• In 2010, the Environment Ministry launched the Capacity Building Program for Industrial Pollution Management Project to design the National Programme for Remediation of Polluted Sites.
• This initiative focused on three main objectives — compiling an inventory of potentially contaminated locations, preparing a guidance document for assessing and cleaning such sites, and creating a legal, institutional, and financial framework for remediation.
• While the first two objectives were achieved, the legal framework remained incomplete. The rules announced on July 25 form part of this long-pending codification.
• Under these rules, district administrations must submit half-yearly reports on “suspected contaminated sites.”
• The State Pollution Control Board or a designated ‘reference organisation’ will review these reports and provide a preliminary assessment within 90 days. This will be followed by a detailed survey within the next three months to confirm whether the site is indeed contaminated.
• The process includes measuring levels of suspected hazardous chemicals — currently 189 substances are listed under the Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2016.
• If contamination levels exceed safety limits, the site’s location will be made public, and access will be restricted. A panel of experts, serving as the ‘reference organisation,’ will then prepare a remediation plan. Additionally, the State board will have 90 days to identify the parties responsible for the pollution

• Chemically contaminated sites can have far-reaching and long-lasting impacts on both the environment and human health. When hazardous substances seep into the soil, they disrupt its natural composition, reducing fertility and affecting the ability of plants to grow.
• Contamination often extends below the surface, polluting groundwater — a vital source of drinking water for many communities — making it unsafe for consumption and daily use. In rivers, lakes, or ponds connected to these sites, toxic chemicals can accumulate, harming aquatic ecosystems, killing fish, and entering the food chain.
• For humans, the risks can range from mild health issues such as skin irritation, respiratory problems, or headaches to severe and chronic illnesses like organ damage, developmental disorders in children, and cancers, depending on the type and concentration of pollutants.
• Some contaminants persist in the environment for decades, meaning that even long after industrial activity has ceased, the dangers remain.
• These sites also reduce the usability of surrounding land, limiting agricultural activities, lowering property values, and in some cases forcing communities to relocate.
• Over time, such contamination can degrade biodiversity, alter natural habitats, and impose heavy economic and social costs on the affected regions

• Bhopal Gas Tragedy, Madhya Pradesh (1984 – Ongoing Contamination)

The Bhopal disaster is India’s most infamous industrial accident, but what’s less discussed is the lingering contamination. After the methyl isocyanate (MIC) leak from the Union Carbide plant, the site was abandoned with tonnes of hazardous waste left untreated. Over the decades, toxic chemicals seeped into the soil and groundwater, affecting around 42 communities in the area. Even today, residents face higher rates of cancer, birth defects, and chronic respiratory illnesses. Groundwater is still considered unsafe for drinking in nearby localities.

• West Bokaro Coalfields, Jharkhand

Open dumping of mine overburden and coal washeries waste has led to heavy metal contamination of soil and water in the West Bokaro region. Studies have found elevated levels of iron, manganese, and other metals in streams and groundwater. The contamination has degraded agricultural productivity and impacted aquatic biodiversity.

• Eloor–Edayar Industrial Belt, Kerala

This 3-km stretch on the banks of the Periyar River houses around 250 chemical industries. Years of untreated effluent discharge have led to mercury, lead, and cadmium contamination in river sediments and fish. The pollution has impacted local fishing communities and reduced the Periyar’s capacity as a source of potable water.

• Durgapur Industrial Belt, West Bengal

Decades of steel, cement, and chemical production have led to severe soil and groundwater contamination in and around Durgapur. Fly ash dumps and slag heaps have leached toxic substances, causing skin ailments and gastrointestinal problems in nearby populations.

TELANGANA'S KALESHWARAM PROJECT

• The Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP), situated on the Godavari River at Kaleshwaram in Bhupalpally district, Telangana, is a massive multi-purpose irrigation initiative.
• Recognised as the largest multi-stage irrigation project globally, it is located near the confluence of the Pranahita and Godavari rivers.
• The system spans a canal network exceeding 1,800 km. Conceived under the leadership of K. Chandrasekhar Rao’s BRS government, the project seeks to provide irrigation to more than 16 lakh acres across 13 districts of Telangana, while also stabilising the existing ayacut.
• It is designed to store and distribute 240 thousand million cubic feet (tmc ft) of Godavari water, with planned allocations of 169 tmc ft for irrigation, 30 tmc ft for Hyderabad’s drinking water needs, 16 tmc ft for industrial and miscellaneous purposes, and 10 tmc ft for drinking water supply to villages along the route
• The government has constructed barrages across Godavari at Ramadugu, Medigadda, Sundilla and Annaram. The water is stored there to cater to drinking water and irrigation needs.
• The project was conceived at a cost of ₹71,000 crore initially. The cost escalated to close to over ₹1 lakh crore over a period of time. Finishing works is likely to take few more thousands of crores.

• The Kaleshwaram project has faced controversies from its inception, primarily due to the relocation of its site from Tummidihatti to Medigadda, despite reportedly securing hydrology clearance for the original location.
• The official justification for the shift was insufficient water availability at Tummidihatti; however, a later inquiry found that the Central Water Commission had assessed the site’s water availability at over 200 tmc ft.
• One of the major criticisms during construction was that the barrages were built on permeable foundations instead of robust ones capable of withstanding large volumes of water.
• The relocation decision also drew flak because nearly 30% of the works under the Pranahita Chevella Sujala Sravanti (PCSS) project—initiated in the erstwhile united Andhra Pradesh in 2008 at Tummidihatti, with costs exceeding ₹11,000 crore—had already been completed.
• Another allegation against the BRS government was that the project was approved solely by Chief Minister K. Chandrasekhar Rao, without securing the State Cabinet’s consent.
• Structural flaws in the Kaleshwaram project became evident during the BRS tenure when the piers of the Sundilla barrage sank, supporting claims about the use of permeable foundations. Additionally, two other barrages—Annaram and Sundilla—developed cracks after the government stored large volumes of water against technical recommendations

 

4. River and Irrigation regarding the Kaleshwaram Project

 

• Primary River: Godavari River – KLIP is located on the Godavari at Medigadda in Bhupalpally district, Telangana.

