woodworking skills long before previously acknowledged.

2. The Stone Age as the ‘Wood Age’

• A study of wooden artefacts dated between 300,000 and 400,000 years old was conducted on items excavated from a coal mine in Schoningen, Germany, between 1994 and 2008.
• These artefacts were found to be more than simple "sharpened sticks." Instead, they were identified as "technologically advanced tools" requiring considerable skill, precision, and time to construct.
• The study, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in April, identified a total of 187 wooden artefacts.
• These items demonstrated a broad spectrum of woodworking techniques, including splitting, scraping, and abrasion.
• The findings underscore the technological sophistication of early humans in using wood to create tools.

3. Periodising Human Prehistory

• In technical terms, human 'history' began with the advent of writing, while everything before that is classified as 'prehistory'.
• Prehistory is primarily studied using archaeological evidence, such as physical remains from the past.
• Ethnographic research, which studies human cultures and communities, also provides valuable insights.
• In the 19th century, Danish archaeologist Christian Jurgensen Thomsen introduced the first scientifically rigorous periodisation of human prehistory.
• He divided it into three main ages based on technological advancements: the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age.
• Thomsen's chronology, although refined over time to reflect diverse cultural experiences, has become a foundational framework in archaeological studies.

The Stone Age

The Stone Age began approximately 3.4 million years ago (mya) when hominids first started using stone tools in modern-day Ethiopia. This era, which constitutes 99% of human history, lasted until about 6,000-4,000 BP (Before Present). It is divided into three periods: the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic.

1. The Palaeolithic, or 'Old Stone Age', extended until about 11,650 BP in some regions. This period is marked by the use of rudimentary stone tools and a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.
2. The Mesolithic, or 'Middle Stone Age', is a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods. It featured advancements in tool-making and changes in human lifestyle as communities began to settle more permanently.
3. The Neolithic, or 'New Stone Age', saw the advent of agriculture and the domestication of animals. This period marked significant technological and social advancements, leading to the development of early human settlements and more complex societies.

4. Preservation Bias in Archaeology

Archaeological evidence forms the basis of the Stone Age classification, primarily through the discovery of stone tools, which offer insights into the lives and capabilities of early humans and their ancestors.

As Charles Darwin wrote in "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex" (1871): “To chip a flint into the rudest tool…demands the use of a perfect hand”. Even the most rudimentary stone tools required a level of mental sophistication and physical dexterity that is rarely if ever, seen in other creatures.

Evidence of Diverse Material Use

The capabilities of early humans were not limited to working with stone. Stone Age sites worldwide also show evidence of using other materials, such as bones, antlers, clay, and limited metalworking. However, evidence of woodworking has been scarce, despite wood being an abundant resource.

The Scarcity of Wooden Artifacts

Out of thousands of archaeological sites from the Lower Palaeolithic (up to around 200,000 BP), wood has been recovered from fewer than 10 sites. The earliest evidence of wooden use, such as wooden dwellings, dates back to only 700,000 BP, which is over two and a half million years after the earliest evidence of stone tools.

Reassessing the Importance of Wood

"The Neolithic or Wood Age" (1985), argued that "The absence of wooden remains from the Palaeolithic period… is certainly no indication that wood was not used." “We can probably assume that wooden tools have been around just as long as stone ones… But since wood deteriorates and rarely survives, preservation bias distorts our view of antiquity,”. 

The discoveries in Schoningen are pivotal due to the exceptional preservation of wooden artefacts. The site's damp and oxygen-deprived conditions prevented the decomposition of wood and other organic matter, resulting in the most well-preserved assemblage of prehistoric wooden artefacts globally.

Variety and Importance of Wooden Tools

“Schoningen stands out due to its number and variety of wooden tools,” states the recently published study identifies a minimum of 20 hunting weapons and 35 tools made from split wood, likely used in domestic activities.

