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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 12 SEPTEMBER 2025

TWO STATE SOLUTION

 
 
1. Context
 
In a significant diplomatic shift, several European nations, including Spain, Ireland, and Norway, have formally recognised the state of Palestine. The move has created a ripple effect, prompting major powers like France to clarify their own positions. French President Emmanuel Macron stated he is “totally ready to recognise a Palestinian state,” but stressed such a move “must come at a useful moment.” This wave of recognition is the culmination of overlapping geopolitical, moral, and domestic pressures that have reached a tipping point
 
2. What is a Two State Solution?
 

The two-state solution refers to a proposed resolution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, envisioning the establishment of two separate sovereign states, Israel and Palestine, coexisting side by side within agreed-upon borders.

Key elements of the two-state solution typically include:

  • Borders: Negotiating the borders between Israel and Palestine, which would likely be based on the pre-1967 lines (also known as the Green Line), with potential land swaps to accommodate demographic realities and security concerns.

  • Jerusalem: Addressing the status of Jerusalem, which is considered a holy city by Jews, Christians, and Muslims. The two-state solution often proposes Jerusalem as the capital of both Israel and Palestine, with East Jerusalem serving as the capital of the Palestinian state.

  • Security: Ensuring the security of both states, including mechanisms for demilitarisation, border security, and counterterrorism cooperation.

  • Refugees: Resolving the issue of Palestinian refugees, who were displaced during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and subsequent conflicts. The two-state solution typically involves compensation, resettlement, and/or return options for Palestinian refugees, while also acknowledging Israel's right to exist as a Jewish state.

  • Settlements: Addressing the status of Israeli settlements in the occupied Palestinian territories. Many proponents of the two-state solution advocate for the dismantlement of Israeli settlements located outside of the agreed-upon borders of Israel.

3. Origin and History of Two-State Solution
  • The origins of the two-state solution can be traced back to the 1930s during the period of British rule in Palestine.
  • In 1936, the British government formed a commission led by Lord William Robert Peel, commonly known as the Peel Commission, to investigate the reasons behind the Arab-Jewish conflicts in Palestine.
  • A year later, the commission recommended dividing Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states. At that time, Jews constituted approximately 28% of the population of Palestine.
  • According to the Peel Commission's proposal, the Arab state would encompass the West Bank, Gaza, and the Negev desert, while the Jewish state would include much of Palestine's coastline and the fertile Galilee region. However, the Arab population rejected this proposal.
  • Following World War II, the United Nations Special Commission on Palestine (UNSCOP) presented another partition plan. This plan suggested dividing Palestine into three territories: a Jewish state, an Arab state, and an international zone for Jerusalem.
  • Under the UNSCOP plan, Jews, who comprised about 32% of Palestine's population, were allocated 56% of the land.
  • The partition plan was endorsed by the UN General Assembly (Resolution 181). Despite India's vote against it, the Arab nations rejected the plan, while the Zionist leadership of Jewish settlers in Palestine accepted it.
  • Subsequently, on May 14, 1948, the Zionists unilaterally declared the establishment of the state of Israel.
  • This declaration sparked the first Arab-Israeli war. By the time an armistice agreement was reached in 1949, Israel had seized approximately 22% more territory than initially proposed by the UN
4. International Legitimacy
 
  • During the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel gained control of the West Bank and East Jerusalem from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
  • Israel still holds authority over these territories, except for the Sinai, which it returned to Egypt following the 1978 Camp David Accords. In the 1960s, Palestinian nationalism gained momentum under the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO).
  • Initially, the PLO sought the complete "liberation" of all of Palestine, but later accepted the two-state solution based on the borders of 1967.
  • Israel initially dismissed any Palestinian claims to the land and labeled the PLO as a "terrorist" organization.
  • However, following the 1973 Yom Kippur War, during which Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel, Israel agreed to the Framework for Peace in the Middle East agreement at the Camp David Accords.
  • As part of the Framework, Israel consented to establish an autonomous self-governing Palestinian authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip and to implement UN Resolution 242, which calls for Israel to withdraw from all territories it occupied in 1967.
  • The Framework laid the groundwork for the Oslo Accords, signed in 1993 and 1995, which formalized the two-state solution.
  • Under the Oslo process, a Palestinian National Authority, serving as a self-governing body, was established in the West Bank and Gaza, and the PLO was internationally recognized as the representative body of the Palestinian people.
  • The Oslo Accords held the promise of creating a sovereign Palestinian state coexisting peacefully alongside Israel. However, this promise has yet to be realized
5. What are the hurdles to achieving the two-state solution?
 
  • The assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin, a key architect of the Oslo Accords, in 1995, marked a turning point. The subsequent rise of a right-wing Israeli government and the Palestinian militant group Hamas, opposed to the agreements, further strained the peace process. Despite renewed diplomatic efforts, significant hurdles persist.
  • One obstacle is the undefined borders. Israel's ongoing expansion through settlements in Palestinian territories clashes with Palestinian aspirations for a state based on the pre-1967 borders. The presence of hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers who would need to be relocated creates a complex political challenge.
  • Another issue is the contested status of Jerusalem. Both Palestinians, who view East Jerusalem as their capital, and Israelis, who claim the entire city, have deep religious and historical attachments to the city.
  • The right of return for Palestinian refugees displaced in 1948 is another hurdle. International law supports their right to return, but Israel opposes it.
  • These unresolved issues pose significant barriers to achieving a two-state solution in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict
6. Way Forward
While these are the structural factors that make the two-state solution complicated, on the ground, Israel’s rightwing leadership shows no willingness to make any concessions. Israel wants to continue the status quo — the status quo of occupation. The Palestinians want to break that status quo
 
 
For Prelims: GS II- Two State Solution, Conflict of Israel and Palestine
For Mains: GS II - Current events of International relations, The Ongoing Conflict of Israel and Palestine
 
Previous Year Questions
1.The term "two-state solution" is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of (UPSC CSE 2018)
A.China
B.Israel
C.Iraq
D.Yemen
Answer (B)
Source: The Hindu
 
 

CENSUS

1. Context

India’s next Census, which will be conducted in 2027 after a delay of six years, will include many firsts – it will be the first Census to be conducted digitally; for the first time, people will have the option of self-enumeration; and members of individual castes will be counted for the first time since 1931.

