DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 28 AUGUST 2025

TARIFFS

1. Context

The United States government is getting ready to implement the 25% additional tariffs imposed on India by U.S. President Donald Trump, which come into effect on Wednesday. On Tuesday, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) uploaded a notification of the new tariffs to be published in the official register the following day.

2. What is a Tariff?

Most countries are limited by their natural resources and ability to produce certain goods and services.
They trade with other countries to get what their population needs and demands. However, trade isn't always conducted in an amenable manner between trading partners.
Policies, geopolitics, competition, and many other factors can make trading partners unhappy. One of the ways governments deal with trading partners they disagree with is through tariffs.
A tariff is a tax imposed by one country on the goods and services imported from another country to influence it, raise revenues, or protect competitive advantages.

3. Key Take Aways

Governments impose tariffs to raise revenue, protect domestic industries, or exert political leverage over another country.
Tariffs often result in unwanted side effects, such as higher consumer prices.
Tariffs have a long and contentious history, and the debate over whether they represent good or bad policy still rages.

4. History of Tariffs

4.1 Pre Modern Europe

In pre-modern Europe, a nation's wealth was believed to consist of fixed, tangible assets, such as gold, silver, land, and other physical resources.
Trade was seen as a Zero-sum game that resulted in either a clear net loss or a clear net gain of wealth.
If a country imported more than it exported, a resource, mainly gold, would flow abroad, thereby draining its wealth. Cross-border trade was viewed with suspicion, and countries preferred to acquire colonies with which they could establish exclusive trading relationships rather than trading with each other.
This system, known as mercantilism, relied heavily on tariffs and even outright bans on trade. The colonizing country, which saw itself as competing with other colonizers, would import raw materials from its colonies, which were generally barred from selling their raw materials elsewhere.
The colonizing country would convert the materials into manufactured wares, which it would sell back to the colonies. High tariffs and other barriers were implemented to ensure that colonies only purchased manufactured goods from their home countries.

4.2 Late 19th and early 20th Centuries

Relatively free trade enjoyed a heyday in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when the idea took hold that international commerce had made large-scale wars between nations so expensive and counterproductive that they were obsolete.
World War I proved that idea wrong, and nationalist approaches to trade, including high tariffs, dominated until the end of World War II.
From that point on, free trade enjoyed a 50-year resurgence, culminating in the creation in 1995 of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), which acts as an international forum for settling disputes and laying down ground rules.
Free trade agreements, such as the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) now known as the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) and the European Union (EU), also proliferated.

4.3 In the 21st Century

Skepticism of this model sometimes labeled neoliberalism by critics who tie it to 19th-century liberal arguments in favor of free trade grew, however, and Britain in 2016 voted to leave the European Union.
That same year Donald Trump won the U.S. presidential election on a platform that included a call for tariffs on Chinese and Mexican imports, which he implemented when he took office.
Critics of tariff-free multilateral trade deals, who come from both ends of the political spectrum, argue that they erode national sovereignty and encourage a race to the bottom regarding wages, worker protections, and product quality and standards.
Meanwhile, the defenders of such deals counter that tariffs lead to trade wars, hurt consumers, and hamper innovation.

5. Understanding Tariffs

Tariffs are used to restrict imports. Simply put, they increase the price of goods and services purchased from another country, making them less attractive to domestic consumers.
A key point to understand is that a tariff affects the exporting country because consumers in the country that imposed the tariff might shy away from imports due to the price increase. However, if the consumer still chooses the imported product, then the tariff has essentially raised the cost to the consumer in another country.

There are two types of tariffs:

A specific tariff is levied as a fixed fee based on the type of item, such as a $500 tariff on a car.
An ad-valorem tariff is levied based on the item's value, such as 5% of an import's value.

6. Why Government Imposes Tariffs?

Governments may impose tariffs for several reasons

6.1 Raise Revenues

Tariffs can be used to raise revenues for governments. This kind of tariff is called a revenue tariff and is not designed to restrict imports. For instance, in 2018 and 2019, President Donald Trump and his administration imposed tariffs on many items to rebalance the trade deficit. In the fiscal year 2019, customs duties received were $18 billion. In FY 2020, duties received were $21 billion.

6.2 Protect Domestic Industries

Governments can use tariffs to benefit particular industries, often doing so to protect companies and jobs. For example, in May 2022, President Joe Biden proposed a 25% ad valorem tariff on steel articles from all countries except Canada, Mexico, and the United Kingdom (the U.K. has a quota of an aggregate of 500,000 metric tons it can trade with the U.S.). This proclamation reopens the trade of specific items with the U.K. while taking measures to protect domestic U.S. steel manufacturing and production jobs.

6.3 Protect Domestic Consumers

By making foreign-produced goods more expensive, tariffs can make domestically-produced alternatives seem more attractive. Some products made in countries with fewer regulations can harm consumers, such as a product coated in lead-based paint. Tariffs can make these products so expensive that consumers won't buy them.

6.4 Protect National Interests

Tariffs can also be used as an extension of foreign policy as their imposition on a trading partner's main exports may be used to exert economic leverage. For example, when Russia invaded Ukraine, much of the world protested by boycotting Russian goods or imposing sanctions. In April 2022, President Joe Biden suspended normal trade with Russia. In June, he raised the tariff on Russian imports not prohibited by the April suspension to 35%.

7. Advantages of Tariffs

Produce revenues: As discussed, tariffs provide a government a chance to bring in more money. This can relieve some of the tax burdens felt by a county's citizens and help the government to reduce deficits.
Open negotiations: Tariffs can be used by countries to open negotiations for trade or other issues. Each side can use tariffs to help them create economic policies and talk with trade partners.
Support a nation's goals: One of the most popular uses for tariffs is to use them to ensure domestic products receive preference within a country to support businesses and the economy.
Make a market predictable: Tariffs can help stabilize a market and make prices predictable.