Groundbreaking Discoveries

In the mid-1990s, archaeologist Hartmut Thieme uncovered three wooden spears alongside stone tools and butchered remains of over ten wild horses, dating back around 400,000 years. These discoveries of the world’s oldest preserved hunting weapons brought global fame to Schoningen and Thieme. The spears suggest that systematic hunting, involving foresight, planning, and appropriate technology, was part of the behavioural repertoire of pre-modern hominids. Thieme’s paper, ‘Lower Palaeolithic Hunting Spears from Germany’ (1997), highlights that pre-Homo sapiens communicated, organized butchering, and roasted their prey.

Technological Complexity Revealed

The new study further illuminates the technological sophistication of Schoningen’s wooden artefacts. Using 3-D microscopy and micro-CT scanners, researchers studied signs of wear or cut marks. Until now, splitting wood was thought to have been only practised by modern humans. Some spear points showed indications of being resharpened after breakage. The study noted that wood identified as working debris suggested tools were repaired and recycled for new tasks.

A More Comprehensive View of Prehistory

Despite the scarcity of evidence for prehistoric woodworking, findings from Schoningen provide a more comprehensive glimpse into our past. They highlight the significance of wood as a raw material and showcase pre-modern humans’ sophisticated woodworking capabilities.

• Costumes and Makeup: The costumes are one of the most distinctive features of Kathakali. Performers wear large, colorful, and elaborate costumes, with intricate face makeup that helps depict the nature of the characters:
• • Pacha (Green): Represents noble and divine characters.
  • Kathi (Knife): Represents villainous characters.
  • Minukku (Shining): Represents virtuous women and Brahmins.
  • Thadi (Beard): Varies to represent different types of characters, like red for aggressive and black for hunters and forest dwellers

Themes and Stories   Kathakali performances are predominantly based on stories from Hindu mythology, epics, and Puranas. They depict tales of valor, virtue, and the triumph of good over evil, often revolving around gods, demons, and heroes Kathakali dancers undergo rigorous training, often starting from a young age. Training includes physical exercises to build stamina, flexibility, and strength, alongside detailed instruction in facial expressions and hand gestures.A typical Kathakali performance is a grand spectacle that can last for several hours, sometimes overnight. The performances take place in temples and cultural festivals, especially in Kerala.

 

 

4. Way Forward

 

While traditional Kathakali sticks closely to its classical roots, modern interpretations and adaptations have emerged. Contemporary Kathakali performances sometimes incorporate stories from other cultures and even modern themes, expanding its appeal and relevance

Kathakali is a profound and visually striking art form that encapsulates the rich cultural heritage of Kerala. Its unique blend of dance, drama, music, and ritual continues to captivate audiences both in India and worldwide, preserving and promoting the traditional art form for future generations

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.With reference to the famous Sattriya dance, consider the following statements: (2014) Sattriya is a combination of music, dance and drama. It is a centuries-old living tradition of Vaishnavites of Assam. It is based on classical Ragas and Talas of devotional songs composed by Tulsidas, Kabir and Mirabai. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only  (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: (b) Sattriya is a combination of music, dance and drama. True. Sattriya dance, one of the eight classical dance forms of India, integrates elements of music, dance, and drama. It was created by the Vaishnavite saint Srimanta Sankardev in Assam as a means of spreading his religious teachings. It is a centuries-old living tradition of Vaishnavites of Assam. True. Sattriya has been a part of Assam's cultural and religious life for centuries, specifically among the Vaishnavite communities. It originated in the 15th century and is performed in Sattras (monasteries) which were established by Sankardev and his disciples. It is based on classical Ragas and Talas of devotional songs composed by Tulsidas, Kabir and Mirabai. False. While Sattriya dance does employ classical Ragas and Talas, the devotional songs it uses are primarily those composed by Srimanta Sankardev and his disciple Madhavdev, rather than Tulsidas, Kabir, and Mirabai, who are associated with different regions and traditions. Given the evaluation of each statement: Statement 1 is correct. Statement 2 is correct. Statement 3 is incorrect.