2. Key Takeaways

  • India had conducted the Census every 10 years since 1881, but in 2020, the decennial exercise for Census 2021 had to be postponed due to the pandemic.
  • Though the government has not announced fresh dates for the Census, the groundwork is being laid and details are emerging about some of the features.
  • It will be the first digital Census allowing citizens to "self-enumerate". The NPR (National Population Register) has been made compulsory for citizens who want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own rather than through government enumerators.
  • For this, the Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI) has designed a "self-enumeration, Aadhaar or mobile number will be mandatorily collected.

3. Status of the Census exercise

  • A January 2 notification extending the deadline for freezing administrative boundaries in States until June 30 has ruled out the exercise at least till September.
  • As preparation and training take at least three months, the Census will have to be pushed to next year.
  • Around 30 lakh government officials will be assigned as enumerators and each will have the task to collect the details of 650-800 people through both online and offline modes, covering an estimated population of 135 crore people.
  • The Lok Sabha election is due in April-May 2024 and it is unlikely that the Census will be carried out before that since the same workforce will be dedicated to the elections.
  • The completion of both phases of the Census will take at least 11 months, even if done at an accelerated pace from October 1.

4. Holding up the Census

  • One reason which is holding up the exercise is the amendments proposed to the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969.
  • The government wants to have a centralised register of births and deaths that can be used to update the population register, electoral register, Aadhaar, ration card, passport and driving license databases.
  • The centrally stored data will be updated in real-time without a human interface leading to addition and deletion from electoral rolls when an individual turns 18 and after an individual's death respectively.
  • A Bill to link the births and deaths registered with the population register and others are expected to be tabled in the next session of Parliament.

5.  NPR

  • The NPR, unlike the Census, is a comprehensive identity database of every "usual resident" in the country and the data proposed to be collected at the family level can be shared with States and other government departments.
  • Though Census also collects similar information, the Census Act of 1948 bars sharing any individual's data with the State or Centre and only aggregate data at the administrative level can be released.
  • According to Citizenship Rules 2003 under the Citizenship Act, 1955, NPR is the first step towards a compilation of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC/NRC).
  • Assam is the only State where an NRC has been compiled based on the directions of the Supreme Court, with the final draft of Assam's NRC excluding 19 lakhs of the 3.29 crores applicants.
  •  Assam Government has rejected the NRC in its current form and demanded re-verification of 30 per cent of names included in the NRC in areas bordering Bangladesh and 10 per cent in the remaining State.
  • In 2020, the NPR was opposed by several State governments such as West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab and Chhattisgarh and Civil Society Organisations due to its link with the proposed NRC as it might leave many people stateless for want of legacy documents.
  • There are apprehensions that the Citizenship Amendment Act 9 (CAA), 2019 allows citizenship based on religion to six undocumented religious communities from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh who entered India on or before December 31, 2014, will benefit non-Muslims excluded from the proposed citizens' register, while excluded.
  • Muslims will have to prove their citizenship. The government has denied that the CAA and NRC are linked and there are currently any plans to compile a countrywide NRC.

5.1. The current status of NPR

  • The NPR was first collected in 2010 when the Congres government was in power at the Centre.
  • It was updated in 2015 and already has details of 119 crore residents.
  • In March 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) amended the Census Rules framed in 1990 to capture and store the Census data in an electronic form and enabled self-enumeration by respondents.
  • The NPR is scheduled to be updated with the first phase of Census 2021.
  • For this phase (house listing and household phase), 31 questions have been notified, while for the population enumeration, the second and main phase 28 questions have been finalised but are yet to be notified.
  • The NPR is expected to collect details on 21 parameters of all family members, up from 14 questions in 2010 and 2015.
  • The Sub-heads include passport number, relationship to head of the family, whether divorced/ widowed or separated, mother tongue if non-worker, cultivator, labourer, government employee, daily wage earner among others.
  • The form also has a column on Aadhar, mobile phone, Voter ID and driver's licence.
  • Though the government has claimed that the NPR form has not been finalised yet, the sample form is part of the Census of India 2021 Handbook for Principal/District Census Officers and Charge Officers in 2021.
  • The NPR has retained contentious questions such as "mother tongue, place of birth of father and mother and last place of residence", possible indicators to determine inclusion in the Citizenship register.
  • The questions were opposed by the State governments of West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan and Odisha in 2020.
  • The final set of questions of both the phases and NPR was asked during a pre-test exercise in 2019 in 76 districts in 36 States and Union Territories covering a population of more than 26 lakhs.

6. Expected expenditure for Census

  • The initial draft was prepared by the office of the Registrar General of India and circulated to key Ministries and the Prime Minister's Office called for the conduct of Census 2021 at a cost of ₹9, 275 crores and not the NPR.
  • The draft Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC) not was then revised and a financial provision of ₹4, 442.15 crores for updating the NPR was added on the directions of the MHA "subsequently".
  • The proposal was cleared on August 16, 2019, and it received the  Union Cabinet's nod on December 24, 2019.
  • It was decided that the enumerator engaged for Census would also collect details for NPR.
  • The Covid-19 pandemic struck in March 2020 and since then both exercises are on hold.
  • Now, the NPR has been made compulsory if citizens want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own.
  • The deleted Handbook said that it is "mandatory for every usual resident of India to register in the NPR".
  • Census is also mandatory and giving false information is a punishable offence.
For Prelims: NPR, CAA, Census, Covid-19, Expenditure Finance Committee, Registrar General of India, Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969, The Treatise on Indian Censuses Since 1981, Assam, 
For Mains:
1. How can citizens file Census details online? Explain the norms being laid down and discuss the reasons for National Population Register being made compulsory for those who want to fill out the form digitally. (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
Prelims:
 
