• The Census 2027 will mark India’s 16th decennial Census overall and the eighth since Independence. The exercise will gather population data at the village, town, and ward levels, covering parameters such as housing conditions, amenities, assets, demographic characteristics, religion, Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, language, literacy and education, economic activity, migration, and fertility.

• On June 16, the Centre officially notified its plan to conduct the Census 2027. This marks the first time a decennial Census has been delayed by six years. Some key features of the upcoming Census include:

  • Digital Census: For the first time, Census 2027 will be fully digital, with data collected via dedicated mobile applications. Citizens will also have the option to self-enumerate, and caste data will be recorded electronically.

  • Caste enumeration: On April 30, the Cabinet Committee on Political Affairs (CCPA) approved the inclusion of caste data in the Census.

  • Real-time monitoring and management: The Registrar General of India (RGI) is developing a Census Monitoring & Management System (CMMS) website to enable real-time oversight of the exercise. Over 35 lakh enumerators and supervisors will be deployed, which is more than 30% higher than the 27 lakh personnel used for the 2011 Census

India should be pragmatic in its approach to manufacturing semiconductor chips domestically, according to Kristy Hsu, Director of Taiwan ASEAN Studies Center at Chung-Hua Institution for Economic Research.

2. About Semiconductor Chips and their Manufacturing Process

• A semiconductor chip, also known simply as a chip or integrated circuit, is a crucial component in modern electronics.
• Semiconductors possess properties that lie between those of conductors, which readily conduct electricity, and insulators, which do not.
• In their purest form, semiconductors exhibit minimal electrical conductivity. However, this conductivity can be modified by introducing small amounts of specific substances known as "dopants."
• The manufacturing process of semiconductor chips involves intricate techniques aimed at precisely altering the electrical properties of semiconductor materials.
• By carefully injecting specific parts of a pure semiconductor with dopants, complex circuits can be effectively "printed" onto the semiconductor substrate.This process can be likened to creating detailed artwork on paper or a wall using stencils and spray paints of various colours.
• In the semiconductor industry, the stencils are referred to as "masks," while the dopants serve as the equivalent of paint. Through the meticulous application of masks and dopants, semiconductor manufacturers can fabricate intricate circuitry essential for the functioning of electronic devices.

3. About Transistors

• A transistor stands as one of the earliest electronic components crafted using semiconductor materials, showcasing remarkable versatility in its applications.
• In its most prevalent form, a transistor operates as an electronic switch, capable of controlling the flow of electrical current.
• Within a typical semiconductor chip, millions or even billions of interconnected transistors collaborate to execute various logical and computational tasks.
• Beyond its role as a switch, a transistor can also serve as an amplifier, enhancing weak signals such as those received by cell phones.
• Moreover, transistors play a crucial role in circuits involved in generating and processing high-frequency signals, essential for wireless communication technologies.
• Today, these diverse functionalities of transistors are routinely integrated into a single semiconductor chip, exemplified by the WiFi chip found in mobile devices.
• The invention of the transistor demonstrated how a solitary device could be fashioned from a semiconductor material, marking a significant advancement in electronics.
• Subsequently, the ability to "print" multiple devices onto a single semiconductor substrate to construct entire circuits represented the next leap forward.
• Both of these breakthroughs laid the groundwork for the semiconductor revolution and have been duly recognized by Nobel Prizes, awarded in 1956 and 2000, respectively.

4. Fabrication Technology in Semiconductor Manufacturing

• Fabrication technology in semiconductor manufacturing refers to the processes and techniques used to create semiconductor chips with increasingly advanced features and capabilities.
• Over the past six decades since the inception of semiconductor chips, technological advancements have propelled the industry forward at a relentless pace, introducing newer manufacturing technologies at regular intervals.
• One significant aspect of fabrication technology is the level of miniaturization achieved in semiconductor chips.
• This advancement is akin to the analogy of using stencils to etch smaller and more intricate patterns.
• The miniaturization of semiconductor components, such as transistors, has increased by orders of magnitude. This progress is accompanied by impressive gains in the switching capability of transistors, enabling faster switching speeds and lower power consumption.
• Manufacturing technologies are often denoted by labels like '45nm,' '28nm,' and '16nm,' with 'nm' representing nanometers, an extremely small unit of length equal to one billionth of a meter.
• These numbers signify the level of miniaturization achievable using a particular technology, with smaller numbers indicating finer features.
• While traditionally electronic circuits have been laid out flat on semiconductor substrates, researchers are increasingly exploring the use of the third dimension (height) to enhance performance.
• As the dimensions of individual transistors decrease, increasing their height can help ensure reliable operation.
• Additionally, stacking entire circuits on top of one another is another approach to further reduce semiconductor chip sizes and enhance functionality.

