2. About anti-defection law

The anti-defection law in India refers to the provisions laid down in the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution of India, which was inserted by the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985. The primary purpose of the anti-defection law is to curb "political defections" by legislators for personal gains or due to extraneous considerations, thereby promoting stability and integrity in the political system.

Key features and purposes of the anti-defection law include

• The law provides for the disqualification of elected legislators if they voluntarily give up the membership of their political party or disobey the directives issued by their party leadership on voting in legislative matters.
• By penalizing defections, the law aims to preserve stability and discipline within political parties. It discourages legislators from switching parties solely for opportunistic reasons, thereby promoting a more principled approach to politics.
• Preventing defections helps in maintaining stable governments by reducing the likelihood of frequent changes in government formation due to opportunistic alliances or individual defections. This stability is essential for effective governance and policy implementation.
• The law seeks to protect the mandate given by voters to a particular political party during elections. Defections can undermine the trust placed by voters in a party's policies and candidates, and the anti-defection law aims to safeguard the integrity of the electoral process.
• By discouraging defections and ensuring that legislators adhere to the party's stance on legislative matters, the law contributes to the smooth functioning of legislatures. It reduces disruptions caused by political uncertainties and promotes a more focused approach to lawmaking and governance.
• The anti-defection law upholds democratic principles by emphasizing the importance of party discipline and accountability. It encourages elected representatives to remain committed to the party's ideology and manifesto, thereby fostering a more transparent and accountable political system.

3. Has the anti-defection law ensured the stability of governments?

The effectiveness of the anti-defection law in ensuring the stability of governments in India is a subject of debate. While the law has certainly had some impact on curbing defections and promoting party discipline, its efficacy in maintaining government stability is not absolute.

Several factors contribute to this nuanced perspective

• The anti-defection law has succeeded in reducing blatant opportunistic defections where legislators switch parties solely for personal gains or political expediency. This has helped in preventing frequent changes in government formation and instability arising from such defections.
• In a multi-party democracy like India, coalition governments are common, and the anti-defection law has played a role in preserving these coalitions by deterring individual legislators from defecting and causing the collapse of the government.
• By discouraging defections and ensuring party discipline, the law has contributed to the smooth functioning of legislatures, which is essential for passing legislation and conducting parliamentary business. This has indirectly supported government stability by facilitating the enactment of policies and laws.
• Despite its provisions, the anti-defection law has faced challenges and criticisms. Some critics argue that the law has not entirely prevented defections, as legislators often find loopholes or exploit exceptions in the law to switch parties without facing disqualification.
• Government stability is influenced by various factors beyond the anti-defection law, including political dynamics, coalition dynamics, public opinion, and socio-economic factors. The law alone cannot guarantee government stability in the face of broader political uncertainties and challenges.
• While promoting stability, the anti-defection law has also raised concerns about its impact on democratic values such as freedom of speech and dissent within political parties. Critics argue that the law may stifle legitimate dissent and independent decision-making among legislators.

4. What constitutes defection? Who is the deciding authority?

Defection refers to the act of an elected representative or member of a political party abandoning their original party affiliation and joining another political party or forming a separate group, either independently or in association with others, without following the procedures laid down by their party or the law.

In the context of the anti-defection law in India, defection is specifically defined as:

• If a member of a political party voluntarily gives up their membership of that party.
• If an elected member votes or abstains from voting against the directives issued by their party leadership (whip) on a particular legislative matter, without obtaining prior permission.
• If a member of a political party joins another political party after being elected as a representative.
• If a member of a political party forms or joins a new group or political party, and such group consists of at least one-third of the members of the original political party in the legislature.

The deciding authority regarding defection cases is typically the Speaker or Chairman of the concerned legislative body (e.g., Lok Sabha, Rajya Sabha, State Legislative Assembly, or State Legislative Council). Upon receiving a complaint or petition regarding a defection case, the Speaker or Chairman examines the matter and makes a decision based on the provisions of the anti-defection law.