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2009)
1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only          (b) 2 only                 (c) Both 1 and 2                 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
 
Answer: D
 
2. In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform.
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only            B. 2 and 3 only                   C. 1 and 3 only              D. 1, 2 and 3
 
Answer: B
 
3. Sinovac given for Covid-19 is a  (UPPSC Combined State Exam 2022)
A. Protein sub-unit
B. Non-replicating viral vector
C. Whole virus vaccine
D. mRNA vaccine
 
Answer: C
 
4. Along with the Budget, the Finance Minister also places other documents before the Parliament which Include "The Macro Economic Framework Statement". The aforesaid document is presented because this is mandated by (UPSC 2020) 
A. Long-standing parliamentary convention
B. Article 112 and Article 110 (1) of the Constitution of India
C. Article 113 of the Constitution of India
D. Provisions of the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act, 2003
Answer: D
 
5. Who is the Census Commissioner of India in 2021? (ICAR Technician 2022)
A. Dr Vivek Joshi
B. Dr C Chandramouli
C. Shri Sailesh
D. DK Sikri
 
Answer: A
 
6. The Registration of Birth and Death Act came into force in the year _____. (UPSSSC Junior Assistant 2020) 
A. 1964      B. 1969    C.  1972        D.1981
 
Answer: B
 
7. Consider the following States: (UPSC 2022)
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Kerala
3. Himachal Pradesh
4. Tripura
How many of the above are generally known as tea-producing States?
A. Only one State
B. Only two States
C. Only three States
D. All four States
 
Answer: C
 
8. Consider the following rivers (UPSC 2014) 
1. Barak
2. Lohit
3. Subansiri
Which of the above flows/flow through Arunachal Pradesh? 
A. 1 only    B.2 and 3 only     C. 1 and 3 only      D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
 
Mains:
1. Two parallel run schemes of the Government, viz the Adhaar Card and NPR, one as voluntary and the other as compulsory, have led to debates at national levels and also litigations. On merits, discuss whether or not both schemes need run concurrently. Analyse the potential of the schemes to achieve developmental benefits and equitable growth. (UPSC 2014)
 
Source: The Hindu
 

GOODS AND SERVICE TAX (GST)

 
 
1. Context
 
India’s quest for tax simplification has been an abiding one. For long, the average person regarded India’s taxation structure as draconian, with suboptimal outcomes both in revenues and compliance. Direct taxes saw substantial progress, culminating in the New Income Tax Code that simplified procedures and eased compliance
 
2. What is the Goods and Services Tax (GST)?
  • The Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a value-added tax levied on the supply of goods and services at each stage of the production and distribution chain. It is a comprehensive indirect tax that aims to replace multiple indirect taxes imposed by the central and state governments in India.
  • GST is designed to simplify the tax structure, eliminate the cascading effect of taxes, and create a unified national market. Under the GST system, both goods and services are taxed at multiple rates based on the nature of the product or service. The tax is collected at each stage of the supply chain, and businesses are allowed to claim a credit for the taxes paid on their inputs.
  • The GST system in India came into effect on July 1, 2017, replacing a complex tax structure that included central excise duty, service tax, and state-level taxes like VAT (Value Added Tax), among others. The GST Council, consisting of representatives from the central and state governments, is responsible for making decisions on various aspects of GST, including tax rates and rules.
  • GST is intended to create a more transparent and efficient tax system, reduce tax evasion, and promote economic growth by fostering a seamless flow of goods and services across the country. It has a significant impact on businesses, as they need to comply with the new tax regulations and maintain detailed records of their transactions for GST filing

3.Goods and Services Tax (GST) and 101st Amendment Act, 2016

The Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India was introduced through the 101st Amendment Act of 2016. This constitutional amendment was a crucial step in the implementation of GST, which aimed to create a unified and comprehensive indirect tax system across the country.

Here are some key points related to the 101st Amendment Act and GST:

 

  • The 101st Amendment Act was enacted to amend the Constitution of India to pave the way for the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax.
  • It added a new article, Article 246A, which confers concurrent powers to both the central and state governments to levy and collect GST
  • The amendment led to the creation of the GST Council, a constitutional body consisting of representatives from the central and state governments. The council is responsible for making recommendations on GST rates, exemptions, and other related issues
  • The amendment introduced a dual GST structure, where both the central government and the state governments have the power to levy and collect GST on the supply of goods and services
  • For inter-state transactions, the 101st Amendment Act provides that the central government would levy and collect the Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST), which would be a sum total of the central and state GST
  • The amendment also included a provision for compensating states for any revenue loss they might incur due to the implementation of GST for a period of five years
The 101st Amendment Act was a critical legislative step that provided the constitutional framework for the implementation of GST in India. It addressed the need for a unified tax system, simplifying the tax structure and promoting a common market across the country. The subsequent establishment of the GST Council has played a pivotal role in the ongoing management and evolution of the GST system in India
 
4. What are the different types of Goods and Services Tax (GST)?

In India, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) is structured into different tax rates based on the nature of the goods and services. As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, the GST rates are divided into multiple slabs. It's important to note that tax rates may be subject to changes, and new amendments could have been introduced since then. As of my last update, the GST rates are as follows:

  • Nil Rate:

    • Some goods and services are categorized under the nil rate, meaning they attract a 0% GST. This implies that no tax is levied on the supply of these goods or services.

  • 5% Rate:

    • This is a lower rate, applicable to essential goods such as certain food items, medical supplies, and other basic necessities.

  • 12% Rate:

    • Goods and services falling in this category attract a 12% GST rate. Items such as mobile phones, processed foods, and certain services fall under this slab.

  • 18% Rate:

    • A higher rate of 18% is applicable to goods and services such as electronic items, capital goods, and various services.

  • 28% Rate:

    • The highest GST rate of 28% is applied to luxury items, automobiles, and certain goods and services that are considered non-essential or fall into the luxury category.