5. Wafer in Semiconductor Manufacturing

• In the realm of semiconductor manufacturing, a wafer is akin to a crucial canvas on which semiconductor chips are created.
• Drawing an analogy to the production of postage stamps, semiconductor chips are crafted on a wafer much like stamps are printed on a sheet of paper and then individually cut out.
• Typically, an array of chips, numbering around 300-400, is printed on a circular piece of semiconductor material, referred to as a wafer within the industry. Subsequently, the wafer is diced into individual chips.
• The size of the wafer plays a pivotal role in the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of chip production.
• Larger wafer sizes facilitate the printing of more chips on a single wafer, thereby accelerating chip production while simultaneously reducing costs.
• Over time, wafer sizes utilized in the industry have steadily increased. Presently, the state-of-the-art standard is a 300mm wafer, roughly equivalent to 12 inches in diameter.
• Ongoing efforts aim to transition towards utilizing 450mm wafer sizes. While transitioning to larger wafer sizes poses technical challenges and capital expenses, it ultimately proves to be economically advantageous in the long run.
• Following the dicing of the wafer into individual chips, each chip undergoes packaging wherein it is encased in a protective covering.
• Furthermore, intricate wiring is meticulously routed from the device to the periphery of the package. These wires serve various functions, including power supply and signal transmission.
• Subsequently, each chip undergoes rigorous testing procedures, including functionality verification and stress testing, to ensure reliability throughout its operational lifespan. These assembly and test processes are carried out in specialized assembly and test plants.

6. India's Semiconductor Ecosystem

• India's semiconductor ecosystem has witnessed significant growth, particularly in chip design, since the 1990s.
• Leveraging the capabilities of computer-aided design (CAD), semiconductor chips can be designed entirely using software tools. This process involves specifying the chip's functionality, translating it into electronic circuits, validating the circuits, and optimizing for factors such as speed, power consumption, and size all achievable by skilled engineers working at their desktops.
• The final chip design is abstracted into a file format and sent to a fabrication plant for manufacturing, resembling the process of creating and publishing a graphic novel entirely on a laptop.
• India's venture into semiconductor manufacturing stands to benefit from its well-established ecosystem for chip design, driven by a steady influx of electronics and computer engineers.
• Given that semiconductor manufacturing is inherently interdisciplinary, there are opportunities for professionals from various fields to contribute meaningfully to this industry.
• This includes process and control engineers, data scientists, material scientists, physicists, and chemical engineers, who can collaborate to advance semiconductor manufacturing capabilities in the country.

RENEWABLE ENERGY

1. Context

2. Why use Renewable energy

• Today we primarily use fossil fuels to heat and power our homes and fuel our cars. 
• It’s convenient to use coal, oil, and natural gas for meeting our energy needs, but we have a limited supply of these fuels on Earth. 
• We’re using them much more rapidly than they are being created. Eventually, they will run out. 
• And because of safety concerns and waste disposal problems, the United States will retire much of its nuclear capacity by 2020. 
• In the meantime, the nation’s energy needs are expected to grow by 33 per cent during the next 20 years. 
• Renewable energy can help fill the gap
• Even if we had an unlimited supply of fossil fuels, using renewable energy is better for the environment. 
• We often call renewable energy technologies “clean” or “green” because they produce few if any pollutants. 
• Burning fossil fuels, however, sends greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, trapping the sun’s heat and contributing to global warming. 
• Climate scientists generally agree that the Earth’s average temperature has risen in the past century. 
• If this trend continues, sea levels will rise, and scientists predict that floods, heat waves, droughts, and other extreme weather conditions could occur more often. 
• Other pollutants are released into the air, soil, and water when fossil fuels are burned. 
• These pollutants take a dramatic toll on the environment—and humans. 
• Air pollution contributes to diseases like asthma. 
• Acid rain from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides harms plants and fish. Nitrogen oxides also contribute to smog.
• Renewable energy will also help us develop energy independence and security. 
• Replacing some of our petroleum with fuels made from plant matter, for example, could save money and strengthen our energy security. 
• Renewable energy is plentiful, and the technologies are improving all the time. 
• There are many ways to use renewable energy. 
• Most of us already use renewable energy in our daily lives.

2.1.Hydropower 

• Hydropower is our most mature and largest source of renewable power, producing about 10 per cent of the nation’s electricity. 
• Existing hydropower capacity is about 77,000 megawatts (MW). Hydropower plants convert the energy in flowing water into electricity. 
• The most common form of hydropower uses a dam on a river to retain a large reservoir of water. Water is released through turbines to generate power.
•  “Run of the river” systems, however, divert water from the river and direct it through a pipeline to a turbine. 
• Hydropower plants produce no air emissions but can affect water quality and wildlife habitats. 

2.2.Bioenergy 

• Bioenergy is the energy derived from biomass (organic matter), such as plants. If you’ve ever burned wood in a fireplace or campfire, you’ve used bioenergy. 
• But we don’t get all of our biomass resources directly from trees or other plants. 
• Many industries, such as those involved in construction or the processing of agricultural products, can create large quantities of unused or residual biomass, which can serve as a bioenergy source. 

2.3.Geothermal Energy 

• The Earth’s core, 4,000 miles below the surface, can reach temperatures of 9000° F. 
• This heat—geothermal energy—flows outward from the core, heating the surrounding area, which can form underground reservoirs of hot water and steam. 
• These reservoirs can be tapped for a variety of uses, such as to generate electricity or heat buildings. 
• By using geothermal heat pumps (GHPs), we can even take advantage of the shallow ground’s stable temperature for heating and cooling buildings. 