8. Disadvantages of Tariffs

Create issues between governments: Many nations use tariffs to punish or discourage actions they disapprove of. Unfortunately, doing this can create tensions between two countries and lead to more problems.
Initiate trade wars: A typical response for a country with tariffs imposed on it is to respond similarly, creating a trade war in which neither country benefits from the other.

Source: Investopedia

GOVERNOR'S ASSENT TO STATE LAWS

1. Context

If courts can review a Governor’s recommendation for President’s Rule, why cannot the judiciary examine a Governor for sitting on crucial State Bills for years together, Chief Justice of India B.R. Gavai, heading a Presidential Reference Bench

2. Conflict Over Governors' Assent to Bills

In the ongoing conflict between states governed by opposition parties and their Governors appointed by the President on the Centre's advice, a recent development has emerged.
Over the past year, several states, including Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Punjab, have taken legal recourse by approaching the Supreme Court regarding Governors withholding assent to Bills for extended periods.
This situation underscores a larger issue concerning the balance of powers and the functioning of state legislatures within India's federal structure.

3. Governor's Role in Lawmaking

Article 200 of the Constitution delineates the role of the Governor in the legislative process. After a Bill has been passed by the state legislature, it must be presented to the Governor. Subsequently, the Governor holds three options: to give assent to the Bill, withhold assent, or reserve the Bill for consideration by the President.
In cases where assent is withheld, Article 200 allows the Governor to return the Bill to the legislature, accompanied by a message requesting reconsideration of the Bill or specific provisions. If the Bill is passed again by the legislature, with or without amendments, and presented to the Governor for assent, the Governor is obligated to grant assent.
However, the absence of a stipulated timeline in the article has led to ambiguity and disputes. Governors have frequently withheld assent to Bills for prolonged periods, leaving them and the state legislature in a state of uncertainty. This lack of clarity has prompted states to seek intervention from the Supreme Court to resolve the issue.

4. President's Role in the Legislative Process

Article 201 of the Constitution outlines the role of the President in the legislative process, particularly when a Bill is sent for consideration after being passed by a state legislature.
If a Bill is sent to the President for consideration, the President can choose to either give assent or withhold assent, as specified in Article 201.
In cases where assent is withheld, the President requests the Governor to return the Bill to the state legislature for reconsideration.
The state government then has a period of six months to reconsider the Bill; failing to do so results in the Bill lapsing.
If the Bill is reconsidered and passed once again by the state legislature, it must be sent back to the President for assessment.
Unlike the Governor, the President is not obliged to give assent when reviewing the reconsidered Bill.
This scenario represents the only instance where state governments do not have the final say in their own lawmaking process, as the decision ultimately rests with the President.

5. Issues Raised by the Kerala Government

The Kerala government has raised significant concerns regarding the actions of Governor Khan and President Murmu, terming them as "manifestly arbitrary" actions that violate fundamental rights and constitutional provisions.

The petition filed by the Kerala government argues that the actions of Governor Khan and President Murmu are "manifestly arbitrary," indicating unreasonable and irrational decision-making. This characterization points to a violation of the right to equality, as such actions lack justification and fairness.
The Kerala government's petition asserts that the decision to keep Bills pending without making a prompt decision violates Article 200 of the Constitution. The provision mandates that the Governor should decide on Bills "as soon as possible" after presentation. By not adhering to this requirement, the Governor's actions are seen as undermining the functioning of the state legislature and rendering it ineffective.
The petition further argues that the prolonged withholding of assent by the Governor has subverted the functioning of the state legislature, rendering it ineffective and serving no practical purpose. This challenges the essence of legislative processes and the role of the Governor in the lawmaking procedure.
Regarding President Murmu's decision to withhold assent to four Bills without providing reasons, the Kerala government contends that this action violates Article 201 of the Constitution. Article 201 stipulates that the President should return a Bill with recommended amendments if the assent is withheld, emphasizing the need for transparency and reasons for such decisions.

6. Governors' Actions and State Governments' Responses

Several states have encountered challenges related to Governors' actions in withholding assent to Bills and other matters, leading to disputes and legal interventions.

Tamil Nadu's Experience: In November last year, the Supreme Court expressed concern over Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi withholding assent to 10 Bills enacted by the state legislature, some pending since January 2020. This action was criticized for its prolonged nature and lack of reasons provided. Additionally, disputes between Tamil Nadu's DMK government and Governor Ravi have been ongoing, including disagreements over ministerial appointments.
Telangana's Grievance: Similarly, the Telangana government approached the Supreme Court in March 2023 due to former Governor Tamilisai Soundarajan's refusal to give assent to 10 Bills passed by the legislative assembly. Although Soundarajan eventually gave her assent, the delay and disputes highlighted tensions between the state government and the Governor's office.
Legal Perspectives and Court Interventions: The issue of elected governments being subject to Governors' decisions, particularly in opposition-led states like Telangana. Despite legal arguments and requests for court directions, the Supreme Court refrained from passing detailed orders, emphasizing the constitutional intent behind timely decision-making as per Article 200.
Political Dynamics and Future Implications: It's notable that Soundarajan, previously involved in assent disputes, is now a BJP candidate for the Lok Sabha elections. This political context adds complexity to the relationship between state governments and Governors, highlighting the ongoing challenges and potential implications for governance and constitutional principles.