  • Compensation Cess:

    • In addition to the above rates, some specific goods attract a compensation cess, which is levied to compensate the states for any revenue loss during the transition to GST. This is often applied to items like tobacco and luxury cars.

  • Zero Rate:

    • Certain categories of goods and services may be specified as "zero-rated," which means they are effectively taxed at 0%. This is different from the nil rate, as it allows businesses to claim input tax credit on inputs, capital goods, and input services.

  • Exempt Supplies:

    • Some goods and services may be exempt from GST altogether. This means that they are not subject to any GST, and businesses cannot claim input tax credit on related inputs
 
5.Central GST (CGST), State GST (SGST), Union territory GST (UTGST) and Integrated GST (IGST)
 
 
Subject Central GST (CGST) State GST (SGST) Union Territory GST (UTGST) Integrated GST (IGST)
Levied by Central Government Respective State Governments Union Territory Administrations Central Government (on inter-state transactions)
Applicability On intra-state supplies (within the same state) On intra-state supplies (within the same state) On intra-union territory supplies (within the same union territory) On inter-state supplies (across states or union territories)
Rate Determination Determined by the Central Government Determined by the Respective State Government Determined by the Union Territory Administration IGST rate is a sum of CGST and SGST rates
Revenue Collection Collected by the Central Government Collected by the Respective State Government Collected by the Union Territory Administration Collected by the Central Government (on inter-state transactions)
Utilization of Revenue Shared between Central and State Governments Retained by the Respective State Government Retained by the Union Territory Administration Shared between Central and State Governments
Purpose Part of the dual GST structure, meant to cover central taxes Part of the dual GST structure, meant to cover state taxes Applicable in union territories for intra-territory supplies Applied to regulate and tax inter-state supplies
Input Tax Credit (ITC) ITC available for CGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for SGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for UTGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for both CGST and SGST paid on inputs
Tax Jurisdiction Applies within a particular state Applies within a particular state Applies within a particular union territory Applies to transactions across states and union territories
GSTN Portal for Filing Returns Central GSTN portal State-specific GSTN portals UTGSTN portal Integrated GSTN portal
 
 
6.What are the benefits of Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India?
 
The Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India was implemented with the aim of bringing about significant reforms in the indirect tax structure. Several benefits have been associated with the introduction of GST.
 
Here are some key advantages:
 
  • GST replaced multiple indirect taxes levied by the central and state governments, simplifying the tax structure. This streamlined system reduces the complexity of compliance for businesses
  • GST eliminates the cascading effect of taxes, where taxes are levied on top of other taxes. With a seamless credit mechanism, businesses can claim input tax credit on the taxes paid on their purchases, leading to a more transparent and efficient system
  • GST has facilitated the creation of a common national market by harmonizing tax rates and regulations across states. This has reduced trade barriers and promoted the free flow of goods and services throughout the country
  • The GST system has incorporated technology-driven processes, including electronic filing and real-time reporting, making it harder for businesses to evade taxes. This has contributed to increased tax compliance
  • The input tax credit mechanism under GST benefits manufacturers, as they can claim credits for taxes paid on raw materials and input services. This has a positive impact on the cost of production and enhances the competitiveness of Indian goods in the international market
  • GST brings transparency to the taxation system. The online filing of returns and the availability of transaction-level data make it easier for tax authorities to monitor and track transactions, reducing the scope for corruption
  • GST has replaced a complex system of filing multiple tax returns with a more straightforward mechanism. Businesses now need to file fewer returns, reducing the compliance burden
  • The implementation of GST has contributed to an improvement in the ease of doing business in India. The unified tax system has made it simpler for businesses to operate across states and has reduced the paperwork and bureaucratic hurdles associated with tax compliance
  • GST has led to the harmonization of tax rates across states and union territories, minimizing the tax rate disparities that existed earlier. This creates a more predictable tax environment for businesses
7.Goods and Services Tax (GST)-Issues and Challenge
 
  • Despite the intention to simplify the tax structure, the multi-tiered rate system (0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%) and the inclusion of cess on certain goods have introduced complexity. The classification of goods and services under different tax slabs can be challenging, leading to disputes and confusion
  • The successful implementation of GST relies heavily on technology. Issues such as technical glitches on the GSTN (Goods and Services Tax Network) portal, especially during the initial phases, have caused difficulties for businesses in filing returns and complying with regulations
  • The compliance requirements for businesses under GST, including multiple returns filing, have been perceived as burdensome. Smaller businesses, in particular, may find it challenging to adapt to the new system and comply with the various provisions
  • The transition from the previous tax regime to GST posed challenges, especially for businesses in terms of understanding the new tax structure, reconfiguring accounting systems, and ensuring a smooth transition of credits from the old tax system to the GST system
  • The classification of certain goods and services into specific tax slabs has been a source of contention. Ambiguities in classification have led to disputes and litigations, with businesses seeking clarity on the applicable tax rates
  • The implementation of GST has increased compliance costs for businesses due to the need for sophisticated IT infrastructure, the hiring of tax professionals, and efforts to ensure accurate reporting and filing
  • Challenges related to availing and matching input tax credits have been reported. Timely matching of credits and resolving discrepancies can be cumbersome, leading to concerns about the seamless flow of credit across the supply chain
  • The anti-profiteering provisions were introduced to ensure that businesses pass on the benefits of reduced tax rates to consumers. However, the implementation of anti-profiteering measures has been criticized for its complexity and potential for disputes
  • The periodic changes in the GST return filing system have created challenges for businesses in adapting their processes. Delays and complexities in return filing can affect working capital management
8.Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council)
 
The Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council) is a constitutional body in India that makes recommendations on the Goods and Services Tax (GST). It was established under the Constitution (122nd Amendment) Act, 2016, which introduced the GST in India

The GST Council consists of the following members:

  • The Union Finance Minister, who is the Chairperson of the Council.
  • The Union Minister of State in charge of revenue or any other Minister of State nominated by the Union Government.
  • One Minister from each state, nominated by the Governor of that state.
  • The Chief Secretary of each state, ex-officio.
  • If the President, on the recommendation of the Council, so directs, one representative of each Union territory which has a legislature, to be nominated by the Lieutenant Governor of that Union territory.
  • Three to seven members (other than Ministers) to be nominated by the Union Government, of whom at least one member shall be from the field of economics and another from the field of chartered accountancy, legal affairs or public finance
9. Way forward
 
It's important to note that the composition and structure of the GST Council may evolve over time, and there might have been changes since my last update in January 2022. To obtain the latest and most accurate information about the GST Council and its members, it is recommended to refer to official government sources or recent announcements by the relevant authorities

 

For Prelims: Economic and Social Development and Indian Polity and Governance
For Mains: General Studies II: Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein

General Studies III: Inclusive growth and issues arising from it
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Which of the following are true of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) introduced in India in recent times? (UGC Paper II 2020)
A. It is a destination tax
B. It benefits producing states more
C. It benefits consuming states more
D. It is a progressive taxation
E. It is an umbrella tax to improve ease of doing business
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
A.B, D and E only
B.A, C and D only
C.A, D and E only
D.A, C and E only
Answer (D)
 
Source: Indianexpress
 

PROTEIN

 
1. Context
 
The recent emergence of large language models (LLMs) has revolutionised the research on proteins — the microscopic mechanisms that are involved in virtually every important activity happening inside all living things. Scientists use a version of LLM for various tasks, such as predicting the structure or function of a protein, which contributes to the development of drugs and vaccines.
 
 
2. What is Protein?
 
  • Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They are made up of long chains of amino acids, which are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur
  • Life, as we understand it, depends on proteins, which are composed of amino acids. Although numerous amino acids exist in nature, just 20 of them, combined in various ways, form all the proteins present in the human body and most living organisms.
  • Amino acids play essential roles in providing structural support in tissues, acting as catalysts in biochemical reactions, transporting molecules across biological membranes, regulating muscle contractions that enable movement and heartbeat, and facilitating communication between cells to carry out their functions
 
3. What is Protein Folding?
 
  • The protein-folding problem refers to the challenge of predicting a protein's three-dimensional (3D) structure based solely on its amino acid sequence.
  • A protein possesses multiple identities, one of which is determined by the arrangement of its amino acids in three-dimensional space—its 3D structure. In 1962, researchers John Kendrew and Max Perutz from the University of Cambridge were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for creating the first 3D models of hemoglobin and myoglobin, both proteins, through X-ray crystallography.
  • A significant breakthrough occurred in 1969 when scientists discovered that a protein does not attempt to adopt various shapes; instead, it inherently knows the specific shape it needs to achieve and swiftly folds itself accordingly. This enigmatic ability of the protein is referred to as the protein-folding problem.
  • By the late 2010s, scientists had determined the structures of approximately 170,000 proteins—an impressive number, yet still a fraction compared to the estimated 200 million proteins found in nature. However, this scenario dramatically changed around 2018.
  • Proteins: These are long chains of amino acids that fold into specific shapes, which determine their functions. The sequence of amino acids (the primary structure) dictates how the protein folds into its secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures
  • Proteins can have hundreds or thousands of amino acids, leading to an enormous number of possible configurations.
  • The process of folding involves many interactions (hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, etc.) and is influenced by the protein's environment
  • Proteins do not fold randomly; they often follow specific pathways to reach their final functional form.
  • Understanding these pathways is crucial for predicting the folded structure from the amino acid sequence.
  • Improper folding can lead to non-functional proteins or proteins that aggregate, which can cause diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and certain types of cancer.
  • Understanding how proteins fold correctly is essential for developing treatments for these conditions.
 
4. What is AlphaFold?
 
AlphaFold is an advanced artificial intelligence (AI) program developed by DeepMind, a subsidiary of Alphabet Inc. Its primary purpose is to predict protein structures with remarkable accuracy based on their amino acid sequences.
 
Here’s a detailed overview of AlphaFold:
  • The protein-folding problem has been a long-standing challenge in biology, as understanding a protein's 3D structure is crucial for elucidating its function and role in various biological processes.
  • AlphaFold was first introduced in 2018 and gained significant attention for its performance in the Critical Assessment of protein Structure Prediction (CASP) competition, where it demonstrated the ability to predict protein structures more accurately than any previous method.
  • AlphaFold employs deep learning techniques, specifically neural networks, to predict the spatial arrangement of atoms in a protein.
  • It analyzes patterns in known protein structures from databases to learn how amino acid sequences correspond to their respective 3D shapes
  • AlphaFold has achieved a level of accuracy comparable to experimental methods, such as X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, which are traditionally used to determine protein structures.
  • It can predict structures for proteins that are difficult to study experimentally, thus expanding the understanding of biology.
  • The program has the potential to accelerate research in various fields, including drug discovery, synthetic biology, and disease understanding.
  • By providing insights into protein functions and interactions, AlphaFold can aid in the development of new therapies and treatments
 
5.  Design of Protein
 
  • Protein design is the process of creating new proteins or modifying existing ones to achieve specific functions or characteristics. This field combines principles from biochemistry, molecular biology, and computational biology, enabling researchers to manipulate protein structures and functions
  • The design can be aimed at creating proteins with desired traits, such as increased stability, enhanced enzymatic activity, or specific binding capabilities
  • Rational Design: Involves using knowledge of protein structures and functions to make targeted changes to specific amino acids in a protein sequence.
  • Directed Evolution: This method mimics natural selection by introducing random mutations in a protein and then screening for variants with improved functions

Applications:

  • Therapeutics: Designing proteins for use as drugs, such as antibodies that target specific diseases or enzymes that facilitate metabolic processes.
  • Industrial Uses: Creating enzymes that work efficiently under extreme conditions for use in manufacturing processes.
  • Biotechnology: Developing proteins for applications in biofuels, agriculture, and environmental remediation.
 