2.4.Solar Energy 

• Solar technologies tap directly into the infinite power of the sun and use that energy to produce heat, light, and power.

2.5. Wind Energy 

• For hundreds of years, people have used windmills to harness the wind’s energy. 
• Today’s wind turbines, which operate differently from windmills, are a much more efficient technology. 
• Wind turbine technology may look simple: the wind spins turbine blades around a central hub; the hub is connected to a shaft, which powers a generator to make electricity. 
• However, turbines are highly sophisticated power systems that capture the wind’s energy using new blade designs or airfoils. 
• Modern, mechanical drive systems, combined with advanced generators, convert that energy into electricity. 
• Wind turbines that provide electricity to the utility grid range in size from 50 kW to 6 
• Wind energy has been the fastest growing source of energy since 1990.

2.6.Ocean Energy 

• The ocean can produce two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun’s heat, and mechanical energy from the tides and waves. 
• Ocean thermal energy can be used for many applications, including electricity generation. 
• Electricity conversion systems use either the warm surface water or boil the seawater to turn a turbine, which activates a generator. 
• The electricity conversion of both tidal and wave energy usually involves mechanical devices. 
• A dam is typically used to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water through turbines and activating a generator. 
• Meanwhile, wave energy uses mechanical power to directly activate a generator or to transfer to a working fluid, water, or air, which then drives a turbine/generator.

2.7.Hydrogen 

• Hydrogen is high in energy, yet its use as a fuel produces water as the only emission. 
• Hydrogen is the universe’s most abundant element and also its simplest. 
• A hydrogen atom consists of only one proton and one electron. 
• Despite its abundance and simplicity, it doesn’t occur naturally as a gas on the Earth. 
• Today, industry produces more than 4 trillion cubic feet of hydrogen annually. 
• Most of this hydrogen is produced through a process called reforming, which involves the application of heat to separate hydrogen from carbon. Researchers are developing highly efficient, advanced reformers to produce hydrogen from natural gas for what’s called Proton Exchange Membrane fuel cells.

3. Steps were taken by the government to promote Renewable energy

The Indian renewable energy sector is the fourth most attractive renewable energy market in the world. India was ranked fourth in wind power, fifth in solar power and fourth in renewable power installed capacity, as of 2020.

3.1.Distribution of prominent renewable energy Hubs

• Rajasthan
• Gujarat
• Andhra Pradesh
• Karnataka
• Telangana
• Tamil Nadu

3.2.Steps taken

• Permitting Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) up to 100 per cent under the automatic route,
• Waiver of Inter-State Transmission System (ISTS) charges for inter-state sale of solar and wind power for projects to be commissioned by 30th June 2025,
• Declaration of trajectory for Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO) up to the year 2022,
• Setting up of Ultra Mega Renewable Energy Parks to provide land and transmission to RE developers on a plug-and-play basis,
• Schemes such as Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan (PM-KUSUM), Solar Rooftop Phase II, 12000 MW CPSU Scheme Phase II, etc,
• Laying of new transmission lines and creating new sub-station capacity under the Green Energy Corridor Scheme for evacuation of renewable power,
• Setting up of Project Development Cell for attracting and facilitating investments,
• Standard Bidding Guidelines for tariff-based competitive bidding process for procurement of Power from Grid Connected Solar PV and Wind Projects.

• Deployment of large-scale renewable energy (RE) has the potential to create numerous employment opportunities in rural India in the coming decades. By 2030, it is projected that the clean-energy sectors could provide jobs for around one million individuals in the country.
• However, the expansion of RE may have significant impacts on communities reliant on the land, involving changes in land use, modifications to ecosystems, shifts in livelihoods, and overall effects on land productivity.
• As India progresses in scaling up RE, striking a balance between these interests may result in project commissioning delays, contributing to a waning interest among developers in RE tenders.
• In 2020, wind developers, facing setbacks such as delays in land allocation, sought to terminate power-purchase agreements for approximately 565 MW wind capacity signed with the Solar Energy Corporation of India (SECI), prompting a decline in developers' enthusiasm for RE projects. Commissioning delays not only pose substantial financial risks but also jeopardize the reputation of RE developers.
• In the pursuit of responsible RE deployment and the enhancement of communities in and around project sites, many developers actively support local development activities and community-led programs through corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives.
• As an illustration, Tata Power Solar has established integrated vocational training programs for women and youth in multiple project sites.
• Given the pivotal role of project developers in interacting with communities during land acquisition, construction, and operational phases, they play a crucial role in driving responsible practices. Additionally, regulators and investors prioritize assessing the responsible practices of new projects.
• To encourage all developers to contribute to the rapidly growing RE ecosystem and promote responsible practices, two essential prerequisites need to be addressed

5. Way forward

 

The push for responsible energy is not to create new barriers for developers but is with the benefit of hindsight, that energy projects have externalities that must be addressed at the outset before they become entrenched. Responsible RE will strengthen the renewable ecosystem in India, and address roadblocks in siting, public acceptance and find the right synergy between energy security, society and the environment

 

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSION INTENSITY (GEI)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Centre has notified the first legally binding Greenhouse Gas Emission Intensity (GEI) Target Rules, 2025. 4 high-emission sectors for which it has been notified are —aluminium, cement, chlor-alkali, and pulp and paper.The emission targets were notified by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change on October 8