The Speaker or Chairman is responsible for determining whether the actions of the member(s) constitute defection as per the law and, if so, for issuing appropriate orders, including disqualification of the defectors from membership of the legislature. The decision of the Speaker or Chairman can be challenged in the courts through legal recourse if it is perceived to be arbitrary or in violation of constitutional principles.

5. Kihoto Hollohan case (1993)

The Kihoto Hollohan vs. Zachillhu and Others case, decided by the Supreme Court of India in 1992, is a landmark case related to defection and the role of the Speaker in Indian politics.

• The Tenth Schedule of the Indian Constitution, introduced through the 52nd Amendment in 1985, laid down provisions to curb defection by elected representatives. This case challenged the constitutionality of the Tenth Schedule, particularly the broad powers it granted to the Speaker in deciding defection cases.
• The petitioners argued that giving the Speaker such extensive power violated the doctrine of basic structure and potentially infringed on the freedom of speech, dissent, and conscience of elected representatives.
• The Supreme Court, in a majority judgment, upheld the Tenth Schedule and the Speaker's broad powers. The court reasoned that:
  • The Speaker occupies a crucial position in the parliamentary system and is expected to handle sensitive matters.
  • Granting the Speaker broad discretion is necessary for the efficient and effective functioning of the anti-defection law.
  • The court acknowledged the potential for bias but believed it was minimized by the Speaker's constitutional position and the requirement to act in good faith.

Significance: The Kihoto Hollohan case remains a pivotal judgment shaping Indian politics. It

• Established the Speaker's authority in deciding defection cases.
• affirmed the constitutionality of the anti-defection law.
• However, the case also sparked discussions about the balance between stability and individual rights in the context of defection. It continues to be debated whether the broad powers granted to the Speaker are truly necessary or pose a risk to democratic principles.

6. SR Bommai case (1994)

The SR Bommai case, officially known as S.R. Bommai vs. Union of India, is a landmark judgment delivered by the Supreme Court of India in 1994. This case dealt with issues related to the dismissal of state governments under Article 356 of the Constitution of India, popularly known as the President's Rule.

The case was prompted by the dismissal of the government in the state of Karnataka in 1989 under Article 356 by the then-central government led by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. This dismissal led to legal challenges, including petitions filed by S.R. Bommai, who was the Chief Minister of Karnataka at the time of dismissal.

Key Issues

1. Whether the decision of the President to impose President's Rule in a state under Article 356 was immune from judicial review.
2. Whether the power of the President to dismiss a state government was absolute or whether there were limitations on this power.
3. Whether there were grounds for judicial intervention in cases of misuse or abuse of Article 356 by the Central government.

Key Judgments

• The Supreme Court held that the imposition of the President's Rule in a state is subject to judicial review. The Court ruled that the exercise of power under Article 356 is justiciable, and the President's satisfaction with imposing the President's Rule can be questioned in a court of law.
• The Court laid down guidelines and limitations on the exercise of power under Article 356. It held that the President's Rule can only be imposed in exceptional circumstances where the constitutional machinery in a state has completely broken down, and the Governor's report justifying the imposition of the President's Rule must be based on relevant material.
• The Court ruled that a floor test in the legislative assembly is the most effective way to determine the strength of the government and resolve political uncertainties. It held that the majority enjoyed by a government in the assembly should be tested on the floor of the House.

Significance: The SR Bommai case is significant as it established judicial guidelines and limitations on the use of Article 356 and provided clarity on the scope of judicial review in matters related to the dismissal of state governments. It reinforced the principles of federalism and democracy by limiting the Central government's power to dismiss state governments arbitrarily and ensuring accountability in the exercise of such powers.

7. The 52nd Amendment Act of 1985 and the 10th Schedule of the Constitution

The 52nd Amendment Act of 1985 was a significant amendment to the Constitution of India. It introduced the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution, commonly known as the anti-defection law. The primary objective of this amendment was to curb the practice of political defections by legislators, which often led to instability in governments and undermined the democratic process.

