FLASH FLOODS

2. What is a Flood

• Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
• Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry. 
• Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break. 
• Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop. 
• Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer. 
• Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.

3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.

These factors include -

• Meteorological factors

• Physical factors

• Human factors

 3.1 Meteorological Factors

The natural causes of floods are discussed below -

• Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
• Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.

• Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
• Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
• Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
• Cyclone & Heavy rainfall

3.2. Physical Factors.

• Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.

• Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.

3.3. Human Factor

• Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.

• Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood. 

• Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.

• Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs

• Unplanned Development

• Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning

 4.Types of Flood

• Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.

• Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.

• River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.

• Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.

• Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.

The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences. 

• Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.

• Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.

• Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.

• Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.

• Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.

• Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.

Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:

• Attempts to modify the flood
• Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
• Attempts to modify the loss burden
• Bearing the loss.
• The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.

6.1 Structural measures

The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:

• Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
• Dams and reservoirs
• Natural detention basins
• Channel improvement
• Drainage improvement
• Diversion of flood waters.

6.2 Non-structural measures

Non-structural measures include:

• Flood forecasting and warning
• Floodplain zoning
• Flood fighting
• Floodproofing
• Flood insurance.

7.What are Flash Floods

• Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed. 
• Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time. 
• They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.

 8. Status of Floods in India

8.1 NDRF Report

• 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
• On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.

8.2 Statistics

• Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
• 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.

9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?

• Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
• Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land. 
• Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream. 
• Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly. 
• Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding. 
• Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
• Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
• Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
• Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.

10. The impact of floods in India

11. Impact of flood on wildlife

12. Government actions regarding flood management

12.1.The National Flood Management Commission

• Launched in 1954
• Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.

• To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
• It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.

• It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
• It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.

12.4.National Water Policy, 2002

• It recommended
• Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
• Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
• More emphasis on non-structural measures.
• Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.

12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were

• Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
• In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
• Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.

WHOLESALE PRICE INDEX (WPI)

 

 

1. Context

Wholesale price inflation declined to a two-year low of 0.58% in July, as deflation in food and fuel kept WPI in the negative zone for the second consecutive month, government data released on Thursday showed.

 

2. What is the Wholesale Price Index(WPI)?

The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) is a measure of the changes in the prices of goods sold and traded in bulk by wholesale businesses to other businesses or retailers. It is one of the key indicators used to measure inflation and economic performance in a country.

WPI tracks the average price changes of goods at the wholesale level, providing insights into inflationary pressures in the economy. It includes various categories of goods such as agricultural products, industrial raw materials, fuel and power, and manufactured goods.

Governments and policymakers use WPI data to monitor inflation trends, formulate monetary and fiscal policies, and assess the overall health of the economy. It serves as a crucial tool for businesses to adjust pricing strategies, forecast costs, and make informed decisions regarding production and investment

3. Importance of WPI

 

The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) holds several significant roles in economic analysis and policymaking:

• WPI is a key indicator used to measure inflationary pressures in the economy. By tracking changes in the prices of goods at the wholesale level, it provides insights into the direction and magnitude of inflation. This data is crucial for policymakers in formulating monetary and fiscal policies to maintain price stability
• WPI serves as a barometer of economic performance, reflecting changes in production costs, input prices, and overall market conditions. Fluctuations in WPI can indicate shifts in supply and demand dynamics, business confidence, and economic activity levels
• Governments and central banks rely on WPI data to formulate and adjust monetary and fiscal policies. By assessing inflationary trends captured by WPI, policymakers can make informed decisions regarding interest rates, money supply, taxation, and government spending to achieve macroeconomic objectives such as price stability, economic growth, and employment generation
• Businesses utilize WPI as a tool for forecasting production costs and adjusting pricing strategies. By monitoring changes in wholesale prices of goods, companies can anticipate future cost pressures, optimize supply chain management, and make pricing decisions to maintain profitability and competitiveness in the market
• WPI data is also crucial for analyzing trends in international trade. Changes in wholesale prices can affect export competitiveness, import demand, and trade balances. Policymakers use WPI information to assess the impact of exchange rate fluctuations, trade policies, and global economic conditions on domestic industries and trade relations

4. What is the Consumer Price Index(CPI)?

 

The Consumer Price Index (CPI) is a measure that examines the weighted average of prices of a basket of consumer goods and services, such as transportation, food, and medical care. It is one of the most widely used indicators for tracking inflation and assessing changes in the cost of living over time.