 

2. Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS)

 

• The Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) is an important initiative launched by the Government of India in 2023 under the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Act, 2022.
• It represents India’s first step toward building a domestic carbon market, which aims to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in a market-driven, cost-effective manner while helping the country move toward its net-zero target by 2070.
• At its core, the CCTS operates on the principle that carbon emissions carry an environmental cost, and those who can reduce emissions more efficiently should be rewarded.
• Under this system, industries or entities that emit less than their allotted carbon limit can earn carbon credits—essentially certificates representing one tonne of carbon dioxide (or its equivalent) reduced or removed from the atmosphere.
• These credits can then be sold to other entities that are unable to stay within their emission limits, creating a market for carbon.
• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) under the Ministry of Power serves as the nodal agency for implementing the CCTS, while the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) acts as the regulator to ensure transparency and fair trading.
• The trading itself will occur on designated power exchanges, where buyers and sellers of carbon credits can transact under clearly defined rules.
• Unlike the older Perform, Achieve and Trade (PAT) scheme—which focused only on improving energy efficiency in certain industrial sectors—the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme is broader in scope.
• It covers not only industries but also other sectors contributing to emissions, such as transport, waste management, agriculture, and forestry. This shift marks India’s transition from a narrowly focused energy efficiency mechanism to a comprehensive carbon market framework.
• To ensure integrity and reliability, emission reductions will be verified by accredited agencies following international best practices. Each verified reduction will be converted into a tradable carbon credit, ensuring the environmental credibility of the system.
• Over time, the government plans to link the domestic carbon market with international ones, allowing Indian companies to participate in global carbon trading and attract green investments.
• In essence, the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme is both an environmental and economic tool. It encourages industries to innovate and adopt cleaner technologies by providing financial incentives for emission reductions.
• Simultaneously, it helps India align its development trajectory with global climate commitments under the Paris Agreement.
• By monetizing emission reductions, the CCTS transforms climate responsibility into a tangible economic opportunity—turning carbon savings into a tradable asset that drives sustainable growth

 

 

3. Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 & India

 

 

• The Paris Climate Agreement of 2015 is a landmark international treaty adopted under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), aimed at combating climate change and accelerating actions for a sustainable low-carbon future.
• It was signed during the 21st Conference of Parties (COP-21) held in Paris, France, in December 2015, and came into force on November 4, 2016.
• The agreement’s central goal is to limit the rise in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels, and preferably to 1.5°C, to reduce the risks and impacts of climate change.
• Unlike the earlier Kyoto Protocol, which imposed legally binding targets only on developed countries, the Paris Agreement calls for voluntary commitments from all nations, recognizing the principle of “Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities” (CBDR-RC). This means all countries share responsibility to act, but their efforts should reflect their differing capabilities and levels of development.

Under the Paris Agreement, India submitted its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs), which later became its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) after ratification. These NDCs outline India’s commitments to combat climate change by 2030: Emission Intensity Reduction – India pledged to reduce the emission intensity of its GDP by 33–35% from 2005 levels. This means producing less carbon dioxide per unit of economic output, not necessarily reducing total emissions immediately. Renewable Energy and Non-Fossil Fuel Targets – India committed to achieving 40% of its cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy sources by 2030. This target has since been enhanced to 50% under updated NDCs, reflecting India’s growing renewable energy leadership. Carbon Sink Creation – India aims to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO₂ equivalent through afforestation and tree cover by 2030

 

4. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions intensity or GEI

 

• Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions Intensity, often referred to as GHG Emission Intensity (GEI), is a key indicator used to measure how efficiently a country or an economy is producing goods and services while controlling its contribution to climate change.
• In simple terms, GHG emissions intensity represents the amount of greenhouse gases emitted per unit of economic output, usually expressed as kilograms or tonnes of CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e) per unit of GDP. It tells us how much carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are released for every unit of economic activity
• Every country produces greenhouse gases—mainly carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and fluorinated gases—through activities like energy production, transport, agriculture, and industry. However, not all emissions are equal when compared to the size of their economies.
• For example, a country with a large industrial base may have high total emissions but still have low emissions intensity if it produces more output per unit of carbon released.
• On the other hand, a country with inefficient energy use or older technology may have high emissions intensity even if its total emissions are smaller.
• Thus, GHG emissions intensity reflects the efficiency and sustainability of a nation’s growth rather than just its absolute emission levels

 

GHG Emission Intensity=Total GHG Emissions (CO₂e)/Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

5. Carbon Credits

 

• Under the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, industries that successfully cut down their CO₂ emissions will be rewarded with carbon credits.
• These credits can later be sold or exchanged in the domestic carbon trading market.
• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) will serve as the authority responsible for issuing carbon credit certificates to eligible entities.
• Industries unable to meet their prescribed emission reduction targets will be required to purchase additional carbon credits from the market to make up for the deficit.
• In cases where industries violate or fail to adhere to the provisions of the GHG Emission Intensity (GEI) Rules, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) will levy environmental compensation as a penalty.
• Similar systems of carbon credit trading have already been implemented in other regions, such as Europe (since 2005) and China (since 2021).
• In India, carbon credits are traded via the Indian Carbon Market platform, which operates under the supervision of the Bureau of Energy Efficiency within the Ministry of Power.