7. Governor's Authority in Withholding Assent to Bills

In November 2023, the Supreme Court deliberated on the issue of whether a Governor could withhold assent to Bills passed by the state legislature if they believed the session where the Bills were passed was convened illegally.
This matter arose from Punjab, where Governor Banwarilal Purohit refused to give assent to four Bills passed by the Punjab Assembly, citing legal advice indicating a breach of law and procedure in their passage. Despite this, the Bills were not returned to the Assembly for reconsideration.
The Supreme Court ruled that Governors do not possess the authority to obstruct the regular process of lawmaking by state legislatures.
It clarified that the phrase "as soon as possible" in Article 200 implies that Governors cannot indefinitely delay action on Bills without any justification.
The court emphasized that if a Governor chooses to withhold assent, they must adhere to the procedure outlined in the first proviso of Article 200, which involves returning the Bill to the state legislature for reconsideration.
While the court outlined the responsibilities of Governors in the lawmaking process, it refrained from specifying a definitive timeline for Governors to make decisions on Bills.
This omission has prompted the Kerala government to approach the Supreme Court seeking clarification on the issue.

8. The Way Forward

Addressing the challenges related to the Governor's assent requires a multi-dimensional approach that balances constitutional mandates, legal clarity, political responsibility, and public participation. Collaborative efforts among stakeholders and judicious use of constitutional mechanisms are key to ensuring robust and accountable governance in the legislative domain.

For Prelims: Governor, Center-state relations, Article 200

For Mains:

1. In the context of recent disputes, examine the relationship between Governors appointed by the Centre and state governments led by opposition parties. How can this relationship be strengthened to ensure smooth functioning of the federal structure? (250 Words)

2. Explain the roles of the Governor and the President in the legislative process as outlined in the Constitution of India, focusing on their powers related to assenting to Bills passed by state legislatures. (250 Words)

3. Discuss Ethical Considerations and Constitutional Provisions Regarding Governor Running for Elections. (250 Words)

Previous Year Questions

1. With reference to the Legislative Assembly of a State in India, consider the following statements: ( UPSC 2019)

1. The Governor makes a customary address to Members of the House at the commencement of the first session of the year.

2. When a State Legislature does not have a rule on a particular matter, it follows the Lok Sabha rule on that matter.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2

2. Consider the following statements: ( UPSC 2018)

1. No criminal proceedings shall be instituted against the Governor of a State in any court during his term of office.

2. The emoluments and allowances of the Governor of a State shall not be diminished during his term of office.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2

3.Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State? (2014)

1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule

Appointing the Ministers

2. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India

3. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

A. 1 and 2 only B. 1 and 3 only C. 2, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4

4. Which one of the following suggested that the Governor should be an eminent person from outside the State and should be a detached figure without intense political links or should not have taken part in politics in the recent past? (UPSC CSE 2019)

A.First Administrative Reforms Commission (1966)

B.Rajamannar Committee (1969)

C.Sarkaria Commission (1983)

D.National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2000)

Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-B, 4-C

Source: The Indian Express

LANDSLIDES

1. Context

Rivers overflowed across the Jammu region on Tuesday, killing at least 13 people, including nine pilgrims struck by a landslide on the Vaishno Devi route. The pilgrimage to the Vaishno Devi shrine has been suspended. Relentless heavy rain led to flash floods and landslides in Jammu and also caused havoc in the Kashmir Valley

2.What is a Landslide?

A landslide is a geological phenomenon involving the movement of a mass of rock, earth, or debris down a slope. Landslides can occur due to various factors, including natural processes and human activities

The downslope movement of soil, rock, and organic materials under the influence of gravity

Types:

Rockfalls
Debris flows
Mudflows
Slumps
Earthflows

3. Landslides in India

The recent cases of land subsidence in Joshimath, Uttarakhand, captured the spotlight.
On June 29, 2022, at least 79 people were killed in a landslide in the Noney district of Manipur.
The risk analysis in the report was based on the density of human and livestock populations, which indicates the impacts on people due to these landslides.
The disaster in Kedaranath in 2013 and the landslides caused by the devastating Sikkim earthquake in 2011 are also included in this atlas.

Between 1988 and 2022, the maximum number of landslides 12, 385 recorded in Mizoram.

Uttarakhand followed it at 11, 219, Tripura at 8, 070, Arunachal Pradesh at 7, 689, and Jammu and Kashmir at 7,280. Kerala saw 6,039, Manipur 5,494 and Maharashtra recorded 5, 112 incidents of landslides.

Globally, landslides rank third in terms of deaths among natural disasters.
However, deforestation due to unplanned urbanisation and human greed increases the risk of such incidents.
In 2006, about 4 million people were affected by landslides, including a large number of Indians.
India is among the four major countries where the risk of landslides is the highest; it added. If we look at the figures, about 0.42 million square kilometres in the country are prone to landslides, which is 12.6 per cent of the total land area of the country.
However, the figure does not include snow-covered areas. Around 0.18 million sq km of landslide-prone areas in the country are in North East Himalayas, including Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas.
Of the rest, 0.14 million sq km falls in North West Himalaya (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir); 90, 000 sq km in the Western Ghats and Konkan hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra) and 10, 000 sq km in Eastern Ghats of Aruku in Andhra Pradesh.

4. Reasons for landslides

Sudden heavy rains due to climate change are also increasing landslides. Around 73 per cent of landslides in the Himalayan region are attributed to heavy rains and reduced water-absorbing capacity of the soil.
Global climate change is causing heavy rainfall that erodes steep slopes with loose soil found in a 2020 study by the Indian Institute of Technology in Delhi.
Therefore, the increasing number of landslides can no longer be termed as just natural disasters, as human actions have also played a major role in it.