Source: The Hindu

LION-TAILED MACAQUE

 

 

 

1. Context

Valparai town in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu is a typical hill station with roads largely free of vehicles and people. But there is a bustle of activity near the Sree Muruga temple in the heart of the town. Monkeys with silver-white manes contrasting with shiny coats of black fur and tufted tails have parked themselves on the roofs of buildings, railings and platforms of shops. They are busy looking for something to eat, even food waste or rotten fruits and vegetables. Some look for bits and pieces of biscuits and chips in discarded packets

 

2. About Lion Tailed Macaque

 

• The Lion-tailed Macaque, also known as the Wanderoo, is an Old World monkey found in the Western Ghats of South India
• Lion-tailed macaques are covered in black fur with a striking grey or silver mane that surrounds their face, present in both sexes. Their tail, which is how they got their name, is long, thin, and hairless with a black, tufted tip resembling a lion's tail
• They are social animals that live in groups of 4 to 30 individuals. These groups typically consist of a few adult males and roughly twice as many females and offspring.
• One of the males will be the alpha male, or leader, of the group. Interestingly, unlike females who tend to stay within the same troop throughout their lives, males will often change groups by joining another and taking over through dominance
• Lion-tailed macaques are rain forest dwellers, favouring the upper canopy of tropical moist evergreen forests and monsoon forests.
• They are diurnal creatures, meaning they are active during the day. They spend roughly half of their day foraging for food and the other half resting or searching for new foraging areas

3. Overview of Lion Tailed Macaque

 

Category	Details
Physical Characteristics	Appearance: Lion-like tail with a tuft of fur, silver-grey mane, black body fur.
	Size: Males (5-10 kg), Females (3-6 kg).
	Lifespan: About 20 years in the wild, up to 30 years in captivity.
Habitat and Distribution	Habitat: Tropical rainforests at elevations between 600 and 1500 meters.
	Geographical Range: Endemic to the Western Ghats of India.
Behavior and Diet	Social Structure: Troops of 10 to 20 individuals, with a dominant male.
	Diet: Omnivorous, prefers fruits, seeds, leaves, flowers, and insects.
	Activity: Diurnal and arboreal, excellent climbers, rarely come to the ground.
Reproduction	Breeding: Peaks during the monsoon season.
	Gestation: About 6 months, typically resulting in a single infant.
Conservation Status	IUCN Red List: Endangered.
	Threats: Habitat loss due to deforestation, agriculture, logging, and human settlement expansion.
	Conservation Efforts: Habitat protection, wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, reducing human-wildlife conflict.
Importance in Ecosystem	Ecological Role: Seed dispersal, indicating a healthy, biodiverse forest.

 

 

4. Habitat of Lion-Tailed Macaque

 

The Lion-tailed Macaque inhabits tropical rainforests, primarily at elevations between 600 and 1500 meters. They are endemic to the Western Ghats of India, a biodiversity hotspot known for its dense, evergreen forests with a complex canopy structure. These macaques prefer undisturbed primary forests but can occasionally be found in secondary forests. They are predominantly arboreal, spending most of their time in the upper canopy. The primary threats to their habitat include destruction due to deforestation, agriculture, logging, and human settlement expansion. This habitat loss and fragmentation significantly impact their population and survival

 

5. Characteristics of Lion Tailed Macaque

 