• Major Tributary: Pranahita River – The confluence of the Pranahita (formed by Wardha and Wainganga rivers) and the Godavari lies upstream of the project site.

• Upstream Linkages:

  • Wardha River (Maharashtra)

  • Wainganga River (Madhya Pradesh & Maharashtra)

• Downstream Impact: KLIP lifts water from the Godavari and channels it through an extensive canal network to various parts of Telangana.

 

Irrigation with the Kaleshwaram Project

• Irrigation Potential Created: Over 16 lakh acres across 13 districts of Telangana.

• Purpose:

  • Provide assured irrigation to new areas.

  • Stabilise existing ayacut (land already under irrigation) in command areas of earlier projects.

• Water Allocation Plan:

  • 169 tmc ft – Irrigation

  • 30 tmc ft – Drinking water for Hyderabad

  • 10 tmc ft – Drinking water for villages en route

  • 16 tmc ft – Industrial and miscellaneous purposes

• Canal Network: More than 1,800 km, carrying water lifted in multiple stages from the Godavari.

 

 

5. Way Forward

 

Forming a judicial commission to investigate the irregularities in the Kaleshwaram project was one of the Congress party’s poll commitments. Acting on this, Chief Minister A. Revanth Reddy appointed a single-member judicial panel, led by Justice Pinaki Chandra Ghose, to conduct a comprehensive probe. Over the course of 15 months, Justice Ghose examined more than 110 witnesses, including former CM K. Chandrasekhar Rao, ex-Irrigation Minister T. Harish Rao, and former Finance Minister Eatala Rajender of the BRS government, the latter being questioned particularly for releasing funds with what was described as a “negligent and indifferent attitude.” The commission submitted its findings on July 31, after which the Telangana government decided to hold a debate on the Kaleshwaram project in the legislature during the monsoon session. The administration intends to present the lapses in detail to the public and seek inputs from all political parties, including the BRS, on the project’s future course

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements regarding the Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project. (TSPSC Group 1)   1. It was originally called the Pranahita-Chevella project.   2. It is a multi-purpose irrigation project on the Krishna river.   Which of the statements given above is/are correct?   A.1 only   B.2 only   C. Both 1 and 2   D.Neither 1 nor 2   Answer (A)

Source: The Hindu

 

 

 

STABLECOINS

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Hong Kong is taking a decisive step forward in regulating certain types of cryptocurrencies, as it prepares to enforce the Stablecoins Ordinance from August 1. The new regulations come amidst an explosion of interest in stablecoins and their promising applications in both personal finance and international business. While crypto users who support official regulation are excited, the authorities have advised caution.

 

2. What are Stablecoins?

 

• Stablecoins are a type of cryptocurrency whose value is tied to specific assets. Unlike popular cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin (BTC), Ether (ETH), or meme tokens like Shiba Inu (SHIB) — which can experience sharp price swings driven by market sentiment and other factors — stablecoins are built to keep their prices relatively constant, which is how they get their name.
• This price stability is achieved by “pegging” the stablecoin to an underlying asset, which could be a fiat currency (like the U.S. Dollar, Euro, or Hong Kong Dollar), a commodity (such as gold), another cryptocurrency (like Bitcoin), or by using algorithmic controls.
• In some cases, a combination of these methods is used. For instance, while Bitcoin’s value may fluctuate significantly over time, a stablecoin pegged to the U.S. Dollar is intended to stay close to $1.
• It’s important to note that stablecoins differ from Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs). CBDCs are state-issued digital currencies managed by a country’s central bank, whereas stablecoins are often created by private entities and may even be pegged to foreign currencies

 

3. Regulation of Stablecoins

 

• Stablecoins hold significant importance both inside and outside the cryptocurrency space, even though they lack the explosive price surges seen in assets like Bitcoin. Within the crypto market, investors often use stablecoins to simplify trading on exchanges.
• Beyond that, people in countries facing currency depreciation turn to stablecoins to preserve their savings’ value or to reduce costs in cross-border payments.
• In regions such as Argentina, Turkey, and even Taliban-controlled Afghanistan, stablecoins are more than trading tools — they serve as a lifeline for day-to-day transactions.
• The scale of their use is striking. According to CoinMarketCap, Tether (USDT) — the largest stablecoin and the fourth biggest cryptocurrency by market capitalization — has a circulating supply of 163.75 billion USDT. Globally, the total circulation of stablecoins is estimated to exceed $250 billion.
• This growing influence has sparked concerns among governments. Authorities worry that the complex mechanisms behind stablecoins might one day impact the value of the fiat currencies or commodities that support them.
• When a stablecoin provider suddenly declares the addition of millions in backing assets, questions naturally arise about the origin — or even the existence — of those funds. This is precisely why regulatory oversight is increasingly seen as essential

 

 

4. Volatility of Stablecoins

 

• Despite their name and asset backing, stablecoins are not immune to volatility. Influenced by technical issues or global events, they can sometimes lose their peg, causing prices to move outside the expected range. Sharp declines, in particular, can spark investor panic. For instance, USDT — pegged to the U.S. Dollar — has previously dropped to around $0.92.
• In some cases, stablecoins have experienced complete collapse. A notable example is from May 2022, when Terra’s cryptocurrency LUNA and its associated algorithmic stablecoin UST lost nearly all their value within hours.
• As trust evaporated, investors rushed to sell, driving prices down to near zero. This crash erased billions of dollars from the crypto market, and the resulting liquidity crisis led to asset freezes on multiple global crypto exchanges and fintech platforms

 

5. Licensing System in Hong Kong

 

 