​

6. Initiatives of the Government of India

 

• The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), initiated in 2019, encompasses 130 cities across 24 States and Union Territories, aiming to bring about a notable improvement in air quality. Its target is to achieve up to a 40% reduction in particulate matter (PM) concentrations by 2025–26, using 2017–18 as the baseline year.
• To ensure real-time monitoring and transparency, the ‘PRANA’ portal has been developed to continuously update and display air quality data.
• The government has introduced Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) regulations for plastic, tyre, battery, used oil, and e-waste, with the goal of strengthening the circular economy and ensuring environmentally responsible waste management.
• The ‘Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes (MISHTI)’ seeks to restore and expand mangrove ecosystems, recognizing their crucial role in coastal resilience, biodiversity preservation, and livelihood generation for coastal communities.
• The Nagar Van Yojana, implemented by the National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board (NAEB), focuses on increasing tree and green cover beyond forest areas, promoting biodiversity, and enhancing urban environmental quality to improve the well-being of city residents.
• Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment) is an Indian-led global campaign that advocates for sustainable living through conscious, environment-friendly choices.
• It emphasizes seven key themes — water conservation, energy saving, waste reduction, e-waste management, elimination of single-use plastics, sustainable food practices, and healthy lifestyles — to promote a culture of mindful consumption.
• The Eco-mark Rules are designed to encourage the production and use of eco-friendly goods, consistent with the ethos of LiFE.
• The initiative promotes energy efficiency, responsible resource use, and circular economy principles, while ensuring accurate labeling to prevent greenwashing or misleading environmental claims.
• The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) serves as the umbrella framework for India’s climate strategies.
• It includes a set of national missions addressing areas such as solar energy, energy efficiency, sustainable habitats, water management, Himalayan ecosystem protection, afforestation (Green India Mission), sustainable agriculture, human health, and climate knowledge systems, all directed toward building climate resilience and sustainable growth

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022) (A) Methane (B) Sulphur dioxide (C) Surface Ozone (D) Nitrogen dioxide (E) Carbon dioxide Choose the correct answer from the options given below : 1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only 2.(A), (C), (E) only 3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only 4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only Answer (2)

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

VULTURES AND PANDEMICS

 

 

 

1. Context

 

When most of us think of pandemic preparedness, images of vaccines, laboratories, and health workers in protective gear spring to mind. Rarely do we picture a bird, wings outstretched, circling high in the sky. Yet, one of South Asia’s guardians of public health is the vulture, nature’s most efficient waste manager.

 

2. India's Vultures

 

• For centuries, vultures have served as natural cleaners, disposing of carcasses and curbing the spread of dangerous pathogens such as anthrax, rabies, and Clostridium botulinum. Until the 1980s, it was common to see large gatherings of vultures at dumping grounds.
• India alone had a population exceeding 40 million, but since the 1990s their numbers have plummeted by over 95% because of the use of diclofenac.
• This crisis is not merely ecological—it is also a growing public health concern, showing how biodiversity loss can amplify the risk of future pandemics.
• India’s vultures form an essential part of the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), a major migratory route that links Central Asian breeding habitats to wintering sites across South Asia.
• This flyway, stretching across 30+ countries, is used by millions of migratory birds each year. As vultures and raptors traverse this corridor, they connect ecosystems—and the potential transmission of diseases—across international borders.
• Sites like landfills, carcass dumps, or temporary stopovers can easily become disease hotspots, making the CAF not just a biodiversity highway but also a corridor of public health importance.
• Strengthening conservation within this pathway provides a crucial chance to integrate ecological security with pandemic prevention.
• Yet, regional collaboration faces hurdles due to funding shortages and weak structural support. Vulture conservation programmes remain under-resourced, fragmented, and insufficiently tied into national One Health frameworks.
• Meanwhile, persistent threats such as poisoning from toxic veterinary drugs and electrocution from power lines continue to undermine recovery efforts

 

3. Vultures and Pandemics

 

• Vultures are directly linked to pandemic risks because of the ecological role they play in controlling disease spread. These birds are highly efficient scavengers that consume animal carcasses rapidly, leaving little opportunity for pathogens to multiply and spread in the environment.
• In their absence, dead animals remain exposed for longer periods, attracting stray dogs, rats, and other scavengers that are far more likely to transmit diseases to humans.
• For instance, with the decline of vultures in India due to the veterinary drug diclofenac, there was a noticeable rise in feral dog populations feeding on carcasses.
• This led to an increase in dog bites and rabies cases, showing how biodiversity loss can create new public health challenges.
• Moreover, vultures are part of the Central Asian Flyway, a major migratory corridor linking over 30 countries. Their movement, and that of other raptors, connects ecosystems across borders.
• If vultures decline, carcasses left unmanaged along this corridor can become hotspots for zoonotic spillovers—where pathogens jump from animals to humans. This is especially critical because many pandemics, including COVID-19, have zoonotic origins.
• Therefore, conserving vultures is not only about protecting a species but also about maintaining a natural barrier against disease outbreaks, highlighting the strong intersection between biodiversity conservation and global health security