 
For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance.
For Mains: General Studies III: Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic,
consider the following statements : (UPSC CSE 2022)
1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector based platform.
3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen based vaccine.
Which of the statements given above are correct ?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer (B)
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 

VULTURES AND PANDEMICS

 
 
 
1. Context
 
When most of us think of pandemic preparedness, images of vaccines, laboratories, and health workers in protective gear spring to mind. Rarely do we picture a bird, wings outstretched, circling high in the sky. Yet, one of South Asia’s guardians of public health is the vulture, nature’s most efficient waste manager.
 
2. India's Vultures
 
  • For centuries, vultures have served as natural cleaners, disposing of carcasses and curbing the spread of dangerous pathogens such as anthrax, rabies, and Clostridium botulinum. Until the 1980s, it was common to see large gatherings of vultures at dumping grounds.
  • India alone had a population exceeding 40 million, but since the 1990s their numbers have plummeted by over 95% because of the use of diclofenac.
  • This crisis is not merely ecological—it is also a growing public health concern, showing how biodiversity loss can amplify the risk of future pandemics.
  • India’s vultures form an essential part of the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), a major migratory route that links Central Asian breeding habitats to wintering sites across South Asia.
  • This flyway, stretching across 30+ countries, is used by millions of migratory birds each year. As vultures and raptors traverse this corridor, they connect ecosystems—and the potential transmission of diseases—across international borders.
  • Sites like landfills, carcass dumps, or temporary stopovers can easily become disease hotspots, making the CAF not just a biodiversity highway but also a corridor of public health importance.
  • Strengthening conservation within this pathway provides a crucial chance to integrate ecological security with pandemic prevention.
  • Yet, regional collaboration faces hurdles due to funding shortages and weak structural support. Vulture conservation programmes remain under-resourced, fragmented, and insufficiently tied into national One Health frameworks.
  • Meanwhile, persistent threats such as poisoning from toxic veterinary drugs and electrocution from power lines continue to undermine recovery efforts
 
3. Vultures and Pandemics
 
  • Vultures are directly linked to pandemic risks because of the ecological role they play in controlling disease spread. These birds are highly efficient scavengers that consume animal carcasses rapidly, leaving little opportunity for pathogens to multiply and spread in the environment.
  • In their absence, dead animals remain exposed for longer periods, attracting stray dogs, rats, and other scavengers that are far more likely to transmit diseases to humans.
  • For instance, with the decline of vultures in India due to the veterinary drug diclofenac, there was a noticeable rise in feral dog populations feeding on carcasses.
  • This led to an increase in dog bites and rabies cases, showing how biodiversity loss can create new public health challenges.
  • Moreover, vultures are part of the Central Asian Flyway, a major migratory corridor linking over 30 countries. Their movement, and that of other raptors, connects ecosystems across borders.
  • If vultures decline, carcasses left unmanaged along this corridor can become hotspots for zoonotic spillovers—where pathogens jump from animals to humans. This is especially critical because many pandemics, including COVID-19, have zoonotic origins.
  • Therefore, conserving vultures is not only about protecting a species but also about maintaining a natural barrier against disease outbreaks, highlighting the strong intersection between biodiversity conservation and global health security
  • With the National Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (2016–2025) approaching its end, India now has the chance to integrate vulture protection into broader strategies for pandemic preparedness.
  • By consuming animal carcasses, vultures reduce the risk of zoonotic spillover and thus act as an important line of defence for public health.
  • As the earliest scavengers to reach dead animals, they can also serve a crucial role in monitoring and ensuring safe carcass disposal.
  • However, their importance in this regard has seldom been formally acknowledged. Likewise, local communities that coexist with vultures remain an overlooked yet vital part of conservation efforts.
  • Despite the modest funding required for vulture protection compared to the enormous expenses of managing disease outbreaks, financial frameworks have not yet recognised conservation as a form of pandemic prevention
 
4. India Protecting Vultures
 
  • A post-2025 national roadmap for vulture conservation could be built around five core pillars. The first would involve nationwide satellite tracking to identify habitats, carcass disposal sites, and potential spillover hotspots.
  • The second would establish a Decision Support System (DSS) that combines wildlife, livestock, and human health data for real-time risk monitoring in line with International Health Regulations.
  • The third would focus on strengthening inter-agency cooperation through a One Health framework, linking environmental, veterinary, and public health institutions.
  • The fourth would emphasize cross-border collaboration along the Central Asian Flyway (CAF), in line with the Convention on Migratory Species and regional preparedness for disease threats.
  • Finally, the fifth would promote community involvement, particularly empowering women, youth, and local groups to act as frontline agents for surveillance and awareness.
  • Together, these five pillars would safeguard a keystone species, enhance public health systems, and lower pandemic risks while aligning with the World Health Organization’s South-East Asia Regional Office Strategic Roadmap for Health Security (2023–27).
  • In essence, by expanding on the current Vulture Action Plan and embedding it within a broader health security framework, India can move from species-specific recovery to a comprehensive resilience strategy.
  • This would not only protect vultures but also mitigate zoonotic spillovers and strengthen India’s position as a global leader in biodiversity-driven health security
 
 
5. Way Forward
 

A new framework that brings together surveillance of human, animal, and environmental health, shortens the gap between detection and response, and promotes regional cooperation can help build systemic resilience. This approach is also economically prudent: the investment needed for vulture protection—through satellite tracking, safer veterinary practices, and reducing infrastructure-related risks—is minimal when compared to the massive economic and human costs of managing a disease outbreak.