• The Hong Kong Monetary Authority (HKMA) has announced that the Stablecoins Ordinance will take effect on August 1 this year. Under the new law, it will be illegal to “offer any unlicensed fiat-referenced stablecoin (FRS) to a retail investor” or to “actively market the issuance of unlicensed FRS to the public in Hong Kong,” as stated by HKMA Chief Executive Eddie Yue.
• To operate legally, companies aiming to issue stablecoins in Hong Kong will be required to obtain a licence from the Monetary Authority. They must also meet specific standards for managing reserve assets, redemption processes, asset stabilisation, and handling user requests.
• Additionally, they will have to follow anti–money laundering (AML) and counter–terrorist financing (CTF) regulations, ensuring that all assets are transparently disclosed and subject to proper audits.
• The HKMA cautioned that the new framework is not an open invitation for mass participation. Initially, only a small number of licences will be granted, meaning many applicants are likely to be rejected, according to Mr. Yue’s official statement

 

6. Other Countries' regulations

 

• In July, U.S. President Donald Trump signed the GENIUS Act, aimed at regulating stablecoins and safeguarding the U.S. dollar — a move welcomed by his pro-crypto supporters.
• According to the White House, the legislation mandates that stablecoins must be backed 100% by liquid assets such as U.S. dollars or short-term Treasury securities. Issuers will also be required to publicly disclose the composition of their reserves every month and adhere to specific marketing regulations.
• Countries like Japan and Singapore have already introduced dedicated stablecoin regulations, AFP reports, while several other jurisdictions apply broader cryptocurrency laws that also cover stablecoins.
• Meanwhile, despite China’s strict curbs on crypto activities, some of its major tech firms are looking to Hong Kong’s upcoming regulatory framework as a possible gateway for launching their own stablecoin projects

 

For Prelims: Stablecoins , Bitcoins, Cryptocurrency   For Mains: GS III - Economy, Science and technology

 

Previous year Question 1. With reference to “Blockchain Technology”, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. It is a public ledger that everyone can inspect, but which no single user controls. 2. The structure and design of the blockchain are such that all the data in it are about cryptocurrency only. 3. Applications that depend on the basic features of blockchain can be developed without anybody’s permission. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 2 only D. 1 and 3 only Answer: D   2. With reference to 'Bitcoins', sometimes seen in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. Bitcoins are tracked by the Central Banks of the countries. 2. Anyone with a Bitcoin address can send and receive Bitcoins from anyone else with Bitcoin address. 3. Online payments can be sent without either side knowing the identity of the other. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B   3. With reference to Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs), consider the following statements:(UPSC 2022)  1. They enable the digital representation of physical assets.  2. They are unique cryptographic tokens that exist on a blockchain. 3. They can be traded or exchanged at equivalency and therefore can be used as a medium of commercial transactions. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A

Source: The Hindu

 

PRALAY AND AKASH MISSILES

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) conducted two consecutive successful tests of quasi-ballistic missile Pralay from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam island off the coast of Odisha on 28th and 29th July. Three Pune based facilities of the DRDO have played a key role in the development of the tactical weapons system.

 

2. Background of Missiles

 

 

• The missile flight trials were conducted as part of user validation exercises aimed at confirming the system’s performance across its defined maximum and minimum operational ranges.

• According to the Ministry of Defence, Pralay is a domestically developed missile that uses solid fuel propulsion and features advanced guidance and navigation technologies to ensure precision targeting. It is designed to carry a variety of conventional warheads to neutralize diverse types of targets.

• The first successful test of Pralay—named after the Sanskrit word for "widespread devastation"—was carried out in December 2021. The missile is being equipped with conventional warheads and is intended for integration into the Indian Army’s artillery units.

• The development of the missile system was spearheaded by the Research Centre Imarat (RCI) of the DRDO in Hyderabad, with support from three DRDO labs based in Pune: the Armament Research and Development Establishment (ARDE), High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL), and the Research & Development Establishment (Engineers).

• Ballistic missiles are characterized by their use of projectile motion, where the missile is powered during the early phase of its flight and later follows a gravity-determined trajectory in an arc-like path.

• In contrast, quasi-ballistic missiles follow a lower and more flexible trajectory. While they initially adopt a ballistic path, they are capable of mid-course corrections and maneuvers, making them more adaptable and harder to intercept.

 

3. Akash Prime Missile

 

 

• The Akash Prime missile, an improved version of the original Akash surface-to-air missile system tailored for high-altitude operations, was successfully tested in Ladakh on July 16, where it demonstrated its ability to destroy fast-moving unmanned aerial targets with high precision.

• The test was conducted as part of the first firing trial of the production model, and according to the Ministry of Defence, it will pave the way for the missile's timely induction into service, significantly boosting India’s air defence capabilities in mountainous regions.

• The initial Akash missile had an effective range between 27 to 30 kilometres and could reach flight altitudes of approximately 18 kilometres. The Akash Prime, which had its first successful flight test in September 2021, maintains a similar range but incorporates a critical upgrade—an indigenously developed active Radio Frequency (RF) seeker to improve its targeting accuracy against aerial threats.

• The upgraded system features additional modifications to enhance its performance in sub-zero temperatures commonly encountered at higher altitudes. These improvements were integrated based on feedback from the armed forces to ensure effective deployment in regions above 4,500 metres, offering protection to strategic and sensitive locations.

• The Akash missile system, classified as a short to medium-range surface-to-air missile, was initiated in the late 1980s under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) led by the DRDO. Initial trials for performance validation and target engagement took place in the late 1990s and early 2000s, followed by comprehensive user evaluations by the Indian Air Force and Army.

• Named after the Sanskrit word for "sky," the Akash missile represents a strategic deterrent in aerial defence, offering protection to critical infrastructure and vulnerable zones from enemy air threats.

• The system is capable of engaging multiple aerial targets simultaneously, operating either in group or autonomous mode. It is also equipped with Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM), which allows it to resist attempts by enemy electronic warfare systems to disrupt its targeting and detection mechanisms

 

4. Ballistic missiles vs Cruise missiles

 

 

• Ballistic missiles operate by launching warheads along a projectile path to strike designated targets. These missiles are propelled only during the initial phase of their flight; once the fuel burns out, they follow a gravity-driven arc to reach their destination. Based on their range, ballistic missiles are classified into different categories. They are capable of carrying either conventional or nuclear warheads. Indian examples include Agni I, Agni II, Prithvi I, Prithvi II, and Dhanush.