5. Data On Landslides

Uttakarkhand, Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh reported the highest number of landslides during 1998 – 2022
Mizoram topped the list, recording 12,385 landslide events in the past 25 years, of which 8,926 were recorded in 2017 alone
Likewise, 2,071 events of the total 2,132 landslides reported in Nagaland during this period occurred during the 2017 monsoon season
Manipur, too, showed a similar trend, wherein 4,559 out of 5,494 landslide events were experienced during the rainy season of 2017, Of the total 690, Tamil Nadu suffered 603 landslide events in 2018 alone
Among all these states, an alarming situation is emerging from Uttarakhand and Kerala

While Uttarakhand’s fragility was recently exposed during the land subsidence events reported from Joshimath since January, this Himalayan state has experienced the second highest number (11,219) of landslides since 1998, all events since occurring post 2000
The year-wise number of landslide events in the state is: 2003 (32), 2010 (307), 2012 (473), 2013 (6,610), 2017 (1), 2021 (329) and 2022 (1)
The number of districts with the maximum landslide exposure are in Arunachal Pradesh (16), Kerala (14), Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir (13 each), Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Maharashtra (11 each), Mizoram (8) and Nagaland (7)
Kerala has been consistently reporting massive landslides since it suffered the century’s worst floods in 2018
The year-wise landslide events here are 2018 (5,191), 2019 (756), 2020 (9) and 2021 (29).
From the events and images obtained, the NRSC ranked Rudraprayag in Uttarakhand at the top of 147 vulnerable districts
It has the highest landslide density in the country, along with having the highest exposure to total population and number of houses

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Landslides, climate change, ISRO, Disaster management, National Remote Sensing Centre, Landslide Atlas of India

Previous year questions

1. Which of the following statements in respect of landslides are correct? (NDA 2022)

1. These occur only on gentle slopes during rain.

2. They generally occur in clay-rich soil.

3. Earthquakes trigger landslides.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

A. 1 and 2 B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 3 D. 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (B)

For Mains:

1. Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy. (250 words) (2021)

Source: The Down to Earth

MARATHAS

1. Context

The Bombay High Court on Tuesday restrained Maratha quota activist Manoj Jarange-Patil and his associates from holding demonstrations at Azad Maidan in Mumbai without prior permission. Noting that public places cannot be occupied indefinitely, a Division Bench of Chief Justice Alok Aradhe and Justice Sandeep V. Marne observed that while the right to protest is fundamental, it cannot be exercised at the cost of public inconvenience

2.The history of the emergence of Marathas as a distinct caste

The narrative of the Marathas originates in the 14th century amid the Muslim invasions of Maharashtra. The initial incursion into the Deccan occurred in the late 13th century led by Alauddin Khilji. Subsequently, a period of intense conflict unfolded in the Deccan until the 1350s, culminating in the establishment of the Bahmani Sultanate.
The Muslim dynasties that maintained authority in the Deccan for the following 350 years played a pivotal role in shaping social mobility in the region.
From the 14th century onwards, the term increasingly denoted a new elite—the Maratha chiefs—who brought followers to serve the military of the Bahmani kingdom and its successor Sultanates.
The Maratha category encompassed various castes, yet what united them was their martial tradition, of which they were proud, and the rights and privileges acquired through military service.
The Maratha identity gained prominence with the rise of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, a member of the Bhonsle Maratha clan.
Shivaji's father, Shahaji Bhonsle, served the Deccan Sultanate as a Maratha general. In the late 17th century, Shivaji established his independent Maratha Empire, extending its influence over significant portions of the Indian subcontinent throughout the 18th century. Shivaji's reign, particularly the Marathas' triumph over the Mughal army, served as historical justification for political dominance in the region.
By the 19th century, the Maratha aristocracy ruled over most princely states, especially in Western Maharashtra, and became involved in the non-Brahmin movement

3.Marathas and the non-Brahmin movement

In the 19th century, the Marathas played a significant role in the non-Brahmin movement, which aimed to address issues related to social justice, caste discrimination, and political representation in the Indian subcontinent. The movement sought to challenge the dominance of the Brahmin caste in various aspects of society, including politics, education, and employment.

It is the non-Brahmin movement of the late 19th century that really defines the Maratha identity in opposition to the Brahmins. In 1873, at a time when several social reform movements had blossomed across India, the Satyashodhak Samaj (truth-seeking society) was founded by Jyotirao Phule in Pune. Inspired by Western utilitarian philosophy and Christianity, Phule constructed a historical narrative suggesting that the Deccan society evolved from a community of Shudra peasants

Several factors contributed to the involvement of the Marathas in the non-Brahmin movement:

By the 19th century, the Marathas had established their rule over many princely states, particularly in Western Maharashtra. As rulers of these regions, they recognized the need for social and political reforms to address the grievances of non-Brahmin communities
The non-Brahmin movement aimed to dismantle the caste-based hierarchies and promote social equality. The Marathas, who belonged to diverse castes within their community, were motivated to address social issues within their own ranks and collaborate with other non-Brahmin communities
The movement advocated for increased access to education for non-Brahmins. The Marathas recognized the importance of education in empowering their communities and breaking the traditional Brahmin monopoly on learning
The non-Brahmin movement sought to ensure fair political representation for non-Brahmin communities. Maratha leaders actively participated in political discussions and movements to secure a more inclusive political system
The movement aimed at economic upliftment of non-Brahmin communities. Marathas, as a socially diverse group, were interested in addressing economic disparities within their own community and fostering economic opportunities for all