Key provisions of the 52nd Amendment Act and the Tenth Schedule include

1. The Tenth Schedule defines defection and provides criteria for disqualification of legislators who defect from their political party.
2. Legislators can be disqualified if they voluntarily give up their party membership or violate the directives issued by their party leadership on voting in legislative matters.
3. The Tenth Schedule empowers the Speaker or Chairman of the legislative body to decide on defection cases. The decision of the Speaker or Chairman regarding disqualification is final and cannot be questioned in a court of law except on certain grounds such as mala fide or violation of principles of natural justice.
4. The Tenth Schedule provides certain exceptions to disqualification, such as when a political party merges with another party, and two-thirds of its members agree to the merger.
5. While the decision of the Speaker or Chairman is generally final, it is subject to judicial review on certain grounds, such as violation of constitutional provisions or principles of natural justice.

The 52nd Amendment Act and the Tenth Schedule were introduced to promote stability and integrity in the political system by discouraging defections and preserving party discipline. However, over the years, there have been debates and discussions about the effectiveness of the anti-defection law and its impact on democratic principles such as freedom of speech and dissent within political parties. Nevertheless, the introduction of the Tenth Schedule remains a significant milestone in the constitutional history of India aimed at strengthening the democratic framework of the country.

8. 91st Amendment Act of 2003

The 91st Amendment Act of 2003 is an important amendment to the Constitution of India. This amendment introduced changes to Article 75 and Article 164, which deal with the appointment of Ministers in the Union Council of Ministers and State Council of Ministers, respectively. The primary objective of the 91st Amendment Act was to prevent the practice of "office of profit" by Members of Parliament (MPs) and Members of the State Legislature (MLAs).

Key provisions of the 91st Amendment Act include

1. The amendment clarified the definition of "office of profit" held by MPs and MLAs. An office of profit refers to any position held by a person which brings them some financial gain, advantage, or benefit.
2.  The amendment exempted certain offices from being considered as offices of profit. These include offices held by MPs or MLAs as Ministers, or positions that the Parliament or State Legislature has specifically declared as not being offices of profit.
3. The amendment specified that a person shall be disqualified from being a member of Parliament or State Legislature if they hold any office of profit under the Government of India or the Government of any state, other than offices exempted by law.
4. The amendment allowed for the Parliament or State Legislature to make laws specifying the offices that are exempted from disqualification. It also provided for the interpretation of the term "office of profit" by the Parliament or State Legislature.

The 91st Amendment Act aimed to ensure that legislators do not hold positions that could potentially compromise their independence and impartiality in discharging their duties as elected representatives. By preventing MPs and MLAs from holding offices of profit, the amendment sought to uphold the principles of transparency, accountability, and integrity in the functioning of the legislative bodies in India.

8.1. What is that ‘exception’?

• The exception mentioned in the context of the 91st Amendment Act of 2003 refers to certain offices that are exempted from being considered as "office of profit" and, therefore, do not lead to disqualification of MPs or MLAs holding such positions.
• The amendment provides that certain offices can be specifically exempted by law from being considered as offices of profit. This means that the Parliament or State Legislature can pass laws to declare certain positions or offices as not falling under the definition of office of profit, thereby allowing MPs or MLAs to hold these positions without facing disqualification.
• The purpose of this exception is to provide clarity and flexibility in determining which positions should be considered as offices of profit and which should be exempted. It allows for a case-by-case examination of positions held by legislators to ensure that they do not hold any office that could potentially compromise their independence or impartiality in discharging their duties as elected representatives.
• Examples of offices that may be exempted from being considered as offices of profit include positions held by legislators as Ministers or positions that are honorary or ceremonial, without any substantial remuneration or executive authority attached to them. However, the specific exemptions may vary depending on the laws passed by the Parliament or State Legislature.

9. The Way Forward

The anti-defection law remains a significant milestone in India's constitutional history, aimed at strengthening democratic principles and promoting a more transparent and accountable political system. There is a need to review and strengthen the implementation of the law, enhance transparency in defection cases, promote intra-party democracy, and encourage public awareness to uphold the integrity of the electoral process and ensure the stability of governments.