Classification of Ballistic Missiles by Range:

• Tactical Ballistic Missile (TBM): Less than 300 km

• Short-Range Ballistic Missile (SRBM): 300 to 1,000 km

• Medium-Range Ballistic Missile (MRBM): 1,000 to 3,500 km

• Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM): 3,500 to 5,500 km

• Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM): More than 5,500 km

• Cruise missiles, on the other hand, are unmanned aerial systems powered by jet engines, and can be launched from land-based, airborne, or naval platforms. Examples include BrahMos, Tomahawk, Kalibr, AGM-86 ALCM, and JASSM.

• The primary difference in flight path is that cruise missiles fly close to the ground, which allows them to evade radar detection, while ballistic missiles travel along a high, parabolic trajectory. Because of this, ballistic missiles are easier to track due to their predictable paths, whereas cruise missiles are more difficult to intercept as they can maneuver mid-flight and bypass air defence systems

 

5. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)

 

 

• The Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) is a sophisticated missile defense system developed by the United States with the primary purpose of intercepting and destroying short, medium, and intermediate-range ballistic missiles during their terminal phase—that is, the final stage of their flight as they descend toward the target.
• Unlike other air defense systems that engage enemy missiles during launch or midcourse, THAAD is specifically designed to track and neutralize missiles in the final moments before they strike.
• It does this by using a "hit-to-kill" approach—rather than carrying an explosive warhead, the THAAD interceptor uses kinetic energy to destroy an incoming missile by direct collision, making it a clean and highly effective method of neutralization.
• The THAAD system includes high-resolution radar (AN/TPY-2) for early detection, a fire control and communications system, and interceptor missiles. It is capable of engaging threats both inside and just outside the Earth's atmosphere, at altitudes up to 150 km, which helps extend the protective envelope for both military assets and civilian populations.
• Deployed in various strategic regions including South Korea, Guam, and the Middle East, THAAD plays a key role in US global missile defense architecture, especially in the context of rising missile threats from nations such as North Korea and Iran.

 

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance. For Mains: General Studies III: Achievements of Indians in science & technology; indigenization of technology and developing new technology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements :(UPSC CSE 2023)   1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. 2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A.1 only B.2 only C.Both 1 and 2 D.Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (D)

Source: Indianexpress

 

BIOCHAR

 

 

 

1. Context

 

With the Indian carbon market set to be launched in 2026, CO2 removal technologies such as biochar are expected to play a crucial role. Biochar is a type of charcoal rich in carbon and is produced from agricultural residue and organic municipal solid waste. It offers a sustainable alternative to manage waste and capture carbon. However, to truly serve as a scalable pathway for negative emissions across sectors, biochar requires participation and support from multiple stakeholders.

 

 

2. What is Biochar?

 

• Biochar is a stable, carbon-rich material that is produced by heating organic matter—such as crop residues, animal manure, or forest waste—under limited or no oxygen conditions in a process known as pyrolysis. Although it resembles charcoal in appearance, its primary purpose is not as fuel but as a soil amendment and a climate mitigation tool.
• The idea behind biochar comes from ancient practices such as those used in the Amazon Basin, where indigenous communities enriched the soil using charred organic matter, creating fertile lands known as terra preta.
• Modern science has revived this technique to tackle contemporary issues like declining soil fertility, agricultural waste management, and rising carbon emissions.
• The process of pyrolysis breaks down biomass into three main products: biochar (a solid), bio-oil (a liquid), and syngas (a combustible gas).
• The resulting biochar retains much of the carbon from the original organic material and can be added to soil, where it remains stable for hundreds to thousands of years. This makes biochar a significant tool for carbon sequestration, as it locks carbon away from the atmosphere in a solid form.
• When applied to agricultural land, biochar improves soil health in multiple ways. It enhances water retention in sandy soils and improves aeration in clay soils. Due to its porous structure, it holds nutrients and releases them slowly to crops, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers.
• Moreover, it provides a favorable environment for beneficial soil microbes, which further boosts plant growth. Farmers also benefit from increased crop yields and better drought resistance when biochar is used effectively.
• From an environmental perspective, biochar helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It limits the release of nitrous oxide and methane from soils and prevents nutrients from leaching into groundwater. Since it is made from biomass that would otherwise decompose or be burned, its use also contributes to better waste management, particularly in agricultural regions.
• Despite its benefits, there are challenges in adopting biochar on a large scale. Producing biochar requires pyrolysis units, which involve upfront costs and technical expertise. In many parts of India, especially among small and marginal farmers, there is limited awareness about biochar’s potential.
• Moreover, its impact can vary depending on the type of feedstock used and the specific soil and climate conditions, making it difficult to standardize practices.
• In the Indian context, biochar aligns well with national priorities such as sustainable agriculture, climate change mitigation, and circular economy.
• Programs like the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA), GOBARdhan scheme, and PM-PRANAM could integrate biochar as a viable solution to reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers, manage biomass waste, and promote climate-resilient farming

 

3. What is the potential of biochar?

 

 

• India produces more than 600 million metric tonnes of agricultural residue and over 60 million tonnes of municipal solid waste every year. A considerable share of this waste is either openly burned or dumped in landfills, contributing significantly to air pollution through the release of particulate matter and greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
• If 30% to 50% of this surplus biomass and waste were diverted towards productive use, it could lead to the generation of approximately 15 to 26 million tonnes of biochar annually.
• This would help in removing an estimated 0.1 gigatonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions each year.
• Additionally, the pyrolysis process used to produce biochar yields valuable byproducts such as syngas (20–30 million tonnes) and bio-oil (24–40 million tonnes), both of which have energy generation potential.
• In terms of energy substitution, syngas can potentially be used to generate between 8 and 13 terawatt-hours (TWh) of electricity, which is roughly 0.5% to 0.7% of India’s total yearly power output.
• This could also replace about 0.4 to 0.7 million tonnes of coal annually. Similarly, bio-oil could serve as an alternative to conventional fuels, potentially displacing 12 to 19 million tonnes of diesel or kerosene—accounting for around 8% of current usage.
• This substitution could reduce crude oil imports and cut India’s fossil fuel emissions by more than 2%