CPI is calculated by collecting price data for a representative sample of goods and services that are typically purchased by urban consumers. The prices of these items are then aggregated and weighted according to their relative importance in the average consumer's expenditure. The resulting index reflects the average price level experienced by consumers

CPI is used by governments, central banks, businesses, and households for various purposes:

• CPI is primarily used to measure inflation, which is the rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising. By tracking changes in the CPI over time, policymakers can gauge the extent of inflationary pressures in the economy and adjust monetary and fiscal policies accordingly
• Many labour contracts, pension plans, and government benefits are indexed to CPI. This means that payments or wages are adjusted periodically based on changes in the CPI to maintain purchasing power and account for changes in the cost of living
• Central banks often use CPI as a key input in their monetary policy decisions. By targeting a specific inflation rate, central banks aim to achieve price stability and support sustainable economic growth. CPI data helps policymakers assess whether monetary policy actions are effectively controlling inflation
• Investors and financial analysts use CPI data to adjust their investment strategies and financial planning. Understanding inflation trends can help investors anticipate changes in interest rates, bond yields, and stock market performance, which in turn influence investment decisions
• CPI data provides insights into consumer behavior and spending patterns. Changes in the prices of specific goods and services reflected in the CPI can affect consumer preferences, purchasing decisions, and overall economic activity

5.What is the distinction between WPI and CPI?

 

Subject	Wholesale Price Index (WPI)	Consumer Price Index (CPI)
Scope of Goods and Services	Measures changes in prices of goods traded in bulk by wholesalers, including raw materials, intermediate goods, and finished goods.	Tracks changes in prices of goods and services purchased by households for consumption, including food, housing, transportation, etc.
Target Audience	Relevant to businesses, policymakers, and analysts involved in production, manufacturing, and trade.	Important for individuals, households, labor unions, and policymakers involved in setting wages, pensions, and social security benefits.
Weighting and Composition	Based on a fixed basket of goods and services weighted according to their relative importance in wholesale trade.	Based on a basket of goods and services representative of urban consumer spending patterns.
Policy Implications	Changes in WPI affect production costs, supply chain management, and business profitability. Used by policymakers to assess inflation trends and formulate industrial and trade policies.	Changes in CPI directly impact the cost of living for households and influence consumer behavior, purchasing power, and welfare. Used by policymakers to adjust wages, social benefits, and taxation policies.

 

6. Way Forward

 

Both WPI and CPI are measures of price levels, they differ in their scope, target audience, composition, and policy implications. WPI focuses on wholesale trade and production costs, while CPI reflects consumer spending patterns and the cost of living for households

 

For Prelims: Consumer Price Index, Wholesale Price Index, Inflation,  retail inflation, Producer Pirce Index, National Statistical Office, OPEC+, Crude oil, Kharif season, Monsoon,  For Mains:  1. Analyse the factors contributing to high food inflation in India in recent months. Discuss the impact of high food inflation on the Indian economy and suggest measures to mitigate it. (250 words) 2. Explain the concept of sticky inflation. What are the various factors that contribute to sticky inflation? Discuss the implications of sticky inflation for the Indian economy. (250 words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015) A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation   Answer: C   2. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010) 1. The Wholesale Price Index (WPI) in India is available on a monthly basis only. 2. As compared to Consumer Price Index for Industrial Workers (CPI(IW)), the WPI gives less weight to food articles. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only       B. 2 only       C. Both 1 and 2          D.  Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: B   3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. The weightage of food in Consumer Price Index (CPI) is higher than that in Wholesale Price Index (WPI). 2. The WPI does not capture changes in the prices of services, which CPI does. 3. Reserve Bank of India has now adopted WPI as its key measure of inflation and to decide on changing the key policy rates. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 and  2 only       B. 2 only       C. 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3   4. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011) 1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30. 2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change. 3. The food supply chain has structural constraints. Which of the statements given above are correct?  A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B     5. The Public Distribution System, which evolved as a system of management of food and distribution of food grains, was relaunched as _______ Public Distribution System in 1997. (SSC JE EE 2021)  A. Evolved         B. Transformed      C. Tested            D. Targeted   Answer: D   6. Under the Antyodaya Anna Yojana, up to what quantity of rice and wheat can be purchased at a subsidised cost? (FCI AG III 2023)  A. 35 kg          B. 40 kg          C. 30 kg           D. 25 kg           E. 50 kg   Answer: A   7. As per the the National Statistical Office (NSO) report released on 7 January 2022, India's Gross domestic product (GDP) is expected to grow at ___________ per cent (in first advance estimates) in the fiscal year 2021-22?  (ESIC UDC 2022)  A. 17.6 per cent     B. 9.5 per cent     C. 11 per cent        D. 9.2 per cent   E. None of the above   Answer: D   8. The main emphasis of OPEC (Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) is on which of the following? (UKPSC 2016) A. The production of petroleum B. Control over prices of petroleum C. Both (a) and (b) D. None of the above   Answer: C   9. In the context of global oil prices, "Brent crude oil" is frequently referred to in the news. What does this term imply? (UPSC 2011) 1. It is a major classification of crude oil. 2. It is sourced from the North Sea. 3. It does not contain sulfur. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 2 only    B. 1 and 2 only        C. 1 and 3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   10. The term 'West Texas Intermediate', sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of (UPSC 2020) A. Crude oil   B. Bullion         C. Rare earth elements       D.  Uranium   Answer: C   11. With reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019) 1. Area under rice cultivation is the highest. 2. Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds. 3. Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane. 4. Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased. Which of the statements given above are correct?  A. 1 and 3 only        B.  2, 3 and 4 only        C. 2 and 4 only         D. 1, 2, 3 and 4   Answer: A