Source: The Indian Express

LINGUISTIC SECULARISM 

 

 

1. Context

 

 Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi has criticised the linguistic division of states. But language was not the only basis of reorganisation in 1956. Scholars have long argued that linguistic states helped ensure India’s unity.

 

2. Linguistic Secularism in India

 

• India’s vast religious and linguistic diversity plays a vital role in upholding its secular fabric, contributing to national unity and cohesion. However, while these elements are central to any cultural identity, they often serve as major sources of cross-cultural tension. This is evident in recent incidents of communal unrest and violence, such as those witnessed in Maharashtra.
• The Indian model of secularism differs significantly from its Western counterpart. When secularism emerged in mid-19th century England, it emphasized a complete detachment between religion and state, without passing judgment on existing religious practices.
• India adopted this principle and embedded it in its Constitution, granting citizens the right to religious freedom.
• These rights are rooted in the values of tolerance and equality, giving every individual the liberty to follow, practice, and share their faith. This ensures that the Indian state remains religion-neutral.
• However, Indian secularism extends beyond religion—it also embraces linguistic diversity. Unlike Western secularism, which is often religion-focused, the Indian version neither promotes nor opposes any religion or language.
• Rather, it takes a balanced stance, enshrined in the Constitution as a directive principle. This enables the state to actively counter both religious and linguistic communalism, reinforcing India’s commitment to pluralism

 

3. Official and National Language

• This is precisely why India neither has nor can have a single national language. To preserve its rich linguistic heritage, the Constitution's Eighth Schedule recognizes 22 official languages.
• As a Union of States functioning under a unitary federal structure, Article 343 declares Hindi in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Union.
• However, individual states are granted the autonomy to adopt their own official languages. This system reflects India's cultural unity, ensuring that no state asserts separation based on linguistic or cultural identity.
• Additionally, Article 29 guarantees that any group of Indian citizens, including minorities, has the right to conserve their distinct language, script, or culture. It also protects against discrimination on the basis of language.
• As per the 2011 Census, India is home to 121 languages and 270 mother tongues. Roughly 96.71% of the population speaks one of the 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule as their mother tongue.
• The Census further categorizes these 121 languages into two groups: those recognized in the Eighth Schedule and 99 others that are not

 

4. Diversity in India

 

 

• India’s rich linguistic diversity must be safeguarded, and every language—regardless of its regional or state origins—deserves equal respect. This inclusive approach is essential to uphold the country’s principle of linguistic secularism.
• Several states, particularly in the south and northeast, have opposed the promotion of Hindi, expressing concerns over cultural domination. In Tamil Nadu, Dravidian movements have historically resisted Hindi imposition, promoting the use of Tamil and English instead.
• Meanwhile, Maharashtra has become particularly sensitive in the ongoing language discourse. Recent incidents of violence targeting non-Marathi speakers reflect the rise of identity politics.
• However, such acts cannot be justified as efforts to preserve cultural heritage. If cultural preservation were truly the goal, advocates of the Marathi language would embrace the values of tolerance and openness—core elements of India’s strength in diversity.
• India’s long-standing tradition of embracing multiple religions, beliefs, ways of living, and dietary practices stems from its fundamentally tolerant and open-minded nature. In today’s globalized era, any rigid or exclusionary stance toward religion or language can threaten social harmony and undermine the nation’s secular character.
• It is the responsibility of political parties to safeguard India’s pluralism, a diversity that the Constitution has carefully protected

 

5. Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution

 

 