• With the National Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (2016–2025) approaching its end, India now has the chance to integrate vulture protection into broader strategies for pandemic preparedness.
• By consuming animal carcasses, vultures reduce the risk of zoonotic spillover and thus act as an important line of defence for public health.
• As the earliest scavengers to reach dead animals, they can also serve a crucial role in monitoring and ensuring safe carcass disposal.
• However, their importance in this regard has seldom been formally acknowledged. Likewise, local communities that coexist with vultures remain an overlooked yet vital part of conservation efforts.
• Despite the modest funding required for vulture protection compared to the enormous expenses of managing disease outbreaks, financial frameworks have not yet recognised conservation as a form of pandemic prevention

 

4. India Protecting Vultures

 

• A post-2025 national roadmap for vulture conservation could be built around five core pillars. The first would involve nationwide satellite tracking to identify habitats, carcass disposal sites, and potential spillover hotspots.
• The second would establish a Decision Support System (DSS) that combines wildlife, livestock, and human health data for real-time risk monitoring in line with International Health Regulations.
• The third would focus on strengthening inter-agency cooperation through a One Health framework, linking environmental, veterinary, and public health institutions.
• The fourth would emphasize cross-border collaboration along the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), in line with the Convention on Migratory Species and regional preparedness for disease threats.
• Finally, the fifth would promote community involvement, particularly empowering women, youth, and local groups to act as frontline agents for surveillance and awareness.
• Together, these five pillars would safeguard a keystone species, enhance public health systems, and lower pandemic risks while aligning with the World Health Organization’s South-East Asia Regional Office Strategic Roadmap for Health Security (2023–27).
• In essence, by expanding on the current Vulture Action Plan and embedding it within a broader health security framework, India can move from species-specific recovery to a comprehensive resilience strategy.
• This would not only protect vultures but also mitigate zoonotic spillovers and strengthen India’s position as a global leader in biodiversity-driven health security

 

 

5. Way Forward

 

A new framework that brings together surveillance of human, animal, and environmental health, shortens the gap between detection and response, and promotes regional cooperation can help build systemic resilience. This approach is also economically prudent: the investment needed for vulture protection—through satellite tracking, safer veterinary practices, and reducing infrastructure-related risks—is minimal when compared to the massive economic and human costs of managing a disease outbreak.

Given that India hosts a significant portion of the vulture populations along the Central Asian Flyway—such as the Himalayan griffon, cinereous vulture, and Eurasian griffon—and has proven its ability to innovate, it is well placed to demonstrate how conserving biodiversity can function as a strategy for pandemic prevention. By expanding telemetry, putting a Decision Support System (DSS) into operation, and embedding vulture protection within national and regional One Health programmes, India could set an example for neighbouring countries and potentially for the wider world

 

For Prelims: Central Asian Flyway (CAF), India’s National Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (2016-25)   For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Which of the following are the Objectives of 'National Nutrition Mission'? (UPSC 2017) 1. To Create Awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers 2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolscent girls, and women 3. To promote the Consumption of millets, coarse cereals, and unpolished rice 4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 2 Only       B.1, 2 and 3         C. 1, 2 and 4           D. 3 and 4   2. In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because (UPSC 2019) A. Poverty rates vary from State to State B. Price levels vary from State to State C. Gross State Product varies from State to State D. Quality of public distribution varies from State to State 3.Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to (2012) (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species (b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle (c) scarcity of food available to them (d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them. Answer (b)   The drastic decline in vulture populations in India since the 1990s was primarily due to the veterinary drug Diclofenac, given to cattle to treat inflammation and pain. When vultures fed on carcasses of cattle treated with this drug, it caused kidney failure and death in vultures   Answers: 1-A, 2- B, 3-b

Source: The Hindu

 

ASIAN GIANT TORTOISE

 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The critically endangered Asian giant tortoise, the largest in mainland Asia, has been reintroduced into the Zeliang Community Reserve in Nagaland’s Peren. 

 

2. Asian giant tortoise

 

• The Asian giant tortoise, scientifically known as Manouria emys, is the largest tortoise species found in mainland Asia. This slow-moving herbivore is native to the forested regions of Southeast Asia, including India (particularly the Northeast), Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and parts of Indonesia. It inhabits moist deciduous and evergreen forests, often in hilly or mountainous terrain where the climate remains humid and cool.
• This tortoise is notable for its large, domed shell which can grow up to 60 centimeters in length, and its strong, elephantine limbs that help it navigate through dense undergrowth and muddy forest floors.
• Unlike many other tortoises, the Asian giant tortoise prefers cooler, wetter environments, and it is usually active during the early morning and late afternoon, resting during the heat of the day.
• One of the fascinating aspects of this species is its nesting behavior. The female constructs a large nest mound made of vegetation, which she guards actively for several weeks—an unusual trait among tortoises, which typically leave their eggs unattended after laying them.
• Primarily herbivorous, the Asian giant tortoise feeds on a variety of plant materials such as leaves, fruits, mushrooms, and grasses. It plays an important ecological role as a seed disperser in its forest ecosystem.
• Unfortunately, the Asian giant tortoise faces serious threats due to habitat destruction, illegal wildlife trade, and hunting for its meat and shell.
• As a result, it is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is protected under Schedule IV of India’s Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Conservation efforts are ongoing in various parts of its range, including habitat preservation and breeding programs