 

Source: The Hindu

 

GREENHOUSE GASES(GHGs)

 

 

1. Context

 

The Trump administration has reportedly asked the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to prepare to shut down two major satellites that monitor atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) and crop health.

 

2.What are greenhouse gases?

 

Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming. These gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases (such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride).

These gases allow sunlight to enter the Earth's atmosphere freely. Once absorbed, the Earth's surface emits infrared radiation, but instead of allowing this radiation to escape back into space, greenhouse gases trap and re-radiate some of it back towards the Earth's surface. This process warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect.

Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, amplifying the greenhouse effect and contributing to global climate change

Here are the major greenhouse gases:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most abundant greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. It is released when fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burned
• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted from agriculture, waste decomposition, and fossil fuel production. It is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, but it breaks down in the atmosphere more quickly
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, industrial processes, and burning fossil fuels. It is a long-lived greenhouse gas that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries
• Fluorinated gases These are man-made chemicals used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and fire extinguishers. They are very potent greenhouse gases, but they are emitted in much smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
• Water vapor (H2O): The most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Water vapor plays an important role in the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities do not significantly affect the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere

3. What is the Greenhouse gas effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun. This process is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder, and life as we know it would not exist.

Here's how the greenhouse effect works:

• Solar radiation: Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and passes through it, warming the Earth's surface.

• Absorption and re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy and then emits it as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of this infrared radiation.

• Re-emission: The absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface. This trapped heat warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface, similar to how a greenhouse traps heat.

• Balance: The greenhouse effect helps maintain the Earth's temperature in a range suitable for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect or global warming

 

4. What are hydrofluorocarbons?

 

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a class of synthetic greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, aerosol propellants, and other industrial applications. They are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
• HFCs were developed as alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were phased out due to their significant ozone-depleting potential. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs do not contain chlorine atoms, so they do not contribute to ozone depletion.
• However, they are potent greenhouse gases, with high global warming potentials (GWPs), meaning they trap heat in the atmosphere at a much higher rate than carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Due to their role in contributing to climate change, efforts have been made internationally to regulate and phase out the use of HFCs. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, adopted in 2016, aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
• Many countries are transitioning to alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials, such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide. These efforts are essential for mitigating climate change by reducing the emissions of potent greenhouse gases like HFC

5. What are the adverse effects?

 

The greenhouse gas effect, when intensified beyond natural levels due to human activities, leads to a range of adverse effects on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.

 

Some of these effects include:

• The primary consequence of intensified greenhouse gas effect is global warming. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to a rise in average global temperatures
• Global warming alters weather patterns and climatic conditions worldwide, leading to changes such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, droughts, and floods. These changes can disrupt ecosystems, agriculture, and water supplies, leading to ecological imbalances and economic losses
• Warmer temperatures cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. This phenomenon threatens coastal communities, low-lying islands, and habitats, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion
•  Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide dissolving into oceans, resulting in ocean acidification. This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species
• Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face extinction. The rapid pace of climate change often outpaces the ability of many species to adapt, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation
• Climate change exacerbates health risks, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, increased prevalence of infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity due to changing agricultural conditions
• Climate change can lead to displacement of populations due to extreme weather events, loss of livelihoods in sectors such as agriculture and fishing, and increased conflicts over resources like water and arable land. These disruptions can strain social systems and economies, particularly in vulnerable regions

6.What is Montreal Protocol?

 

The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement aimed at protecting the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It was negotiated in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. The protocol is regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties.

Key points about the Montreal Protocol include:

• Objective: The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, which are substances that contain chlorine and bromine atoms and are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

• Ozone Layer: The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules (O3). This layer plays a crucial role in absorbing and filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.