• The Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution deals with the official languages recognized by the Indian government. It was originally included to promote the progress and preservation of languages that form an essential part of India’s cultural and linguistic heritage.
• When the Constitution came into effect in 1950, the Eighth Schedule listed 14 languages. Over time, recognizing the linguistic diversity of India and the demands from various linguistic communities, the list was expanded through constitutional amendments.
• As of now, 22 languages are included in the Eighth Schedule. These languages are not just symbolic representations; they receive official recognition and support from the government for development, preservation, and use in education, administration, and communication.
• The inclusion of a language in the Eighth Schedule means that it can be used in official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings, judiciary matters, and communications between the Union and the states. It also means that the government has an obligation to promote and develop these languages, ensuring they are preserved for future generations.
• However, it is important to understand that the Eighth Schedule does not imply that these are the only languages spoken in India.
• According to the Census of 2011, India has over 121 languages and more than 270 mother tongues, reflecting a deeply multilingual society. The Schedule simply provides a framework for official recognition and support.
• In a country as diverse as India, the Eighth Schedule plays a crucial role in maintaining linguistic harmony. It helps ensure that no major language group feels excluded from national identity or official processes. At the same time, it acknowledges the need for unity by balancing multiple linguistic identities within the broader Indian identity

 

6. Classical Languages in India

• In India, the term "Classical Languages" refers to a special category of languages that are recognized for their ancient origins, rich literary heritage, and historical significance. These languages are not just old, but they have made a lasting impact on the cultural and intellectual traditions of India over centuries.
• The idea of designating certain Indian languages as "Classical" emerged in the early 2000s, with the intention of honouring languages that have a long history and a vast body of ancient literature.
• The Indian government laid down specific criteria to determine whether a language qualifies for classical status. These include antiquity (meaning the language must have existed for at least 1500–2000 years), a rich body of ancient texts, and a literary tradition that is distinct from modern forms of the language.
• The first language to be granted classical status was Tamil, in 2004. Tamil is not only one of the oldest living languages in the world, but it also has an unbroken literary tradition going back over two millennia.
• After Tamil, five more languages were recognised as classical: Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and Odia. Each of these languages has a vast collection of ancient texts, from poetry and drama to philosophy and science, reflecting the intellectual achievements of past civilizations.
• Classical language status comes with certain benefits. The government provides financial support for research and promotion of these languages, including the setting up of centers for their study, scholarships for students, and awards for scholars who contribute to the field. These measures are meant to preserve and revitalize classical traditions that are often at risk of being forgotten.
• It is important to note that a classical language is not necessarily a language spoken widely today in its original form. For example, Sanskrit, though foundational to many Indian languages and still used in religious and scholarly contexts, is not a widely spoken mother tongue. Yet its influence on Indian thought, literature, and spirituality is immense

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Official Language, Eighth Schedule of Indian Constitution, Sustainable Development Goals, University Grants Commission, Kothari Commission, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the key provisions and objectives of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. How does it aim to transform the Indian education system, and what are its implications for inclusive development? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2018) 1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the State Council of Teacher Education concerned. 2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes, a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines. 3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2         (b) 2 only            (c) 1 and 3            (d) 3 only Answer: B   2. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2016) 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome'. 2. The Sustainable Development Goals have to be achieved by 2030. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A.1 only       B. 2 only          C.  Both 1 and 2            D. Neither 1 nor 2   Answer: B   3. The objective(s) of Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyaan is/are: (UKSSSC Forest Guard 2021)  A. To provide quality based education to all children from 14 to 18 years B. Universal standstill till the year 2020 C. To provide residential school for the students of remote areas D. All of the above   Answer: D

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

TSUNAMI

 

 

 

1. Context

 

 

A powerful magnitude 8.8 earthquake off Russia’s Far Eastern Kamchatka Peninsula triggered tsunami waves of up to 16 feet, which had started to American shores along Hawaii’s islands and off the coast of northern California on Wednesday morning.

 

2. What is a tsunami?

 

Tsunamis, derived from the Japanese term meaning "harbour wave," represent a formidable force of nature. These giant ocean waves are triggered by seismic activities, primarily earthquakes or volcanic eruptions beneath the ocean floor. The sudden movement of the ocean floor results in the displacement of an immense volume of water, giving rise to the powerful waves known as tsunamis.