 

3. Reasons for endangered status of Asian giant tortoise

 

• The Asian giant tortoise (Manouria emys) is classified as Endangered due to a combination of natural and human-induced threats. Its declining population is the result of several interrelated factors that have made survival increasingly difficult for this species across its native range.
• One of the most significant threats to the Asian giant tortoise is the destruction of its forest habitat. Expanding agriculture, logging, infrastructure development, and human settlement have led to widespread deforestation in the tropical and subtropical forests of South and Southeast Asia. This has reduced the availability of suitable nesting and foraging grounds, making it difficult for the species to thrive
• The tortoise is heavily targeted by poachers for its meat, which is considered a delicacy in some regions, and for use in traditional medicine. It is also captured for the illegal pet trade, both locally and internationally. Despite legal protections, enforcement is often weak, and trade continues in black markets.
• Like many tortoises, the Asian giant tortoise has a slow reproductive rate. Females lay relatively few eggs and take many years to reach sexual maturity. This makes it difficult for populations to recover quickly from losses due to poaching or environmental changes.
• Even when nesting is successful, eggs and young hatchlings face high predation rates from animals such as monitor lizards, wild pigs, and dogs. Because adults are large and well-protected by their shells, they have few natural predators, but the young are especially vulnerable.
• Human activities such as collection for zoos, disturbance of nesting sites, use of fire in forests, and grazing by livestock all negatively impact tortoise populations. In many places, local communities are unaware of the ecological importance or protected status of the species.
• Changing temperature and rainfall patterns are beginning to affect the microhabitats in which the tortoise thrives. Climate change may also impact nesting behavior, sex ratios of hatchlings (which can be temperature-dependent), and food availability

 

4. Schedule IV of India’s Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

 

 

• Schedule IV of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is one of the six schedules under the Act that classifies wild animals and plants based on the level of protection they require
• Schedule IV includes animals that are protected but with comparatively lesser protection than those listed in Schedule I and II. Offences involving species listed in this schedule are subject to lower penalties

• While Schedule IV animals are not critically endangered, they are still important components of India’s wildlife and ecosystem. The schedule aims to ensure that common species do not become vulnerable or threatened over time due to neglect or overexploitation.
• This classification allows authorities to allocate resources and focus on stricter protection for species in Schedule I and II, while still maintaining a legal mechanism to prevent harm to moderately vulnerable species

 

Examples of Species under Schedule IV: Asian Giant Tortoise (Manouria emys) House crow (Corvus splendens) Indian Bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus tigerinus) Monitor lizards (some species not in Schedule I)

 

 

 

5. What is the Critically Endangered Status?

 

 

• The Critically Endangered (CR) status is the highest risk category assigned by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on its Red List of Threatened Species. It indicates that a species faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future
• A species is classified as Critically Endangered when it meets specific scientific criteria that signal it is on the brink of extinction. These criteria are based on population size, rate of decline, geographic range, and other factors that assess the species’ overall survival prospects

IUCN Criteria for Critically Endangered Status (at least one of the following must apply):

• Population decline of ≥90% over the last 10 years or 3 generations, whichever is longer.

• Fewer than 250 mature individuals remaining, with a continuing decline.

• Severely fragmented population or occurrence in only one location.

• Extremely small geographic range (extent of occurrence <100 km² or area of occupancy <10 km²).

• Quantitative analysis shows a ≥50% probability of extinction in the wild within 10 years or three generations

 

 

For Prelims: Critically Endangered, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Wildlife Protection Act, 1972   For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.The "Red Data Books" published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of (UPSC CSE 2011)   1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots. 2. Threatened plant and animal species. 3. Protected sites for the conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.   Select the correct answer using the codes given below: A.1 and 3 B.2 only C.2 and 3 D.3 only   Answer (B)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

INDIA'S GREEN POWER CAPACITY

 

 

1. Context

 

India has reached a key climate milestone five years ahead of schedule — as of June 30, non-fossil fuel sources account for 50.1 per cent of the country’s installed electricity capacity. When the Paris Agreement on climate change was signed in 2015, India had committed to reaching 40 per cent non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030. This target was raised to 50 per cent in 2022.

 

2. Statistics of Indian green power

 

• In 2015, energy sources like nuclear, large hydroelectric, and renewables contributed only 30% to India’s total installed power capacity. This figure grew to 38% by 2020 and saw a sharp increase over the next five years, mainly due to the surge in solar and wind energy installations.

• By June 2025, India’s overall installed power capacity had reached 485 gigawatts (GW). Out of this, renewable sources — such as solar, wind, small hydro, and biogas — contributed 185 GW, according to a release from the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).

• Additionally, large hydro accounted for 49 GW and nuclear power contributed 9 GW, collectively pushing the share of non-fossil fuel sources slightly above the 50% mark. Thermal power, which primarily relies on coal and natural gas, continued to make up 242 GW — approximately 49.9% of the total capacity. Back in 2015, thermal power had represented about 70% of the energy mix.