• Ozone-Depleting Substances: The Montreal Protocol targets several categories of ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among others. These substances were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire extinguishers, and other industrial applications.

• Phasing Out: The protocol established a timetable for phasing out the production and consumption of ODS, with developed countries committing to earlier phase-out schedules and developing countries given more time to comply. Amendments to the protocol tightened regulations and accelerated the phase-out schedules over time.

• Success: The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as successful in achieving its objectives. By reducing the production and consumption of ODS, the protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Scientific assessments have confirmed a decrease in the atmospheric concentrations of ODS and a healing of the ozone layer.

• International Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol exemplifies successful international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. It has been ratified by almost every country in the world, demonstrating a shared commitment to protecting the ozone layer and mitigating climate change (as many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases)

7.Way Forward

 

Since 2020, the US has banned the import of HCFC 22 for any purpose other than in a process which results in its transformation or destruction. The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act, passed by Congress in December 2020, authorised the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to phase down the production and consumption of numerous forms of HFCs

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022) (A) Methane (B) Sulphur dioxide (C) Surface Ozone (D) Nitrogen dioxide (E) Carbon dioxide Choose the correct answer from the options given below : 1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only 2.(A), (C), (E) only 3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only 4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only Answer (2)

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

REFUGEES AND ILLEGAL IMMIGRANTS

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Supreme Court on 31st July said the first major issue to be dealt with in cases concerning Rohingya is whether they are refugees or illegal entrants. The court observed this while hearing a batch of pleas concerning Rohingya whose presence in India has frequently led to discussions on national security and the infiltration of foreigners into the country. In this context, let’s take a look at the definition of a refugee and their status in India.

 

 

2. Background to these definitions to surface 

 

 

• As per a July 2024 report by the National Human Rights Commission, India is home to at least 2,09,028 refugees from countries such as Sri Lanka, Tibet, Myanmar, and Afghanistan. Despite this, the Citizenship Act of 1955 only provides a definition for an “illegal immigrant” and does not define the term “refugee.”

• Internationally, the 1951 United Nations Convention on the Status of Refugees describes a refugee as someone who has been compelled to leave their country of origin and cannot or will not return because of a “well-founded fear of persecution” based on race, religion, nationality, membership of a specific social group, or political opinion.

• This UN Convention also outlines the responsibilities of states to safeguard refugees and provide them with certain minimum standards of treatment. While 149 UN member countries have signed and ratified the treaty, India is among the 44 nations that have not.

• In the absence of a dedicated refugee law, India does not formally recognise refugees as a distinct category, treating them the same as other foreign nationals who enter its territory

 

3. Who are illegal immigrants in India?

 

• Under the Citizenship Act of 1955, an illegal immigrant is defined as a foreign national who either enters India without valid travel papers or remains in the country after the permitted period has expired. Such individuals are barred from seeking Indian citizenship.

• The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2019, made an exception for Hindus, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis, and Christians from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, stating that those who entered India on or before December 31, 2014, would not be considered illegal migrants.

• Based on this legal framework, Rohingya people fall under the category of illegal migrants and are therefore ineligible to apply for Indian citizenship

 

4. Who is a Foreigner in India?

 

 

As per the Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025:

• Every foreign national must have valid travel papers—such as a passport and visa—to enter and reside in India.

• Entering Indian territory without the necessary documents can lead to imprisonment for up to five years or a monetary penalty of up to ₹5 lakh.

• Foreign nationals who enter lawfully but overstay after their travel documents expire may face a jail term of up to three years or a fine of up to ₹3 lakh.

 

Who are the Rohingyas?   The Rohingya, labelled by the United Nations as “the world’s most persecuted minority,” originate from Myanmar’s coastal Rakhine state but are excluded from recognition under the country’s constitution. Widespread sectarian violence and military crackdowns have forced nearly all of the 1.4 million Rohingya to flee, with the majority now residing in refugee camps in Bangladesh. According to the UN, the mass exodus of the Rohingya following the 2017 military offensive in Rakhine state has resulted in the largest refugee crisis globally. The Myanmar government, however, asserts that the Rohingya—who are predominantly Muslim—are illegal migrants from Bangladesh.