4. Significance of Non Brahmin Movement

It established a network of educational institutions, publications, and charity trusts independent of Brahmanical support in the provincial cities of the Deccan. Initially, leaders of the non-Brahmin movement opposed the Brahmin-dominated nationalist movement, viewing it as an attempt to replace British rule with Brahmin rule (Omvedt, 1966).
Starting from the 1920s, the non-Brahmin movement introduced the Chhatrapati mela to celebrate the valor of Shivaji.
This led to a direct conflict between the non-Brahmins and the Chitpavan Brahmin Bal Gangadhar Tilak, who aimed to promote Shivaji as a symbol of regional Hindu identity while combining Hindu orthodoxy with nationalism.
Although Tilak sought legitimacy and funding for the celebration of Shivaji from the Maharaja of Kolhapur, Shahu Maharaj, a direct descendant of Shivaji, the Maharaja did not respond. Shahu Maharaj, opposed to Tilak and the Pune Brahmins, instead supported the festival organized by the Satyashodhak Samaj. This competition in narratives contributed to the spread of the cult of Shivaji across the Bombay presidency.
Since 1900, the non-Brahmin movement was led by Shahu Maharaj, who, under his leadership, defined the Marathas as a broader social category through the Satyashodhak Samaj. Although the Satyashodhak ceased to exist in the 1920s after Shahu left the organization, the impact of their mobilization was irreversible, solidifying Brahmins and Marathas as distinct collective identities.
During the 20th century, as electoral democracy emerged, caste politics became a numbers game. The traditional caste identities based on practices of touch, food, and marriage were no longer useful in the electoral system with millions of voters.
Larger networks of regional caste identities, including the Marathas, were mobilized for political purposes. By the end of the 1920s, a rural leadership had emerged based on the ability to express educational and economic demands of non-Brahmins, and being identified as a Maratha became increasingly attractive.
It is evident that in the 1882 District Gazetteer of Thane, Kunbis, Agris, Kolis were identified as distinct caste groups, each with elite layers characterized as Marathas. However, by the 1931 Census, Marathas and Kunbis were lumped together into a single category, indicating the disappearance of Kunbi as a separate caste identity co-opted into the larger caste identity of the Marathas (Omvedt, 1966)

5. Maratha dominance in Maharashtra politics

Following the demise of Shahu Maharaj, the non-Brahmin movement fell under the leadership of Keshavrao Jedhe and Dinkarrao Jawalkar. In 1923, another member of the group, Bhaskarrao Jadhav, established the Non-Brahmin Party.
Throughout the 1920s, members of the Non-Brahmin Party assumed control over the local boards in various districts of Maharashtra, including Satara, Solapur, Nashik, and Buldhana.
Jedhe and Jawalkar became outspoken critics of Tilak and Brahmins in politics. They advocated for the expulsion of all Brahmins from legislative councils, local bodies, and services. In 1926, they prohibited Brahmins from joining their party.
When BR Ambedkar led a satyagraha in Mahad in 1927, Jedhe and Jawalkar insisted on excluding Brahmins from participation. Ambedkar rejected their condition, stating that he opposed Brahmanism but not Brahmins.
By the 1930s, younger members of the Non-Brahmin Party began aligning with the Congress during its civil disobedience movement.
Over time, the political influence wielded by the Marathas in rural districts became integrated into the nationalist movement, leading to the Brahmins' estrangement from the Congress party in Maharashtra.
In the post-Independence period, two events contributed to the 'Maratha-isation' of the Congress party. First, the extension of universal adult franchise provided non-Brahmins and Marathas with a substantial potential mass base. Second, the assassination of Mahatma Gandhi by a Chitpavan Brahmin, Nathuram Godse, triggered resentment and violence against Brahmins in the region.
In subsequent years, Marathas gained prominence in Maharashtra politics, whether in advocating for statehood or achieving electoral success.
Since the formation of Maharashtra in 1960, 12 out of its 20 chief ministers, including the current incumbent Eknath Shinde, have been Marathas. According to Hansen, the political success of the Marathas in Maharashtra mirrors that of the non-Brahmin movement in Tamil Nadu or the Yadavs in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, with the distinction that the former has a more prolonged and deeply rooted historical process

6. Way Forward

Since the 1980s, when the Mandal commission report was tabled, the Marathas have been agitating for OBC reservation and demanding that they be identified as Kunbis. Over the years, consecutive Maharashtra chief ministers have been unable to satisfy the demands of the community. Hansen explains that the reservation issue is drawn from two sources — the seeming success of the Patels in Gujarat some years back to attain reservation and the fact that Maratha is no longer a unifying label of the same compelling value as it used to have earlier

Source: Indianexpress

QUAD

1. Context

The Quad grouping is an “important platform” on the agenda for talks between Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Japanese Prime Minister Shigeru Ishiba at the 15th India-Japan Annual Summit to be held in Tokyo on Friday

2. Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD)

The Quad, short for the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue, is a strategic forum comprising four major Indo-Pacific countries: the United States, Japan, India, and Australia.
The Quad was initiated in 2007 but was relatively dormant for several years before experiencing a revival and increased prominence in recent times.

3. Objectives

The Quad aims to promote a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region. Its core objectives include ensuring regional security, stability, and economic prosperity.
It seeks to uphold the rules-based international order and address common challenges such as maritime security, infrastructure development, economic connectivity, and disaster response.

4. Member Countries

United States: As a major Pacific power, the U.S. plays a central role in the Quad, emphasizing its commitment to the Indo-Pacific region's security and stability.
Japan: Japan is a key member, contributing its economic and technological prowess, and advocating for a rules-based international order.
India: India brings its strategic location and growing influence in the Indo-Pacific to the Quad, strengthening regional security cooperation.
Australia: Australia is a significant player, contributing to maritime security efforts and championing economic development in the Indo-Pacific.