• Earthquakes and Ocean Dynamics: The genesis of most tsunamis is linked to underwater earthquakes. When seismic events occur beneath the ocean, sections of the ocean floor can abruptly shift, either upward or downward. This sudden movement causes a rapid displacement of water, setting off the formation of tsunami waves. Additionally, volcanic eruptions in the ocean can induce similar effects. The outpouring of lava alters the surrounding water, generating waves that can evolve into tsunamis.
• Tsunami Characteristics: Tsunamis often originate in the deep ocean, where substantial water displacement occurs. Initially inconspicuous, these waves gain momentum and height as they approach shallower waters near coastlines. According to NASA, big tsunamis can reach hundreds of feet in height, moving at speeds comparable to jet planes in deep waters but decelerating as they reach the shallows.
• Factors Influencing Tsunami Formation: Not every earthquake or volcanic eruption results in a tsunami. Various factors influence the likelihood of tsunami formation, including the shape of the ocean floor, the distance and direction of the seismic activity, and the overall dynamics of the earthquake. The complex interplay of these factors determines whether a tsunami will be generated and its potential size and impact.
• Tsunami Dynamics: Tsunamis manifest as a series of waves with considerable energy and reach. As they approach coastal areas, the waves can grow in height and intensity. The shallowing of the ocean near the shore plays a crucial role in this amplification. While tsunamis can travel at high speeds over deep waters, they undergo a slowdown upon entering shallower regions.
• Nature's Unpredictability: It is essential to recognize that not all seismic activities lead to tsunamis. The intricate interactions between geological and oceanographic factors contribute to the unpredictability of tsunami occurrence. Understanding the nuances of these variables is crucial for assessing the potential threat posed by a seismic event.

 

3. Reasons for Japan's Vulnerability to Earthquakes and Tsunamis

 

• Geographic Location: Japan's susceptibility to earthquakes and tsunamis can be attributed to its strategic geographic location. The country is positioned along the 'Pacific Ring of Fire,' a highly active tectonic belt renowned for seismic activities worldwide. The term 'ring' denotes an expansive horseshoe-shaped zone encircling the Pacific Ocean, marked by frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, as outlined in a report by Live Science.
• The Pacific Ring of Fire: Within the Pacific Ring of Fire, multiple tectonic plates, including the Pacific Plate, Eurasian Plate, and Indo-Australian Plate, interact dynamically. These plates continually mesh and collide, creating a geological environment conducive to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and tsunamis. The intricate interplay of these tectonic forces contributes to the seismic activity that characterizes the region.
• Tectonic Belt Interactions: The convergence and interaction of different tectonic belts within the Ring of Fire generate significant geological events. The Pacific Plate subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate, leading to subduction zones and the release of immense energy. This process initiates earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, both of which can trigger tsunamis due to the abrupt displacement of oceanic water.
• Historical Impact: Japan's vulnerability to these natural disasters was vividly demonstrated in 2011 when a colossal 9.0 magnitude earthquake struck, triggering a devastating tsunami. This catastrophe wreaked havoc on northeastern coastal communities, claiming around 18,000 lives and displacing tens of thousands. The ensuing tsunami also induced a nuclear meltdown at the Fukushima power plant, marking one of the most severe nuclear accidents since the 1986 Chornobyl disaster.
• Ongoing Preparedness: Given the persistent threat of earthquakes and tsunamis, Japan has implemented stringent measures to enhance preparedness and minimize the impact of such events. Advanced early warning systems, resilient infrastructure, and community awareness initiatives are integral components of Japan's comprehensive approach to managing the risks associated with its geologically dynamic location.

 

4. Why do earthquakes remain unpredictable?

 

Earthquakes remain unpredictable primarily due to the dynamic and complex nature of the Earth's crust. Several factors contribute to the unpredictability of earthquakes:

• Complexity of Earth's Crust: The Earth's crust is divided into tectonic plates that are constantly in motion. The interactions between these plates, including their collisions, subductions, and lateral movements, create stress and strain along fault lines.
• Abrupt Release of Energy: Earthquakes occur when accumulated stress along a fault line is released abruptly. The exact timing and location of this release are challenging to predict because stress can accumulate over an extended period, and the release can happen suddenly.
• Variability in Earth's Interior: Variations in the composition and structure of the Earth's interior contribute to the unpredictable behaviour of seismic events. Factors such as rock types, temperature, and pressure variations can influence how stress is distributed and released.
• Lack of Precursors: Unlike some natural phenomena, earthquakes often lack clear precursors or warning signs. While scientists can identify seismic risk zones, predicting the precise moment when stress will be released remains a significant challenge.
• Heterogeneity of Faults: Faults, where earthquakes originate, have complex geometries and may consist of multiple segments. The heterogeneous nature of faults makes it difficult to anticipate how stress will be distributed and when a rupture might occur.
• Human-Induced Seismicity: Activities such as mining, reservoir-induced seismicity (due to large reservoirs behind dams), and fluid injection associated with certain industrial practices can induce earthquakes. Human-induced seismicity adds a layer of unpredictability to earthquake occurrence.
• Limitations in Monitoring Technology: While advancements in seismology and monitoring technologies have improved our understanding of earthquakes, limitations still exist in predicting specific details. Comprehensive monitoring of all fault lines globally in real time is a formidable task.

 

5. What exactly causes earthquakes?

 

Earthquakes are caused by the sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust, resulting in seismic waves that produce ground shaking. The primary cause of earthquakes is the movement of tectonic plates, which are large sections of the Earth's lithosphere that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them. 

• Tectonic Plate Movements: The Earth's outer shell, or lithosphere, is divided into several tectonic plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere. These plates are constantly moving due to the heat-driven convection currents in the Earth's mantle beneath them.
• Plate Boundaries: Tectonic plates interact with each other along their boundaries, where various geological features and phenomena occur. There are three main types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.
• Divergent Boundaries: At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates move away from each other. Magma from the mantle rises to fill the gap, solidifies, and forms a new crust. As the new crust forms, earthquakes can occur due to the adjustment and movement of rocks.
• Convergent Boundaries: At convergent boundaries, tectonic plates move toward each other. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate, the denser oceanic plate subducts beneath the continental plate, creating a subduction zone. The intense pressure and friction at subduction zones can lead to powerful earthquakes.
• Transform Boundaries: At transform boundaries, tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally. The friction between the plates prevents them from smoothly sliding, and stress accumulates until it is suddenly released in the form of an earthquake.
• Faults: Faults are fractures in the Earth's crust along which movement has occurred. When stress overcomes the strength of rocks along a fault, it results in a sudden release of energy, causing the rocks to break and slip. This sudden movement generates seismic waves.
• Elastic Rebound Theory: The elastic rebound theory explains how energy accumulates in rocks along a fault due to tectonic forces, causing them to bend and deform. When the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, they break, releasing stored elastic energy and causing an earthquake.
• Human-Induced Earthquakes: Certain human activities, such as mining, reservoir-induced seismicity (due to large reservoirs behind dams), and fluid injection associated with oil and gas extraction, can induce earthquakes.

 

6. What is it about an earthquake that causes a tsunami?

 

A tsunami is often triggered by an underwater earthquake, and the key factor that causes a tsunami is the sudden vertical displacement of the ocean floor. 

• Underwater Earthquake: Tsunamis are commonly generated by undersea earthquakes, particularly those with a significant magnitude. The earthquake causes a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust beneath the ocean.
• Vertical Displacement: When an earthquake occurs, it can result in the vertical displacement of a large section of the ocean floor. This displacement may involve one tectonic plate being thrust upward while another plate drops downward.
• Displacement of Water: The vertical movement of the ocean floor displaces a large volume of water above it. If the ocean floor moves upward, it lifts the water column above it, creating a bulge. Conversely, if the ocean floor moves downward, it displaces water, creating a depression.
• Formation of Tsunami Waves: The sudden displacement of water sets off a series of waves known as tsunami waves. Unlike regular ocean waves that are caused by wind, tsunami waves are characterized by their long wavelengths and high energy.
• Propagation of Tsunami Waves: Once generated, tsunami waves travel across the ocean at high speeds, often reaching speeds comparable to jet planes. In deep ocean waters, tsunami waves may have a relatively low amplitude (height), making them less noticeable on the ocean's surface.
• Shoaling Effect: As tsunami waves approach shallower coastal waters, the waves' energy is compressed, causing the waves to grow significantly in height. The shoaling effect is responsible for the massive and destructive waves that hit coastlines during a tsunami.
• Impact on Coastal Areas: When tsunami waves reach coastal areas, they can inundate the land with powerful surges of water, causing widespread damage and flooding.