5. World Refugee day and theme

 

• World Refugee Day, designated by the United Nations, is an international occasion dedicated to recognising the courage, resilience, and determination of refugees across the globe, while also highlighting the need to safeguard their rights. The first worldwide observance took place on 20 June 2001, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the 1951 Refugee Convention.
• Originally celebrated as Africa Refugee Day, it was renamed after the UN General Assembly, in December 2000, proclaimed it as an international day. The theme for World Refugee Day was “Solidarity with Refugees,” urging people to go beyond expressions of support and take concrete steps to assist them

6.Constitutional Issues Surrounding Section 6A of the Citizenship Act

 

The challenge to Section 6A raises several significant constitutional issues, which will be explored by the five-judge bench of the Supreme Court. These issues touch upon various fundamental rights and principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution.

• Whether Section 6A, by establishing a different cut-off date for Assam than stipulated in Article 6 of the Constitution, violates Articles 10 and 11, which deal with the right to move freely and reside in any part of India.
• This raises questions about whether this deviation requires a formal "variation" of Article 6 itself, or if it can be justified under existing legal provisions.
• Does Section 6A dilute the political rights of the Assamese people by potentially altering the demographic balance through the naturalization of migrants? This involves interpreting Articles 325 and 326, which guarantee the right to vote and reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, respectively.
• Does Section 6A violate the fundamental right of indigenous communities to conserve their culture, as enshrined in Article 29(1)? This brings up the scope of this fundamental right and its application in the context of a changing demographic landscape.
• Does an influx of illegal immigration constitute "external aggression" or "internal disturbance" as defined in Article 355, which empowers the Union to protect states from such threats? This question delves into the interpretation of Article 355 and its relevance to the Assam situation.
• Does Section 6A unfairly single out Assam by applying a different cut-off date than other border states, thereby violating the right to equality under Article 14? This necessitates evaluating the justification for such a distinction and its potential discriminatory effects.
• Does the influx of immigrants, as facilitated by Section 6A, adversely affect the lives and personal liberty of Assamese citizens under Article 21? This examines the potential negative impact of immigration on various aspects of life and liberty in the state.
• In granting relief under Article 32, should the court consider the delay in challenging Section 6A? This involves weighing the principle of timely justice against the complexity of the legal issues and potential consequences of delayed action.
• After decades of migrant presence and naturalization, can any meaningful relief be granted without causing undue prejudice to individuals already integrated into society This raises questions about balancing legal principles with the realities of human lives and the potential for disruption caused by retroactive changes.
• Does Section 6A violate the basic premise of the Citizenship Act by potentially allowing individuals to retain their citizenship in Bangladesh while becoming Indian citizens? This relates to the interpretation of Section 5 of the Act and its requirement for full renunciation of foreign citizenship.
• Does Section 6A contravene the provisions of Section 5 by granting citizenship without requiring an oath of allegiance or ensuring reciprocity from Bangladesh? This involves evaluating the legal basis for these requirements and their potential application in the case of Section 6A.
• Does the specific nature of the Immigrants (Expulsion from Assam) Act exclude the General Foreigners Act and its associated tribunals from dealing with migrant issues in Assam? This question focuses on the legal framework applicable to immigration within the state and its consistency with national laws.
• Does Section 6A undermine the rule of law by prioritizing political considerations over legal principles? This raises concerns about the potential for political pressure to influence lawmaking and its impact on the balance of legal authority.
• Does Section 6A violate Article 14 by failing to establish a clear and transparent mechanism for determining individuals' eligibility for citizenship based on their residency in Assam? This centres on the potential for arbitrary decision-making and its impact on the fundamental right to equality.

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance. For Mains:  General Studies II- Polity

 

Previous Year Questions 1.  With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012) 1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law. 2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only             B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2               D. Neither 1 nor 2     2. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019) A.  Bamboo Industry B. Petroleum Production C. Cottage Industries D. Tea Cultivation     3. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019) A. Sugarcane           B.  Jute            C. Tea                    D. Cotton     4. Under Assam Accord of 1985, foreigners who had entered Assam before March 25, _____ were to be given citizenship.  (DSSSB JE & Section Officer 2022) A. 1954           B. 1971         C.  1981           D. 1966   Answers: 1-C, 2-D, 3-B, 4-B

 

 Source: The Indian Express

 

INDEPENDENCE DAY: BRITISH PERSPECTIVE

 

1. Context 

As we reflect on the 79th anniversary of Indian independence, it's essential to delve into the British perspective on the events that led to this monumental change and the subsequent decline of their global dominion.

2. Post-World War II Economic Challenges

• The aftermath of World War II left Britain victorious yet physically and financially drained.
• By 1945, the treasury was depleted, war debts were significant, and the nation was grappling with food shortages, labour deficits, and extensive infrastructure damage.
• These circumstances necessitated profound transformations, and decolonization emerged as an inevitable course of action.
• The strains of maintaining a vast empire were unsustainable, as economist John Maynard Keynes argued, urging a reduction in spending on the British Empire to address the nation's economic plight.