5. Meetings and Engagement

The Quad holds regular meetings at various levels, including ministerial meetings and consultations among senior officials.
It engages in dialogues on a wide range of regional and global issues, from security and defense to infrastructure development and technology cooperation.

Regional Implications:

The Quad has been viewed as a response to China's rising influence in the Indo-Pacific. However, member countries emphasize that it is not an alliance against any specific country but rather a platform for cooperation on shared interests.
Some view the Quad as a potential counterbalance to China's assertive behavior in the South China Sea and its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) infrastructure projects.

Expanding Partnerships:

The Quad has sought to expand its partnerships with other countries in the Indo-Pacific, including Southeast Asian nations. This approach reflects its commitment to inclusivity and regional engagement.

6. Significance of QUAD for India

The Quad holds significant importance for India due to several strategic, economic, and geopolitical reasons:

Countering Regional Challenges:

The Quad provides India with a platform to collaborate with like-minded countries, such as the United States, Japan, and Australia, to address common regional challenges. These challenges include maritime security, territorial disputes, and economic concerns in the Indo-Pacific.

Strengthening Regional Security:

As a member of the Quad, India gains access to enhanced security cooperation, intelligence sharing, and joint exercises. This bolsters its ability to protect its interests and contribute to regional stability in the face of security threats.

Balancing China's Influence:

India views the Quad as a mechanism to balance China's growing influence in the Indo-Pacific. It helps deter aggressive actions and assertive behavior by China, particularly in areas like the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean region.

Economic Opportunities:

The Quad promotes economic connectivity and infrastructure development in the Indo-Pacific. India can leverage these initiatives to enhance its trade, investment, and connectivity in the region, which is vital for its economic growth.

Strengthening Ties with Key Allies:

The Quad allows India to deepen its strategic partnerships with key allies, such as the United States and Japan. These relationships have resulted in increased defense cooperation, technology sharing, and economic collaboration.

Regional Leadership Role:

Participation in the Quad elevates India's status as a regional leader in the Indo-Pacific. It aligns with India's "Act East" policy, reinforcing its commitment to the stability and prosperity of the broader region.

7. Challenges

China's Territorial Claims: China claims that it has historical ownership over nearly the entire region of the South China Sea, which gives it the right to manufacture islands. However, the International Court of Arbitration rejected the claim in 2016.
China's Closeness to ASEAN: The ASEAN countries also have a well-knit relationship with China. The Regional Cooperation Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a recent example of China's increasing influence over ASEAN nations.
Economic Power of China: Considering the economic might of China and the dependence of QUAD nations like Japan and Australia on China, the QUAD nations can not afford to have strained relations with it.
Convergence among Quad Nations: The nations in the Quad grouping have different aspirations, and aims at balancing their own interest. Therefore, coherence in the vision of the Quad nation as a grouping is absent.

8. Way forward

The Quad represents a forum for strategic cooperation among four major Indo-Pacific nations, with a focus on regional security, economic development, and upholding the rules-based international order. Its evolving role in the region will likely be a subject of ongoing geopolitical interest and debate.

For Prelims: Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), South China Sea, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), Indo-Pacific region, ASEAN, and Regional Cooperation Economic Partnership (RCEP).

For Mains: 1. Discuss the evolution, objectives, and geopolitical significance of the Quad (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue) in the context of the Indo-Pacific region. Analyze the challenges and opportunities it presents for the member countries, particularly India. (250 words).

Source: The Indian Express

CARBON MARKET

1. Context

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has announced a National Designated Authority (NDA), a mandatory requirement under the provisions of the 2015 Paris Agreement, to enable a carbon emissions trading regime.

2. What is the Carbon Market?

A carbon market is a system where entities can buy and sell the right to release carbon into the atmosphere. If a government wishes to limit carbon emissions, it can issue carbon credits, which grant the holder permission to emit a specific amount of carbon dioxide.
Each carbon credit represents 1,000 kilograms of CO2. By controlling the number of credits issued, governments can regulate the overall level of carbon emissions.
It's important to note that those without carbon credits are not allowed to release carbon into the air.
The concept of carbon credits originated in the 1990s in the United States with the introduction of a cap-and-trade model to manage sulfur dioxide emissions.
Individuals and companies that possess carbon credits but do not require them can sell these credits to those who need them.
The market price of carbon credits is influenced by the forces of supply and demand. Additionally, carbon markets may involve trading carbon offsets, where businesses that pollute can buy offsets from environmental organizations.
These offsets typically represent projects like tree planting, which absorb a certain amount of carbon from the atmosphere to counterbalance emissions

3. Advantages of Carbon Markets

Pollution and climate change caused by carbon emissions exemplify what economists refer to as an externality. An externality occurs when the costs of an economic activity are not properly incorporated into the market price due to the lack of well-defined property rights.
For instance, a company that buys raw materials, like iron, must pay the supplier for the right to use the material, incurring a specific cost. However, when the same company releases carbon into the atmosphere, it typically doesn't have to compensate anyone for this emission.
Essentially, companies can release waste into the air without bearing any financial burden. This results in unchecked environmental pollution, as firms lack the financial incentive to reduce their carbon emissions.
Carbon markets, where the right to pollute is bought and sold, can address this issue by charging firms for emitting carbon, thus helping to reduce emissions.
The combination of standardized accounting practices and technological advancements has enhanced companies' ability to track and report their carbon emissions.
While this remains a challenge for many small businesses, especially in developing countries where tracking supply chain emissions is difficult, innovations like real-time data tracking in the energy sector are improving the accuracy and depth of corporate carbon accounting.
Nonetheless, many corporations prefer voluntary reporting mechanisms, such as the Carbon Disclosure Project.
They are generally opposed to government-imposed carbon emission limits, fearing that such regulations could lead to production restrictions or higher costs.
Additionally, companies argue that the variability in production processes and supply chains makes it hard to establish an optimal carbon budget for each facility.
Large multinational companies, including ExxonMobil and General Motors, support carbon markets where carbon credits can be freely traded, with prices set by market dynamics.
They believe this approach would allow for more efficient allocation of carbon credits than government mandates