 

 

4. Biochar and Carbon Sink

 

• Biochar is known for its highly stable chemical structure, which enables it to lock carbon in the soil for periods ranging from 100 to 1,000 years. This durability makes it a promising long-term solution for carbon sequestration. Its adaptability across multiple sectors also offers scalable avenues for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
• In the agricultural sector, biochar plays a vital role in improving water retention, especially in semi-arid regions and nutrient-poor soils. This improvement contributes to a significant reduction—up to 30–50%—in nitrous oxide emissions, a greenhouse gas that has 273 times the global warming potential of carbon dioxide. Therefore, cutting nitrous oxide emissions through biochar application can be an important step in climate mitigation.
• Furthermore, biochar boosts soil organic carbon content, which helps in rejuvenating degraded lands and restoring soil health.
• In terms of industrial use, specially engineered biochar can be used to capture carbon dioxide from flue gases. Although current carbon capture efficiency through biochar is lower than that of conventional technologies, ongoing research suggests potential for improvement.
• The construction industry can also benefit from biochar, as it offers a low-emission substitute for conventional building materials. When 2–5% biochar is added to concrete mixes, it not only enhances mechanical strength and raises heat resistance by about 20% but also enables the capture of approximately 115 kilograms of CO₂ per cubic metre of concrete. This makes construction materials a viable and durable carbon sink.
• In wastewater treatment, biochar provides a cost-effective and efficient method to reduce contamination. With India producing over 70 billion litres of wastewater daily—72% of which remains untreated—there is significant potential for biochar-based treatment solutions.
• One kilogram of biochar, when combined with co-treatment substances, can purify between 200 and 500 litres of wastewater. This translates to an estimated demand for 2.5 to 6.3 million tonnes of biochar annually in this sector alone

 

5. Challenges in biochar's application

 

• Although biochar holds considerable theoretical promise for carbon sequestration, it remains largely absent from formal carbon credit mechanisms. This is mainly due to the lack of standardized markets for feedstock and the absence of uniform carbon accounting protocols, both of which erode investor confidence and hinder large-scale investments.
• Scientific studies have validated biochar’s technical viability across various sectors. However, practical implementation continues to face obstacles such as limited financial resources, rapidly evolving technologies, market volatility, and insufficient policy backing. Scalable business models for widespread adoption are still in early stages.
• Moreover, the slow pace of market development is compounded by low awareness among stakeholders, weak frameworks for monitoring, reporting, and verification (MRV), and poor coordination between agriculture, energy, and climate-related policies.
• To accelerate the adoption of biochar at scale, consistent investment in research and development is crucial. This includes creating region-specific feedstock standards and determining optimal biomass use based on local agro-climatic conditions and crop varieties.
• Furthermore, biochar must be integrated into existing policy initiatives—such as crop residue management programs, rural and urban bioenergy projects, and state-level climate plans under the State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs).
• Recognizing biochar as a legitimate carbon removal tool under India's carbon market can unlock new income streams for both farmers and private investors through carbon credits.
• Localized deployment of biochar production systems, especially at the village level, has the potential to generate around 5.2 lakh rural jobs—contributing to both environmental and socio-economic goals.
• Additionally, the co-benefits of biochar—including improved soil quality, a 10–20% reduction in fertilizer use, and a 10–25% boost in crop yields—should be formally integrated into market incentives and policy frameworks. This will help fully harness the multidimensional value of biochar.

 

6. Way forward

 

Biochar is more than just a soil additive—it represents a convergence of ancient wisdom and modern environmental science. If supported with proper policy incentives, farmer education, and decentralized pyrolysis technologies, biochar has the potential to become a key component in India’s sustainable development and climate action strategies.

 

For Prelims: PM-PRANAM, GOBARdhan, National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)   For Mains: GS II & III - Governance & Environment and Ecology

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

ASIAN GIANT TORTOISE

 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The critically endangered Asian giant tortoise, the largest in mainland Asia, has been reintroduced into the Zeliang Community Reserve in Nagaland’s Peren. 

 

2. Asian giant tortoise

 

• The Asian giant tortoise, scientifically known as Manouria emys, is the largest tortoise species found in mainland Asia. This slow-moving herbivore is native to the forested regions of Southeast Asia, including India (particularly the Northeast), Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and parts of Indonesia. It inhabits moist deciduous and evergreen forests, often in hilly or mountainous terrain where the climate remains humid and cool.
• This tortoise is notable for its large, domed shell which can grow up to 60 centimeters in length, and its strong, elephantine limbs that help it navigate through dense undergrowth and muddy forest floors.
• Unlike many other tortoises, the Asian giant tortoise prefers cooler, wetter environments, and it is usually active during the early morning and late afternoon, resting during the heat of the day.
• One of the fascinating aspects of this species is its nesting behavior. The female constructs a large nest mound made of vegetation, which she guards actively for several weeks—an unusual trait among tortoises, which typically leave their eggs unattended after laying them.
• Primarily herbivorous, the Asian giant tortoise feeds on a variety of plant materials such as leaves, fruits, mushrooms, and grasses. It plays an important ecological role as a seed disperser in its forest ecosystem.
• Unfortunately, the Asian giant tortoise faces serious threats due to habitat destruction, illegal wildlife trade, and hunting for its meat and shell.
• As a result, it is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is protected under Schedule IV of India’s Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. Conservation efforts are ongoing in various parts of its range, including habitat preservation and breeding programs

 