3. Clement Atlee and the Shift in Leadership

• The shift from Winston Churchill's wartime leadership to Clement Atlee's governance marked a crucial juncture.
• Atlee, distinct in temperament from the boisterous Churchill, held contrasting views on the British Empire.
• While Churchill remained an Empire apologist, Atlee favoured self-governance in India, acknowledging the rising nationalist sentiment.
• Atlee's stance was motivated not only by the desire to redirect resources for domestic welfare but also by a realization that denying India's independence could exacerbate tensions.
• His recognition of the persistent demand for self-government and the fear of communist uprisings further shaped his approach.

4. The Impact of the Royal Indian Navy Mutiny

• The massive mutiny in the Royal Indian Navy in 1946 hastened the decline of the British Empire.
• The RIN's pivotal role during the war had swelled its ranks, but post-war demobilization and poor conditions led to discontent.
• Nationalist fervour surged among the sailors, culminating in a significant mutiny that underscored Britain's weakening grip on India.
• This mutiny, though short-lived, amplified the urgency for granting India independence.
• Atlee's subsequent announcement of The Cabinet Mission reflected the recognition of the Empire's waning influence.

5. Britain's Accelerated Exit and the Partition

• Atlee's commitment to India's independence clashed with uncertainties about its form.
• The Cabinet Mission's proposal for a complex administrative structure was rejected, exacerbating communal tensions.
• The appointment of Louis Mountbatten, whose directive was to ensure a swift exit, reflected the need to contain potential bloodshed.
• Mountbatten's efforts expedited the timeline for India's independence and partition, with August 15, 1947, designated as the transfer of power deadline.
• While this marked a poignant moment for Empire apologists, most Britons were preoccupied with domestic concerns.

6. Conclusion

• The British perspective on Indian independence unveils a narrative of evolving attitudes, economic realities, and shifting political landscapes.
• The events leading to India's independence also underscored the broader decline of the British Empire.
• As we commemorate this historic anniversary, it's a testament to the complexities of history that continue to shape our world.

For Prelims: Indian Independence, Partition, World War II, British Empire, Royal Indian Navy, Cabinet Mission,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the economic challenges faced by Britain after World War II and how these challenges contributed to the decolonization process. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the Cabinet Mission, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2015) 1. It recommended a federal government. 2. It enlarged the powers of the Indian courts. 3. It provided for more Indians in the ICS. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 only    B. 2 and 3    C. 1 and 3     D. None   Answer: A   2. The Cabinet Mission which visited in 1946 was led by _____.  (Telangana Group 1 2016)  A. R.J. Moore    B. A.V. Campbell        C. Pethick Lawrence   D.  David Warner   Answer: C

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

TELANGANA'S KALESHWARAM PROJECT

 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP), billed as the lifeline of Telangana by the previous Bharat Rashtra Samithi (BRS) government, is mired in controversies over the manner in which it has been executed. A barrage forming a major component of the project suffered damages within three years of its inauguration, while two others constructed upstream developed cracks resulting in the charge that the KLIP was a colossal waste of public money.

 

2. Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP)

 

• The Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP), situated on the Godavari River at Kaleshwaram in Bhupalpally district, Telangana, is a massive multi-purpose irrigation initiative.
• Recognised as the largest multi-stage irrigation project globally, it is located near the confluence of the Pranahita and Godavari rivers.
• The system spans a canal network exceeding 1,800 km. Conceived under the leadership of K. Chandrasekhar Rao’s BRS government, the project seeks to provide irrigation to more than 16 lakh acres across 13 districts of Telangana, while also stabilising the existing ayacut.
• It is designed to store and distribute 240 thousand million cubic feet (tmc ft) of Godavari water, with planned allocations of 169 tmc ft for irrigation, 30 tmc ft for Hyderabad’s drinking water needs, 16 tmc ft for industrial and miscellaneous purposes, and 10 tmc ft for drinking water supply to villages along the route
• The government has constructed barrages across Godavari at Ramadugu, Medigadda, Sundilla and Annaram. The water is stored there to cater to drinking water and irrigation needs.
• The project was conceived at a cost of ₹71,000 crore initially. The cost escalated to close to over ₹1 lakh crore over a period of time. Finishing works is likely to take few more thousands of crores.