Given that India hosts a significant portion of the vulture populations along the Central Asian Flyway—such as the Himalayan griffon, cinereous vulture, and Eurasian griffon—and has proven its ability to innovate, it is well placed to demonstrate how conserving biodiversity can function as a strategy for pandemic prevention. By expanding telemetry, putting a Decision Support System (DSS) into operation, and embedding vulture protection within national and regional One Health programmes, India could set an example for neighbouring countries and potentially for the wider world

 

For Prelims: Central Asian Flyway (CAF), India’s National Action Plan for Vulture Conservation (2016-25)
 
For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. Which of the following are the Objectives of 'National Nutrition Mission'? (UPSC 2017)
1. To Create Awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers
2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolscent girls, and women
3. To promote the Consumption of millets, coarse cereals, and unpolished rice
4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 and 2 Only       B.1, 2 and 3         C. 1, 2 and 4           D. 3 and 4
 
2. In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because (UPSC 2019)
A. Poverty rates vary from State to State
B. Price levels vary from State to State
C. Gross State Product varies from State to State
D. Quality of public distribution varies from State to State
 
Answers: 1-A, 2- B
Source: The Hindu
 
 

UNLAWFUL ACTIVITIES (PREVENTION) ACT (UAPA)

 
 
 
1. Context
 

Delhi High Court on Tuesday declined to grant bail to Umar Khalid, Sharjeel Imam, Gulfisha Fatima, and seven others charged as key conspirators of the February 2020 Delhi riots, saying the riots were a “premeditated, well-orchestrated conspiracy”.The accused have been charged under various provisions of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA), including Section 16, which prescribes the death penalty for committing a “terrorist act”

 
2. About Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA)
 

The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) is an Indian law that was enacted in 1967 to effectively prevent unlawful activities that pose a threat to the sovereignty and integrity of India.

Key highlights of the UAPA

  • Objective: The primary objective of the UAPA is to provide law enforcement agencies with effective tools to combat terrorism and other activities that threaten the security of the nation.
  • Definition of Unlawful Activities: The act defines unlawful activities to include actions that intend to or support the cession of a part of the territory of India or disrupt the sovereignty and integrity of the country.
  • Powers of Designation: The government has the authority to designate an organization as a terrorist organization if it believes that such an organization is involved in terrorism. This designation has significant legal consequences, including the freezing of assets.
  • Powers of Arrest and Detention: The UAPA provides law enforcement agencies with powers of arrest and detention to prevent individuals from engaging in unlawful activities. The act allows for preventive detention to curb potential threats before they materialise.
  • Banning of Terrorist Organizations: The government can proscribe organizations as terrorist organizations, making their activities illegal. This includes banning these organisations, freezing their assets, and taking other measures to curb their operations.
  • Admissibility of Confessions: The UAPA allows for confessions made to police officers to be admissible in court, subject to certain safeguards. This provision has been a point of contention, with concerns about potential misuse and coercion.
  • Designation of Individuals as Terrorists: In addition to organizations, the UAPA allows the government to designate individuals as terrorists. This designation carries legal consequences, including restrictions on travel and freezing of assets.
  • Amendments and Stringency: Over the years, the UAPA has undergone several amendments to strengthen its provisions and make it more effective in dealing with emerging threats. However, these amendments have also been criticized for potential violations of civil liberties.
  • International Cooperation: The UAPA allows for cooperation with foreign countries in matters related to the prevention of unlawful activities. This includes extradition of individuals involved in such activities.
 

3. Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Human Rights

 

The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and human rights lie in the impact the act can have on various fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India and international human rights standards.

The key points connecting the UAPA and human rights:

  • The UAPA allows for preventive detention, which means individuals can be detained without formal charges based on suspicions of involvement in unlawful activities. This raises concerns about the right to liberty, as individuals may be deprived of their freedom without the presumption of innocence until proven guilty.
  • The admissibility of confessions made to police officers under the UAPA raises issues related to the right against self-incrimination. There is a risk that such confessions might be obtained under duress or coercion, compromising the fairness of legal proceedings.
  • Designating individuals as terrorists and proscribing organizations without due process may impinge on the right to a fair trial. This includes the right to be informed of charges, the right to legal representation, and the right to present a defense.
  • The UAPA provides authorities with the power to proscribe organizations as terrorist organizations, limiting their activities. Critics argue that this may infringe upon the right to freedom of association, particularly when such designations are made without sufficient evidence or proper legal procedures.
  • The potential for misuse of the UAPA to target individuals or organizations critical of the government raises concerns about freedom of expression. If the act is used to suppress dissent or stifle legitimate political or social activities, it can undermine this fundamental right.
  • The UAPA grants authorities the power to intercept communications and conduct surveillance on individuals suspected of engaging in unlawful activities. This raises concerns about the right to privacy, as individuals may be subjected to intrusive surveillance without adequate safeguards.
  • Human rights standards require that any restrictions on rights, such as those imposed by the UAPA, must be proportionate and necessary for achieving a legitimate aim. Critics argue that the broad scope of the UAPA may lead to disproportionate measures that unduly restrict individual rights.
  • The UAPA's compatibility with international human rights standards, including the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), is a critical point of consideration. Ensuring that the act aligns with these standards is essential to upholding human rights principles.
 

4. Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Article 22 of the Constitution

 

The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and Article 22 of the Indian Constitution lie in how the UAPA's provisions for arrest and detention intersect with the constitutional safeguards provided under Article 22. 

  • Article 22 provides certain protections to individuals who are arrested or detained. It outlines the rights of arrested individuals, emphasizing safeguards to prevent arbitrary or unlawful detention.
  • Article 22(1) states that every person who is arrested and detained shall be informed, as soon as may be, of the grounds for such arrest. This provision ensures that individuals are aware of the reasons behind their arrest, preventing arbitrary or secret detentions.
  • Article 22(1) also guarantees the right of an arrested person to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of their choice. This ensures that individuals have access to legal assistance during the legal process, contributing to a fair and just legal system.
  • The UAPA includes provisions for preventive detention, allowing authorities to detain individuals to prevent them from committing certain offences. However, Article 22(4) allows preventive detention only under specific circumstances, and certain safeguards must be followed, such as providing the detenu with the grounds for detention and an opportunity to make a representation against the detention.
  • Article 22(4) further mandates that a person detained under a law providing for preventive detention must be afforded the earliest opportunity to make a representation against the detention. Additionally, the case of every person detained is required to be placed before an advisory board within three months.
  • The UAPA allows for confessions made to police officers to be admissible in court, subject to certain safeguards. However, this provision has been a point of concern concerning Article 22, as confessions obtained under duress or coercion may violate the right against self-incrimination.
  • Article 22(2) ensures the right to be brought before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours of arrest, excluding the time necessary for the journey. This provision aims to prevent prolonged detention without judicial oversight and contributes to the right to a speedy trial.
 