3. Reasons for endangered status of Asian giant tortoise

 

• The Asian giant tortoise (Manouria emys) is classified as Endangered due to a combination of natural and human-induced threats. Its declining population is the result of several interrelated factors that have made survival increasingly difficult for this species across its native range.
• One of the most significant threats to the Asian giant tortoise is the destruction of its forest habitat. Expanding agriculture, logging, infrastructure development, and human settlement have led to widespread deforestation in the tropical and subtropical forests of South and Southeast Asia. This has reduced the availability of suitable nesting and foraging grounds, making it difficult for the species to thrive
• The tortoise is heavily targeted by poachers for its meat, which is considered a delicacy in some regions, and for use in traditional medicine. It is also captured for the illegal pet trade, both locally and internationally. Despite legal protections, enforcement is often weak, and trade continues in black markets.
• Like many tortoises, the Asian giant tortoise has a slow reproductive rate. Females lay relatively few eggs and take many years to reach sexual maturity. This makes it difficult for populations to recover quickly from losses due to poaching or environmental changes.
• Even when nesting is successful, eggs and young hatchlings face high predation rates from animals such as monitor lizards, wild pigs, and dogs. Because adults are large and well-protected by their shells, they have few natural predators, but the young are especially vulnerable.
• Human activities such as collection for zoos, disturbance of nesting sites, use of fire in forests, and grazing by livestock all negatively impact tortoise populations. In many places, local communities are unaware of the ecological importance or protected status of the species.
• Changing temperature and rainfall patterns are beginning to affect the microhabitats in which the tortoise thrives. Climate change may also impact nesting behavior, sex ratios of hatchlings (which can be temperature-dependent), and food availability

 

4. Schedule IV of India’s Wildlife Protection Act, 1972

 

 

• Schedule IV of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 is one of the six schedules under the Act that classifies wild animals and plants based on the level of protection they require
• Schedule IV includes animals that are protected but with comparatively lesser protection than those listed in Schedule I and II. Offences involving species listed in this schedule are subject to lower penalties

• While Schedule IV animals are not critically endangered, they are still important components of India’s wildlife and ecosystem. The schedule aims to ensure that common species do not become vulnerable or threatened over time due to neglect or overexploitation.
• This classification allows authorities to allocate resources and focus on stricter protection for species in Schedule I and II, while still maintaining a legal mechanism to prevent harm to moderately vulnerable species

 

Examples of Species under Schedule IV: Asian Giant Tortoise (Manouria emys) House crow (Corvus splendens) Indian Bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus tigerinus) Monitor lizards (some species not in Schedule I)

 

 

 

5. What is the Critically Endangered Status?

 

 

• The Critically Endangered (CR) status is the highest risk category assigned by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) on its Red List of Threatened Species. It indicates that a species faces an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future
• A species is classified as Critically Endangered when it meets specific scientific criteria that signal it is on the brink of extinction. These criteria are based on population size, rate of decline, geographic range, and other factors that assess the species’ overall survival prospects

IUCN Criteria for Critically Endangered Status (at least one of the following must apply):

• Population decline of ≥90% over the last 10 years or 3 generations, whichever is longer.

• Fewer than 250 mature individuals remaining, with a continuing decline.

• Severely fragmented population or occurrence in only one location.

• Extremely small geographic range (extent of occurrence <100 km² or area of occupancy <10 km²).

• Quantitative analysis shows a ≥50% probability of extinction in the wild within 10 years or three generations

 

 

For Prelims: Critically Endangered, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Wildlife Protection Act, 1972   For Mains: GS III - Environment and Ecology

 

Previous Year Questions   1.The "Red Data Books" published by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) contain lists of (UPSC CSE 2011)   1. Endemic plant and animal species present in the biodiversity hotspots. 2. Threatened plant and animal species. 3. Protected sites for the conservation of nature and natural resources in various countries.   Select the correct answer using the codes given below: A.1 and 3 B.2 only C.2 and 3 D.3 only   Answer (B)

 

Source: The Hindu

 

SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANISATION

 

1. Context

 Preparations are underway to schedule a visit by Prime Minister Narendra Modi to China where leaders of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation will gather for the Summit in Tianjin from August 31 to September 1, sources said Wednesday.

 

2. About Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

• The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) is a Eurasian political, economic, international security and defence organisation.
• It is the world's largest regional organization in terms of geographic scope and population, covering approximately 60% of the area of Eurasia, and 40% of the world's population. Its combined GDP is around 20% of global GDP.
• The SCO was founded in 2001 by China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.

2.1. Structure

The SCO has several bodies that oversee its activities, including

• The Council of Heads of State, which is the supreme decision-making body of the SCO.
• The Council of Heads of Government, which is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the decisions of the Council of Heads of State.
• The Council of Foreign Ministers, which is responsible for coordinating the foreign policies of the SCO member states.
• The Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS), which is responsible for combating terrorism, separatism and extremism in the SCO region and
• The SCO Secretariat, which is responsible for the day-to-day running of the organization.

2.2. Members

• The SCO has eight full members China, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. 
• It also has six observer states Afghanistan, Belarus, Iran, Mongolia, Nepal and Sri Lanka.
• And six dialogue partners Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cambodia, Egypt, Qatar and Saudi Arabia.

 

2.3. Goals 

• Political and security cooperation, including the fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism
• Economic cooperation, including trade, investment, energy and transportation
• Cultural and humanitarian cooperation and
• Coordination of positions on major international issues.

3. Criticism

• The SCO has been criticized by some for being a tool of Chinese and Russian imperialism.
• However, the organization has also been praised for its role in promoting stability and security in Central Asia.

4. The Way Forward

• The SCO has been expanding its membership in recent years, and it may continue to do so in the future.
• The organization is seen by some as a potential rival to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and its growing influence is being watched closely by the United States and its allies.