4. Challenges

Even when a carbon market is in place, governments that are not focused on reducing emissions may increase the number of carbon credits available, which can lower the cost of emissions and result in no significant reduction in pollution.
Alternatively, some governments may impose a strict cap on the supply of carbon credits but allow companies to bypass the system by illegally emitting carbon.
The effectiveness of carbon offsets also depends on how motivated business owners are to address carbon emissions, which is often minimal.
Critics argue that companies buying carbon offsets may do so more for image purposes than out of a genuine commitment to reducing emissions, and may not ensure that their investments are effectively offsetting carbon emissions.
Furthermore, some critics question how a government could determine the optimal supply of carbon credits.
They contend that politicians, who do not face direct economic consequences for their emission reduction policies, may restrict the number of credits too much, potentially hindering economic growth

For Prelims: Carbon farming, COP21, Paris Agreement, carbon cycle

For Mains:

1. What is Carbon farming? discuss the effective techniques within carbon farming for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and explain the challenges that exist in implementing them, particularly in developing countries like India. (250 Words)

Previous Year Questions

1. With reference to carbon nanotubes, consider the following statements (UPSC 2020)

1. They can be used as carriers of drugs and antigens in the human body.

2. They can be made into artificial blood capillaries for an injured part of the human body.

3. They can be used in biochemical sensors.

4. Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A. 1 and 2 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 1, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4

2. With reference to the recent developments in science, which one of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC 2019)

A. Functional chromosomes can be created by joining segments of DNA taken from cells of different species.

B. Pieces of artificial functional DNA can be created in laboratories.

C. A piece of DNA taken out from an animal cell can be made to replicate outside a living cell in a laboratory.

D. Cells taken out from plants and animals can be made to undergo cell division in laboratory petri dishes

3. Consider the following statements (upsc 2016)

1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome

2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030

Which of the statements given above is/ are correct

A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 Nor 2

4. LPG stands for (MPSC 2017)

A. Liquidity, Profitability and Growth

B. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Growth

C. Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation

D.None of the above

5. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana was launched (RRC Group D 2018)

A. July 2017 B. January 2018 C. May 2014 D. May 2016

6. In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)

1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³.

2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.

3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream.

4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

A. 1, 3 and 4 B. 1 and 4 only C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1 and 2 only

Answers: 1-C, 2-A, 3-B, 4-C, 5-D, 6-B

Source: The Hindu

LEADER OF OPPOSITION (LoP)

1. Context

Two major press conferences held in recent weeks have attracted a good deal of national attention. The first was held by the Leader of the Opposition (LoP) in the Lok Sabha, Rahul Gandhi, on August 7, 2025, in New Delhi, where he highlighted specific instances of manipulation of the voter list in the Mahadevapura Assembly segment of the Bangalore central parliamentary constituency during the 2024 general election

2. Who is Leader of Opposition?

The Leader of the Opposition is the head of the largest party not in government in a parliamentary system. This person provides an alternative government and critiques government policies.
They play a crucial role in maintaining checks and balances by leading the opposition's efforts to hold the government accountable.
The position is recognized officially and often comes with certain privileges and responsibilities, such as attending important state functions and being involved in key parliamentary committees
The Leader of the Opposition role was defined by the 1977 Act on Salary and Allowances. This person leads the largest opposition party in either the Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha, recognized by the respective House's chair.
They sit in the front row left of the Chair and partake in ceremonial duties, such as escorting the Speaker-elect.
They represent the opposition in key government appointment committees and hold a rank equivalent to Union Cabinet Ministers and other high-ranking officials. Their main function is to voice the opposition's stance in the House

3. What are the roles and responsibilities of the leader of the opposition?

The Leader of the Opposition occupies a front-row seat to the left of the Chair and holds certain ceremonial privileges, such as escorting the Speaker-elect and sitting in the front row during the President's address to Parliament.
Their primary role is to articulate the opposition's views in the House. A 2012 parliamentary booklet describes the Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha as akin to a "shadow Prime Minister," with a "shadow Cabinet" prepared to govern if necessary.
This role is vital for the smooth functioning of parliamentary business, balancing governance and opposition
The Leader of the Opposition serves as the opposition's representative on key committees led by the Prime Minister, involved in appointments for positions like the Director of CBI, Central Vigilance Commissioner, Chief Information Commissioner, and members of the National Human Rights Commission and Lokpal.
From 2014 to 2019, as the Congress leader in the Lok Sabha, Kharge accused the government of attempting to exclude the opposition from the Lokpal selection process by arguing the absence of a designated Leader of the Opposition.
In order of precedence, the Leaders of Opposition in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha come at No. 7, along with Union Cabinet Ministers, the National Security Advisor, the Principal Secretary to the PM, the Vice-Chairperson of the NITI Aayog, former PMs, and Chief Ministers

4.What is the significance of strong opposition to strengthening parliamentary democracy?