• The Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) possesses several distinct characteristics:
• They have a striking appearance with a mane of silver-grey hair surrounding their face, which contrasts with their black body fur. Their tail, resembling a lion's with a tuft of fur at the end, is a notable feature
• Males are larger than females. Males typically weigh between 5 to 10 kg, while females weigh between 3 to 6 kg
• In the wild, Lion-tailed Macaques live for about 20 years, but they can live up to 30 years in captivity
• These primates are endemic to the Western Ghats of India, inhabiting tropical rainforests at elevations of 600 to 1500 meters
• They live in small troops of about 10 to 20 individuals, usually with a single dominant male, several females, and their offspring. The troops are territorial and maintain a defined home range.
• Omnivorous, their diet primarily consists of fruits, seeds, leaves, flowers, and insects. They have a preference for ripe fruits and are known for their foraging habits.They are diurnal and arboreal, spending most of their time in the trees. They are excellent climbers and rarely come to the ground
• The breeding season varies, peaking during the monsoon season. The gestation period is about six months, resulting in the birth of a single infant. The young are primarily cared for by the mother but receive attention from other group members as well
• The Lion-tailed Macaque is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. They face significant threats from habitat destruction due to deforestation, agricultural expansion, logging, and human settlement

6. Behaviour of the Lion-Tailed Macaque

 

The behaviour of the Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) is quite distinctive and reflects their adaptation to the dense, tropical rainforests of the Western Ghats in India.

 

Here are the key aspects of their behaviour:

•  Lion-tailed Macaques are active during the day (diurnal). They spend the daylight hours foraging, socializing, and traveling within their territory
• These macaques are highly arboreal, meaning they spend most of their time in the trees. They are adept climbers and rarely descend to the ground, preferring the safety and resources of the upper canopy
• They live in small social groups, or troops, typically consisting of 10 to 20 individuals. Each troop usually has a single dominant male, multiple females, and their offspring. The social hierarchy within the group is well-defined, with the dominant male often playing a key role in group dynamics and defense
• Lion-tailed Macaques are territorial animals. They maintain and defend a specific home range against other groups. Territorial disputes can involve vocalizations and displays of aggression to ward off intruders
• These macaques use a variety of vocalizations, facial expressions, and body postures to communicate with each other. Vocalizations include calls to alert the group to potential dangers, coordinate movements, and express social bonds
• Their diet is omnivorous, with a preference for fruits, seeds, leaves, flowers, and insects. They spend a significant portion of their day foraging for food, which they often find in the upper canopy. Their foraging behavior is crucial for seed dispersal, contributing to forest regeneration
• The breeding season peaks during the monsoon, although it can vary. After a gestation period of about six months, females give birth to a single infant. The mother is primarily responsible for the infant's care, but other group members also engage in alloparenting, providing additional support and protection
• Grooming is an essential social activity among Lion-tailed Macaques. It helps to strengthen social bonds, reduce tension, and maintain hygiene by removing parasites and dirt from their fur
• Their arboreal nature helps them avoid many ground-based predators. However, they remain vigilant against aerial predators and potential threats from the ground. Alarm calls are used to warn group members of danger
•  In the wild, they live around 20 years, and up to 30 years in captivity. Younger macaques learn crucial survival skills through observation and interaction with older, more experienced group members

 

Conservation of Lion-Tailed Macaque   The Lion-tailed Macaque, with its dwindling population, is classified as "Endangered" by the IUCN. Thankfully, there are conservation efforts underway to protect these primates and their habitat. The biggest threat to lion-tailed macaques is habitat loss. Deforestation for agriculture, timber, and human settlements is shrinking the rainforests they call home.  This habitat fragmentation also disrupts their ability to move freely between forest patches Key Organizations Involved Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) Indian government agencies such as the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) Local NGOs and community groups

 

7. Way Forward

Conserving the Lion-tailed Macaque requires a multi-faceted approach involving habitat protection, community involvement, legal enforcement, and continuous research. Collaborative efforts between government agencies, NGOs, local communities, and international organizations are essential to ensure the survival of this unique and endangered primate

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.In which of the following States is lion-tailed macaque found in its natural habitat? (UPSC CSE 2013) 1. Tamil Nadu 2. Kerala 3. Karnataka 4. Andhra Pradesh Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A.1, 2 and 3 only B.2 only C.1, 3 and 4 only D.1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer (A) The Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) is found in its natural habitat in the Western Ghats of India. The Western Ghats span several states, including Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka. However, it is not naturally found in Andhra Pradesh

Source: The Hindu