 

For Prelims: SCO, NATO, India, Central Asia, United States, China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, terrorism,  For Mains:  1. Examine the potential challenges and opportunities for India as a full member of the SCO, highlighting its implications for India's political, economic, and security interests.  (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) Heads of State Summit was held on 10th November, 2020 in the video conference format. The Summit was hosted by: (OPSC OAS 2021)  A. Russia               B. India               C. Kazakhstan             D.  Uzbekistan   Answer: A   2. The Summit of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) was hosted by which country from 15-16 September 2022? (Rajasthan CET 2023) A. Kazakhstan         B.  Tajikistan        C.  Uzbekistan           D. India   Answer: C   3. The area known as 'Golan Heights' sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events related to  (UPSC  2015) A. Central Asia          B. Middle East              C. South-East Asia          D. Central Africa   Answer: B   4. Siachen Glacier is situated to the (UPSC 2020)  A. East of Aksai Chin       B. East of Leh         C. North of Gilgit       D. North of Nubra Valley   Answer: D

 

Source: SCO

 

 

PHONE TAPPING

 

 

 

1. Context

 On December 6, 2023, a routine letter from a telecom service provider reached Telangana’s Special Intelligence Branch (SIB) office in Hyderabad. Called a reconciliation letter in official parlance, it was marked ‘top secret’ and addressed to the then DIG of SIB.

 

2. How are phones tapped in India?

 

During the era of landline telephones, mechanical exchanges were employed to connect circuits and route audio signals during calls. With the transition to digital exchanges, tapping evolved to be conducted through computers.

In contemporary times, where the majority of communications occur via mobile phones, authorities submit requests to the service provider. These providers are legally obligated to record conversations associated with the specified number and furnish them in real-time through a connected computer system

Phone tapping in India falls under the purview of the Indian Telegraph Act of 1885, which grants the government the authority to intercept phone communications under specific circumstances.

 

Here's how phone tapping is typically conducted in India:

• Phone tapping can only be carried out with proper legal authorization. This typically involves obtaining a warrant from designated authorities, such as the Home Secretary or the Union Home Ministry, under specific conditions outlined in the law. These conditions usually involve national security concerns, threats to public order, or in the interest of preventing a crime
• Once authorized, government agencies such as law enforcement or intelligence agencies liaise with telecom service providers (TSPs) to facilitate the interception. TSPs are required to cooperate with government agencies in providing access to the targeted communication channels
• TSPs use specialised equipment to tap into phone conversations or data transmissions. This can involve the installation of intercepting devices at various points within the telecommunications infrastructure, allowing for the monitoring of phone calls, text messages, and Internet communications
• Once intercepted, the communications are typically monitored and analyzed by designated personnel within the relevant government agencies. This may involve listening to phone calls, reading text messages, or analyzing internet traffic to gather intelligence or evidence related to the authorized investigation
• There are legal safeguards in place to prevent abuse of phone tapping powers. The intercepted communications must be used strictly for the purposes authorized by the warrant, and there are provisions for judicial oversight to ensure compliance with legal procedures and protection of individual rights to privacy

 

Who Can Tap Phones?   In various states, police possess the authority to conduct phone tapping. At the national level, ten agencies are empowered to carry out such actions: the Intelligence Bureau, Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), Enforcement Directorate, Narcotics Control Bureau, Central Board of Direct Taxes, Directorate of Revenue Intelligence, National Investigation Agency, Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), Directorate of Signal Intelligence, and the Delhi Police Commissioner. Any phone tapping conducted by unauthorized agencies is deemed unlawful. The regulations governing phone tapping in India are outlined in the Indian Telegraph Act of 1885

 

 

3. Who authorises phone tapping?

 

• Section 5(2) of the Indian Telegraph Act of 1885 stipulates that phone tapping can be authorized by the Centre or states in cases of public emergencies or for public safety reasons, provided it is deemed necessary for maintaining public safety, national sovereignty, integrity, security, friendly relations with foreign states, public order, or preventing incitement to commit offenses.
• However, there is an exemption for the press, stating that press messages intended for publication in India from accredited correspondents to the Central or State Governments shall not be intercepted or detained unless specifically prohibited. The competent authority must document the reasons for phone tapping in writing.
• According to Rule 419A of the Indian Telegraph (Amendment) Rules, 2007, phone tapping orders can only be issued by designated government officials. Orders from the Government of India are issued by the Secretary to the Ministry of Home Affairs, while those from State Governments are issued by the Secretary in charge of the Home Department. These orders must be conveyed in writing to the service provider before phone tapping can commence.
• In exceptional circumstances, such as remote areas or operational urgencies, an authorized officer, not below the rank of a Joint Secretary to the Government of India or the State Home Secretary, may issue an order. However, in such cases, the interception must be promptly reported to the competent authority, which must approve or disapprove it within seven working days. If confirmation is not received within this period, the interception must cease.
• The duration of interception orders does not exceed 60 days unless renewed, up to a maximum of 180 days. Orders must contain reasons, and copies are forwarded to a review committee within seven days. This committee, chaired by the Cabinet Secretary at the Centre or the Chief Secretary in states, reviews interception requests regularly.
• Records related to interception orders are destroyed every six months unless required for functional purposes, and service providers are required to destroy interception-related records within two months of discontinuation. Multiple provisions aim to maintain transparency and accountability throughout the process.
• Service providers are responsible for ensuring no unauthorized interception occurs, with strict penalties, including fines or license revocation, for non-compliance. They must implement internal checks to maintain extreme secrecy and prevent unauthorized interception by their employees

4. Indian Telegraph Act, 1885-Historical Background

 

The Indian Telegraph Act of 1885 holds significant historical importance in the context of India's telecommunications landscape.

Here's a brief overview of its historical background:

• Colonial Era: The Act was enacted during British colonial rule in India. It was a time when telegraphy was rapidly advancing globally and played a crucial role in communication and administration. The British colonial government in India recognized the importance of regulating telegraph services to maintain control and facilitate efficient communication across the vast territories of the Indian subcontinent.