 

3. Controversy around it

 

 

• The Kaleshwaram project has faced controversies from its inception, primarily due to the relocation of its site from Tummidihatti to Medigadda, despite reportedly securing hydrology clearance for the original location.
• The official justification for the shift was insufficient water availability at Tummidihatti; however, a later inquiry found that the Central Water Commission had assessed the site’s water availability at over 200 tmc ft.
• One of the major criticisms during construction was that the barrages were built on permeable foundations instead of robust ones capable of withstanding large volumes of water.
• The relocation decision also drew flak because nearly 30% of the works under the Pranahita Chevella Sujala Sravanti (PCSS) project—initiated in the erstwhile united Andhra Pradesh in 2008 at Tummidihatti, with costs exceeding ₹11,000 crore—had already been completed.
• Another allegation against the BRS government was that the project was approved solely by Chief Minister K. Chandrasekhar Rao, without securing the State Cabinet’s consent.
• Structural flaws in the Kaleshwaram project became evident during the BRS tenure when the piers of the Sundilla barrage sank, supporting claims about the use of permeable foundations. Additionally, two other barrages—Annaram and Sundilla—developed cracks after the government stored large volumes of water against technical recommendations

 

4. River and Irrigation regarding the Kaleshwaram Project

 

• Primary River: Godavari River – KLIP is located on the Godavari at Medigadda in Bhupalpally district, Telangana.

• Major Tributary: Pranahita River – The confluence of the Pranahita (formed by Wardha and Wainganga rivers) and the Godavari lies upstream of the project site.

• Upstream Linkages:

  • Wardha River (Maharashtra)

  • Wainganga River (Madhya Pradesh & Maharashtra)

• Downstream Impact: KLIP lifts water from the Godavari and channels it through an extensive canal network to various parts of Telangana.

 

Irrigation with the Kaleshwaram Project

• Irrigation Potential Created: Over 16 lakh acres across 13 districts of Telangana.

• Purpose:

  • Provide assured irrigation to new areas.

  • Stabilise existing ayacut (land already under irrigation) in command areas of earlier projects.

• Water Allocation Plan:

  • 169 tmc ft – Irrigation

  • 30 tmc ft – Drinking water for Hyderabad

  • 10 tmc ft – Drinking water for villages en route

  • 16 tmc ft – Industrial and miscellaneous purposes

• Canal Network: More than 1,800 km, carrying water lifted in multiple stages from the Godavari.

 

 

5. Way Forward

 

Forming a judicial commission to investigate the irregularities in the Kaleshwaram project was one of the Congress party’s poll commitments. Acting on this, Chief Minister A. Revanth Reddy appointed a single-member judicial panel, led by Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose, to conduct a comprehensive probe. Over the course of 15 months, Justice Ghose examined more than 110 witnesses, including former CM K. Chandrasekhar Rao, ex-Irrigation Minister T. Harish Rao, and former Finance Minister Eatala Rajender of the BRS government, the latter being questioned particularly for releasing funds with what was described as a “negligent and indifferent attitude.” The commission submitted its findings on July 31, after which the Telangana government decided to hold a debate on the Kaleshwaram project in the legislature during the monsoon session. The administration intends to present the lapses in detail to the public and seek inputs from all political parties, including the BRS, on the project’s future course

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements regarding the Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project. (TSPSC Group 1)   1. It was originally called the Pranahita-Chevella project.   2. It is a multi-purpose irrigation project on the Krishna river.   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?   A.1 only   B.2 only   C. Both 1 and 2   D.Neither 1 nor 2   Answer (A)

Source: The Hindu

 

 

 

PRALAY AND AKASH MISSILES

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) conducted two consecutive successful tests of quasi-ballistic missile Pralay from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam island off the coast of Odisha on 28th and 29th July. Three Pune based facilities of the DRDO have played a key role in the development of the tactical weapons system.

 

2. Background of Missiles

 

 

• The missile flight trials were conducted as part of user validation exercises aimed at confirming the system’s performance across its defined maximum and minimum operational ranges.

• According to the Ministry of Defence, Pralay is a domestically developed missile that uses solid fuel propulsion and features advanced guidance and navigation technologies to ensure precision targeting. It is designed to carry a variety of conventional warheads to neutralize diverse types of targets.

• The first successful test of Pralay—named after the Sanskrit word for "widespread devastation"—was carried out in December 2021. The missile is being equipped with conventional warheads and is intended for integration into the Indian Army’s artillery units.

• The development of the missile system was spearheaded by the Research Centre Imarat (RCI) of the DRDO in Hyderabad, with support from three DRDO labs based in Pune: the Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE), High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL), and the Research & Development Establishment (Engineers).