 
For Prelims: Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, Article 22, Terrorism
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the key provisions of the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) and analyze how they may impact fundamental human rights. Elaborate on the balance between national security concerns and the protection of individual rights. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions

1. Under Article 22 of the Constitution of India, with the exception of certain provisions stated there in, what is the maximum period for detention of a person under preventive detention? (MPSC 2014)

A. 2 months       B. 3 months         C. 4 months           D. 6 months

 

2. Article 22 of the Constitution ensures (CTET 2016)

A. Right not to be ill-treated during arrest or while in custody

B. Right to Constitutional Remedies

C. Right against Exploitation

D. Right to Education

Answers: 1-B, 2-A

Mains

1. Indian government has recently strengthed the anti-terrorism laws by amending the Unlawful Activities(Prevention) Act, (UAPA), 1967 and the NIA Act. Analyze the changes in the context of prevailing security environment while discussing scope and reasons for opposing the UAPA by human rights organizations. (UPSC 2019)

Source: The Indian Express

 

GREEN HYDROGEN MISSION

 

1. Context

The government has formally approved the National Green Hydrogen Mission with the stated aim of making India a global hub for the production of green hydrogen. The ultimate aim is to fuel key sectors of the economy using hydrogen that is made by splitting water through an electrical process called electrolysis, using a device called an electrolyzer that is powered entirely by renewable energy.

2. Hydrogen as a fuel

  • Hydrogen, the most common element in nature, exists only in combination with other elements and has to be extracted from naturally occurring compounds like water (which is a combination of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom). Hydrogen is a clean molecule, but the process of extracting it is energy intensive.
  • While hydrogen’s potential as a clean fuel source has a history of nearly 150 years, it was only after the oil price shocks of the 1970s that the possibility of hydrogen replacing fossil fuels came to be considered seriously. Three carmakers -Japan’s Honda and Toyota, and South Korea’s Hyundai-have since moved decisively to commercialize the technology, albeit on a limited scale. 
  • The sources and processes by which hydrogen is derived are categorized by color tabs. Hydrogen produced from fossil fuels is called grey hydrogen, which constitutes the bulk of the hydrogen generated today.
  • Hydrogen generated from fossil fuels with carbon capture and storage options is called blue hydrogen, while hydrogen generated using electrolyzers powered by renewable power sources is called green hydrogen.

3. Green Hydrogen Potential

  • Green hydrogen has specific advantages. One, it is a clean burning molecule that can decarbonize a range of sectors including iron and steel, chemicals, and transportation. Two, renewable energy that can not be stored or used by the grid can be channeled to produce hydrogen.
  • Green hydrogen is not commercially viable at present. The current cost in India is around Rs 350-400 per kg; it is likely to become viable only at a production cost of under Rs 100/kg. This is what the Hydrogen Energy Mission aims for.
  • Green hydrogen could eventually potentially replace fossil fuels and fossil fuel-based feedstocks in fertilizer production, petroleum refining, steel production, and transport applications.
  • The United States and European Union have already pledged incentives worth several billions of dollars for green hydrogen projects. India's Mission was first announced by the Prime Minister in his Independence Day speech in 2021.
  • A major part of this is a proposed strategic intervention for the Green Hydrogen Transition Programme (SIGHT), under which two financial incentive mechanisms targeting the domestic manufacturing of electrolyzers and the production of green hydrogen will be promoted to achieve a reduction in fossil fuel imports and abatement of annual greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.
  • The draft Mission document is likely to propose support for the production and deployment of green hydrogen, alongside a major push for hydrogen in the auto sector-R&D for fuel cell development and pilot projects for fuel cell vehicles.

4. Why India is Pursuing Green Hydrogen?

  • Under the Paris Agreement of 2015, India is committed to reducing its greenhouse gas emissions by 33-35% from the 2005 levels.
  • It is a legally binding international treaty on climate change to limit global warming to below 2°C compared to pre-industrial levels.
  • At the 2021 Conference of parties in Glasgow, India reiterated its commitment to move from a fossil and import-dependent economy to a net-zero economy by 2070.
  • India's average annual energy import bill is more than $100 billion.
  • The increased consumption of fossil fuel has made the country a high carbon dioxide (CO2) emitter, accounting for nearly 7% of the global CO2 burden.
  • To become energy independent by 2047, the government stressed the need to introduce green hydrogen as an alternative fuel that can make India the global hub and a major exporter of hydrogen.

5. Auto Sector- Fuel Cells

  • Hydrogen is an energy carrier, not a source of energy. Hydrogen fuel must be transformed into electricity by a device called a fuel cell stack before it can be used to power a car or truck. A fuel cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy using oxidizing agents through an oxidation-reduction reaction. Fuel cell-based vehicles most commonly combine hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity to power the electric motor on board. Since fuel cell vehicles use electricity to run, they are considered electric vehicles (EVs).
  • Inside each fuel cell, hydrogen is drawn from an onboard pressurized tank and made to react with a catalyst, usually made from platinum. As the hydrogen passes through the catalyst, it is stripped of its electrons, which are forced to move along an external circuit, producing an electrical current. The current is used by the electric motor to power the vehicle, with the only byproduct being water vapor.
  • Hydrogen fuel cell cars have a near-zero carbon footprint. Hydrogen is about 2-3 times as efficient as burning petrol because an electric chemical reaction is much more efficient than combustion.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Green Hydrogen, National Green Hydrogen Mission, Blue Hydrogen, Paris Agreement, Electric vehicles (EVs), and Strategic intervention for the Green Hydrogen Transition Programme (SIGHT).
For Mains:1. Discuss the significance of the Green Hydrogen Policy in achieving India’s target of net zero emissions by 2070.
 
Source: The Indian Express
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