• As of 2024, India held the fourth position globally in terms of renewable energy capacity (including large hydro), trailing only behind China, the United States, and Brazil.

• The increasing role of renewable energy in India’s power sector reflects a major transition, largely powered by the rapid growth of solar and wind energy. However, while the installed thermal capacity now forms less than half of the total, thermal energy remains dominant in actual electricity generation. This is because solar and wind power are variable and cannot provide continuous output, resulting in thermal sources still generating over 70% of the electricity.

• Reducing the thermal share in actual energy generation — and achieving the national target of 500 GW of non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030 — will require considerable improvements, starting with a more resilient and stable power grid

 

 

3. Types of Renewable energy

 

• Solar Energy: Solar power is obtained by capturing the sun’s rays. It can be converted into electricity through photovoltaic (PV) panels or used to produce heat using solar thermal technologies. Given its limitless availability, solar energy is one of the most accessible renewable sources. Countries like China, the United States, India, and Japan lead globally in solar power generation.

• Hydropower: This energy is produced by utilizing the kinetic force of moving water — typically from rivers, dams, or waterfalls. It is one of the earliest and most extensively adopted forms of clean energy.

• Biomass Energy: Biomass comes from organic matter such as agricultural waste, animal manure, and wood. These materials can be burned or processed into biofuels in liquid or gas form, used for heating, power generation, or transportation. As the feedstock is renewable and can be replenished naturally, biomass is classified as a sustainable energy source.

• Wind Energy: Wind turbines transform the motion of wind into electrical power. Both land-based (onshore) and sea-based (offshore) wind installations contribute significantly to renewable energy in nations such as China, India, and the United States.

• Geothermal Energy: Geothermal power comes from the Earth’s internal heat, which may be accessed through natural hot springs or engineered systems. These underground heat sources, found at varying depths, are used to generate electricity or provide direct heating. Power plants typically use underground steam or hot water to operate turbines and generate electricity.

• Tidal and Wave Energy: These energy forms tap into oceanic movements to produce power. Tidal energy is driven by the gravitational forces of the moon and sun, while wave energy captures the force of sea surface waves to generate electricity

 

4. Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)

 

 

• On October 2, 2015, India presented its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). By doing so, India became a participant in the UNFCCC and a signatory to the Paris Agreement — a global climate pact adopted in 2015, which follows a five-year cycle of progressively ambitious national climate goals known as NDCs.

• India’s initial NDC outlined two primary objectives: one was to cut the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33–35% by the year 2030 compared to 2005 levels; the other was to ensure that around 40% of its installed electricity capacity would come from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030.

• These targets were revised in August 2022. India increased its emissions intensity reduction target to 45% by 2030 (from the 2005 baseline), and raised its non-fossil fuel energy capacity goal to 50% of the total installed power capacity by the same year.

• Additionally, India has committed to developing 500 gigawatts (GW) of renewable energy capacity by 2030 — a goal declared by Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the COP26 summit in Glasgow. The country is also considering scaling this capacity up to 1 terawatt (TW) by 2035. Moreover, India has pledged to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by the year 2070

 

5. Government schemes which support clean energy

 

 

India has launched several initiatives to accelerate its progress toward renewable energy goals. Key programs supporting this transition include:

 

• PM-KUSUM (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha Evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan): This initiative encourages the use of solar energy in rural India by supporting the installation of small solar power plants, standalone solar pumps, and the solarisation of existing grid-connected agricultural pumps
• PM Surya Ghar: Muft Bijli Yojana: Introduced on February 15, 2024, this government-backed program aims to offer free electricity to Indian households. It provides financial assistance, covering up to 40% of the cost, for installing rooftop solar panels. The scheme is expected to benefit around one crore families by promoting residential solar energy adoption
• Grid-Connected Rooftop Solar Program (Pradhan Mantri Suryodaya Yojana): This scheme involves setting up solar photovoltaic systems on building rooftops to supply power to the premises. Any excess energy generated can be exported back to the main power grid
•  Green Energy Corridor Scheme: This set of infrastructure initiatives is designed to integrate renewable energy production into India's central power grid, ensuring a smooth and efficient distribution of green electricity
• National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM): Launched by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, the mission aims to produce 5 million tonnes of green hydrogen annually by 2030. To support this goal, the country plans to add around 125 GW of renewable energy capacity

 

 

For Prelims:  PM-KUSUM, National Green Hydrogen Mission (NGHM), Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)   For Mains: GS III - Environment and ecology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.What is/are the importance of the ‘ United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification’ ? (UPSC CSE 2016) 1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships. 2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of a major portion of financial resources to these regions. 3. It is committed to bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating the desertification. Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (c)   Statement 1 – Correct: The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) does aim to promote effective action through innovative national programs and supportive international cooperation. It encourages countries to develop National Action Programmes (NAPs) with the support of international partnerships. Statement 2 – Incorrect: The UNCCD does not give special focus or preferential financial allocation specifically to South Asia and North Africa. While these regions are heavily affected by desertification, the Convention is global in scope and does not prioritize them in funding allocation through its Secretariat. Statement 3 – Correct: The UNCCD promotes a bottom-up approach, emphasizing the importance of local community involvement in planning and implementing strategies to combat desertification

Source: Indianexpress