• Consolidation of Telegraph Services: Prior to the enactment of the Indian Telegraph Act, telegraph services in India were managed by various private companies and government departments. The Act aimed to consolidate and regulate these services under a unified legal framework, providing the colonial government with the authority to oversee and manage telegraph communication effectively.

• Expansion of Telegraph Network: The late 19th century witnessed significant expansion in India's telegraph network, connecting major cities, towns, and administrative centers across the country. The Indian Telegraph Act provided the legal framework necessary for the establishment, operation, and maintenance of telegraph lines, stations, and equipment throughout British India.

• Regulation of Communication: The Act empowered the colonial government to regulate telegraph communication in India. It outlined provisions for issuing licenses, collecting fees, and enforcing regulations related to telegraphy. This regulatory framework played a crucial role in ensuring the smooth functioning of telegraph services and maintaining security and order in the colonial administration.

• Adaptation and Amendments: Over the years, the Indian Telegraph Act has undergone several amendments to keep pace with technological advancements and evolving communication needs. Subsequent amendments have expanded the scope of the Act to encompass new technologies such as telephone, internet, and digital communication, while also addressing emerging challenges related to privacy, security, and surveillance

 

5. Reforms needed or Revoking the Indian Telegraph Act 1885?

 

The question of whether reforms are needed or if the Indian Telegraph Act of 1885 should be revoked entirely is a complex one, and it depends on various factors, including evolving technological advancements, legal considerations, and societal needs.

Here are some perspectives to consider:

• Reforms within the Act: The Indian Telegraph Act, despite its age, has been subject to numerous amendments over the years to accommodate changes in technology and communication practices. Reforms within the Act could focus on updating its provisions to reflect contemporary challenges such as digital communication, cybersecurity, and privacy concerns. This might involve clarifying and strengthening provisions related to data protection, surveillance, and lawful interception while safeguarding individual rights and freedoms.

• Modernization of Telecommunication Laws: Rather than revoking the Indian Telegraph Act outright, there could be a push for broader reforms aimed at modernizing telecommunication laws in India. This could involve drafting comprehensive legislation that addresses not only telegraphy but also other forms of communication such as telephone, internet, and digital platforms. Such legislation could provide a more coherent and adaptive framework for regulating modern communication technologies while upholding fundamental rights and principles.

• Enhanced Oversight and Accountability: Regardless of whether the Indian Telegraph Act is retained or replaced, there is a need for enhanced oversight and accountability mechanisms to ensure that any surveillance or interception activities conducted by authorities comply with legal standards and respect individual privacy rights. This could involve establishing independent oversight bodies or strengthening existing mechanisms for judicial review and transparency in surveillance practices.

• Public Consultation and Stakeholder Engagement: Any reforms to telecommunication laws, including the Indian Telegraph Act, should involve meaningful public consultation and engagement with relevant stakeholders, including civil society organizations, legal experts, technologists, and industry representatives. This would help ensure that any proposed changes reflect diverse perspectives and address the needs and concerns of all stakeholders.

• International Best Practices: In considering reforms to telecommunication laws, policymakers could also look to international best practices and standards for guidance. Studying the approaches adopted by other countries in regulating communication technologies and balancing security needs with individual rights could provide valuable insights for reform efforts in India

 

6. Legality of Phone Tapping and Article 21 of the Indian Constitution

 

The legality of phone tapping in India must be considered within the framework of constitutional provisions, particularly Article 21 of the Indian Constitution, which guarantees the fundamental right to privacy and personal liberty. Here's an overview of how Article 21 relates to the legality of phone tapping:

• Article 21 - Right to Privacy and Personal Liberty: Article 21 of the Indian Constitution states that "no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to procedure established by law." This provision is interpreted to encompass the right to privacy, which includes the right to confidentiality of communications.

• Scope of Article 21 in the Context of Phone Tapping: Phone tapping involves the interception of private communications, which directly implicates the right to privacy protected under Article 21. Individuals have a reasonable expectation of privacy in their communications, and any intrusion into this privacy must be justified by law and meet certain procedural safeguards.

• Legal Framework for Phone Tapping: The Indian Telegraph Act of 1885, along with subsequent amendments and rules, provides the legal framework for phone tapping in India. Section 5(2) of the Act allows for phone tapping in specific circumstances, such as public emergencies or in the interest of public safety, subject to procedural safeguards and oversight.

• Constitutional Validity of Phone Tapping: The Supreme Court of India has upheld the constitutionality of phone tapping in certain circumstances, provided it is carried out in accordance with law and procedural safeguards. In the landmark case of K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017), the Supreme Court recognized the right to privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 and emphasized the need for strict adherence to legal requirements and safeguards in cases involving intrusion into privacy, including phone tapping.

• Procedural Safeguards and Judicial Oversight: To ensure the legality of phone tapping, it must be authorized by competent authorities under the Indian Telegraph Act, and specific procedural safeguards must be followed. This includes obtaining prior authorization from designated officials, recording reasons for phone tapping, and judicial oversight to prevent abuse of power.

• Balancing Privacy and State Interests: While Article 21 protects the right to privacy, it also allows for reasonable restrictions on this right in the interest of state security, public order, and preventing crime. The legality of phone tapping depends on striking a balance between individual privacy rights and legitimate state interests, with the requirement that any intrusion into privacy be proportionate, necessary, and authorized by law

7. Way Forward

 

While phone tapping is permissible under Indian law in certain circumstances, it must comply with constitutional principles, including the right to privacy enshrined in Article 21. Strict adherence to legal requirements, procedural safeguards, and judicial oversight is essential to ensure the legality and constitutionality of phone-tapping activities in India

 

 

For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance For Mains: General Studies II: Government policies and interventions for development in various sectors and issues arising out of their design and implementation

 

Previous Year Questions 1.As per the interpretation by the Supreme Court of India, tapping of phone calls infracts the fundamental right provided in Article ________ of the Constitution.(SSC CPO 2019) A.24 B.21 C.22 D.25 Answer (B)

Source: Indianexpress