A strong opposition is crucial for strengthening parliamentary democracy as it ensures accountability, transparency, and effective governance. It challenges the government's policies, providing alternative viewpoints and solutions, which fosters robust debate and prevents the concentration of power. An active opposition scrutinizes legislative proposals, ensuring thorough review and improvement of laws. It also represents diverse interests and voices, contributing to more inclusive and representative decision-making. Ultimately, a strong opposition maintains the balance of power, enhancing the overall health and functioning of democracy

For Prelims: Indian polity

For Mains: GS-II: Constitution and Polity

Source: Indianexpress

ONE NATION AND ONE SUBSCRIPTION (ONOS)

1. Context

The Indian government recently put forward the ONOS initiative as an alternative. Whether it succeeds will determine if future generations of researchers must still look for back doors. The Union Cabinet approved ONOS in 2024 with an outlay of ₹6,000 crore for its first phase (2023-2026). Under the scheme, the state has negotiated a bulk subscription with 30 major publishers so that research institutions — all public and, in phase II, many private ones — have equal access to some 13,000 journals..

2. Need of One Nation and One Subscription (ONOS)

The ONOS scheme aims to streamline the fragmented approach to journal access across government higher education institutions (HEIs). Under this initiative, state and central government HEIs will have unified access to a vast collection of journals through a single platform, set to launch on January 1, 2025.

This platform will feature 13,000 journals from 30 international publishers, including Elsevier Science Direct (with Lancet), Springer Nature, Wiley Blackwell Publishing, Taylor & Francis, IEEE, Sage Publishing, American Chemical Society, and American Mathematical Society. Institutions need only register on the platform to access the resources. INFLIBNET has been designated to oversee the implementation of the scheme. The central government has negotiated subscription rates with the publishers and allocated ₹6,000 crore for the initiative, covering three years (2025–2027).

The ONOS scheme is supported by four key objectives:

Enhanced Accessibility: It will provide access to leading scholarly journals for approximately 55 lakh to 1.8 crore students, faculty, and researchers from nearly 6,300 government universities, colleges, research institutions, and Institutions of National Importance (INIs), including those in smaller cities and towns.
Cost Efficiency: By eliminating redundant subscriptions across various library consortia and individual HEIs, the scheme will significantly reduce unnecessary expenditures.
Improved Negotiation Power: A centralized subscription model enhances bargaining strength with publishers. For instance, sustained negotiations over two years reduced the initial subscription cost from ₹4,000 crore annually to ₹1,800 crore for 13,000 journals.
Data-Driven Planning: The Centre will gain insights into journal usage within the government HEI ecosystem. This data will support long-term planning and encourage underutilizing institutions to make the most of the platform, thereby maximizing its value for educators, students, and researchers

3. Conceptualisation of ONOS

This initiative stems from the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which highlights the critical role of research in advancing education and driving national progress.
The NEP 2020 emphasizes that for India to emerge as a global leader in diverse fields and fully harness its vast talent pool, it must significantly enhance its research capabilities and outputs across various disciplines.
The policy advocated for the creation of a National Research Foundation (NRF) to provide funding, support, and mentorship for research and development (R&D) while fostering a culture of innovation within the higher education landscape.
In 2022, the central government advanced this vision by forming a core committee of secretaries, led by the Principal Scientific Advisor, to guide its implementation.
This committee established a cost negotiation panel to engage with journal publishers for the ONOS initiative. Earlier this year, the Anusandhan National Research Foundation (ANRF) was officially launched to further these objectives

4. Offerings of ONOS

The ONOS scheme aims to unify the fragmented system of journal access for government higher education institutions (HEIs). This initiative will provide a single platform for state and central government HEIs to access thousands of journals, with the platform set to launch on January 1, 2025.
The platform will feature 13,000 journals from 30 international publishers, including Elsevier Science Direct (with Lancet), Springer Nature, Wiley Blackwell Publishing, Taylor & Francis, IEEE, Sage Publishing, the American Chemical Society, and the American Mathematical Society. Institutions will simply need to register to gain access to these resources.
The INFLIBNET Centre has been tasked with implementing the scheme. To support this initiative, the central government has secured subscription agreements with the publishers and allocated ₹6,000 crore for the years 2025, 2026, and 2027

5. Way Forward

The ONOS scheme aims to unify the fragmented system of journal access for government higher education institutions (HEIs). This initiative will provide a single platform for state and central government HEIs to access thousands of journals, with the platform set to launch on January 1, 2025.

The platform will feature 13,000 journals from 30 international publishers, including Elsevier Science Direct (with Lancet), Springer Nature, Wiley Blackwell Publishing, Taylor & Francis, IEEE, Sage Publishing, the American Chemical Society, and the American Mathematical Society. Institutions will simply need to register to gain access to these resources. The INFLIBNET Centre has been tasked with implementing the scheme. To support this initiative, the central government has secured subscription agreements with the publishers and allocated ₹6,000 crore for the years 2025, 2026, and 2027

For Prelims: National Educational Policy (NEP), One Nation One Election , One Nation One Subscription (ONOS)

For Mains: Significance of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 in promoting research and innovation

Source: The Hindu

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Current Affair

TARIFFS

2. What is a Tariff?

3. Key Take Aways

4. History of Tariffs

4.1 Pre Modern Europe

4.2 Late 19th and early 20th Centuries

4.3 In the 21st Century

5. Understanding Tariffs

6. Why Government Imposes Tariffs?

7. Advantages of Tariffs

8. Disadvantages of Tariffs

GOVERNOR'S ASSENT TO STATE LAWS

LANDSLIDES

1. Context

4. Reasons for landslides

For Prelims & Mains

Previous year questions

MARATHAS

QUAD

1. Context

2. Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD)

3. Objectives

4. Member Countries

5. Meetings and Engagement

6. Significance of QUAD for India

7. Challenges

8. Way forward

CARBON MARKET

LEADER OF OPPOSITION (LoP)

ONE NATION AND ONE SUBSCRIPTION (ONOS)

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