• Ballistic missiles are characterized by their use of projectile motion, where the missile is powered during the early phase of its flight and later follows a gravity-determined trajectory in an arc-like path.

• In contrast, quasi-ballistic missiles follow a lower and more flexible trajectory. While they initially adopt a ballistic path, they are capable of mid-course corrections and maneuvers, making them more adaptable and harder to intercept.

 

3. Akash Prime Missile

 

 

• The Akash Prime missile, an improved version of the original Akash surface-to-air missile system tailored for high-altitude operations, was successfully tested in Ladakh on July 16, where it demonstrated its ability to destroy fast-moving unmanned aerial targets with high precision.

• The test was conducted as part of the first firing trial of the production model, and according to the Ministry of Defence, it will pave the way for the missile's timely induction into service, significantly boosting India’s air defence capabilities in mountainous regions.

• The initial Akash missile had an effective range between 27 to 30 kilometres and could reach flight altitudes of approximately 18 kilometres. The Akash Prime, which had its first successful flight test in September 2021, maintains a similar range but incorporates a critical upgrade—an indigenously developed active Radio Frequency (RF) seeker to improve its targeting accuracy against aerial threats.

• The upgraded system features additional modifications to enhance its performance in sub-zero temperatures commonly encountered at higher altitudes. These improvements were integrated based on feedback from the armed forces to ensure effective deployment in regions above 4,500 metres, offering protection to strategic and sensitive locations.

• The Akash missile system, classified as a short to medium-range surface-to-air missile, was initiated in the late 1980s under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) led by the DRDO. Initial trials for performance validation and target engagement took place in the late 1990s and early 2000s, followed by comprehensive user evaluations by the Indian Air Force and Army.

• Named after the Sanskrit word for "sky," the Akash missile represents a strategic deterrent in aerial defence, offering protection to critical infrastructure and vulnerable zones from enemy air threats.

• The system is capable of engaging multiple aerial targets simultaneously, operating either in group or autonomous mode. It is also equipped with Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM), which allows it to resist attempts by enemy electronic warfare systems to disrupt its targeting and detection mechanisms

 

4. Ballistic missiles vs Cruise missiles

 

 

• Ballistic missiles operate by launching warheads along a projectile path to strike designated targets. These missiles are propelled only during the initial phase of their flight; once the fuel burns out, they follow a gravity-driven arc to reach their destination. Based on their range, ballistic missiles are classified into different categories. They are capable of carrying either conventional or nuclear warheads. Indian examples include Agni I, Agni II, Prithvi I, Prithvi II, and Dhanush.

Classification of Ballistic Missiles by Range:

• Tactical Ballistic Missile (TBM): Less than 300 km

• Short-Range Ballistic Missile (SRBM): 300 to 1,000 km

• Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM): 1,000 to 3,500 km

• Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM): 3,500 to 5,500 km

• Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM): More than 5,500 km

• Cruise missiles, on the other hand, are unmanned aerial systems powered by jet engines, and can be launched from land-based, airborne, or naval platforms. Examples include BrahMos, Tomahawk, Kalibr, AGM-86 ALCM, and JASSM.

• The primary difference in flight path is that cruise missiles fly close to the ground, which allows them to evade radar detection, while ballistic missiles travel along a high, parabolic trajectory. Because of this, ballistic missiles are easier to track due to their predictable paths, whereas cruise missiles are more difficult to intercept as they can maneuver mid-flight and bypass air defence systems

 

5. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)

 

 

• The Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) is a sophisticated missile defense system developed by the United States with the primary purpose of intercepting and destroying short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles during their terminal phase—that is, the final stage of their flight as they descend toward the target.
• Unlike other air defense systems that engage enemy missiles during launch or midcourse, THAAD is specifically designed to track and neutralize missiles in the final moments before they strike.
• It does this by using a "hit-to-kill" approach—rather than carrying an explosive warhead, the THAAD interceptor uses kinetic energy to destroy an incoming missile by direct collision, making it a clean and highly effective method of neutralization.
• The THAAD system includes high-resolution radar (AN/TPY-2) for early detection, a fire control and communications system, and interceptor missiles. It is capable of engaging threats both inside and just outside the Earth's atmosphere, at altitudes up to 150 km, which helps extend the protective envelope for both military assets and civilian populations.
• Deployed in various strategic regions including South Korea, Guam, and the Middle East, THAAD plays a key role in US global missile defense architecture, especially in the context of rising missile threats from nations such as North Korea and Iran.

 

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance. For Mains: General Studies III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements :(UPSC CSE 2023)   1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A.1 only B.2 only C.Both 1 and 2 D.Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (D)

Source: Indianexpress