 

7. What is called the Ring of Fire?

 

The "Ring of Fire" is a horseshoe-shaped zone that encircles the Pacific Ocean, known for its intense seismic and volcanic activity. This area is characterized by a high degree of tectonic plate movement and is associated with frequent earthquakes and numerous active volcanoes. The Ring of Fire is considered the most geologically active tectonic plate boundary in the world.

Key features of the Ring of Fire include:

• Tectonic Plates: The Ring of Fire is situated along the boundaries of several major tectonic plates, including the Pacific Plate, North American Plate, South American Plate, Eurasian Plate, Philippine Sea Plate, and others. These plates are in constant motion, and their interactions at their boundaries lead to various geological phenomena.
• Subduction Zones: One of the defining characteristics of the Ring of Fire is the presence of subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another. Subduction zones often result in the formation of deep ocean trenches, volcanic arcs, and intense seismic activity.
• Volcanic Activity: The Ring of Fire is home to about 75% of the world's active and dormant volcanoes. Volcanic arcs, formed by the subduction of oceanic plates beneath continental plates, are a common feature in this region.
• Earthquakes: Due to the dynamic interactions between tectonic plates, the Ring of Fire experiences a high frequency of earthquakes. Many of the world's most powerful and devastating earthquakes occur along the tectonic boundaries within the Ring of Fire.
• Pacific Ocean: The Ring of Fire follows the rim of the Pacific Ocean, connecting regions such as the west coasts of North and South America, Japan, Southeast Asia, and the western coasts of Central and South America.

 

8. The Way Forward

 

While Japan's vulnerability is particularly high due to its location, other regions bordering the Pacific Ocean and situated near active tectonic zones face similar risks. The lessons learned and strategies developed in Japan can be adapted and applied to other vulnerable regions to mitigate the impact of future tsunamis and save lives.

By prioritizing education, preparedness, research, and international cooperation, we can build more resilient coastal communities and face the challenges posed by tsunamis with greater knowledge and preparedness. The recent events in Japan serve as a call to action, reminding us that understanding the Earth's dynamic forces and investing in proactive measures is essential for a safer future in vulnerable regions around the world.

 

For Prelims: Tsunami, Ring of Fire, Pacific Ocean, Earthquakes, tectonic Plates For Mains:  1. Briefly explain the geographical factors that make Japan vulnerable to earthquakes and tsunamis. (250 words) 2.  Discuss the challenges and opportunities for effective coordination between government agencies, NGOs, and scientific communities in responding to transboundary natural disasters like tsunamis. (250 words) 3. Discuss the advancements in early warning systems and their effectiveness in reducing casualties during tsunami events. (250 words) 4. Discuss the advancements in early warning systems and their effectiveness in reducing casualties during tsunami events. (250 words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to earthquakes, which of the following statements are correct?  (CDS GK 2016) 1. Earthquakes largely occur along the converging plate boundaries. 2. Point of origin of the earthquake in the lithosphere is known as the focus/Hypocentre. 3. The intensity of the earthquake decreases with distance from the epicentre. 4. The epicentre of the earthquake always remains over continents only. Select the correct answer using the code given below.  A. 1 and 2 only         B.  1, 2 and 3       C.  2 and 3 only          D. 1 and 4     2. Which of the following statements about Ring of Fire is/are correct? (NDA 2018) 1) It is a zone of convergence plate boundaries 2) It is an active seismic and volcanic zone 3) It is associated with deep trench Select the correct answer using the code given below:  A. 1 and 2 only          B. 2 and 3 only            C. 1 only         D. 1, 2 and 3     3. Consider the following statements about ‘Ring of Fire’: (UPSC CAPF 2017) 1. It is also known as circum-Pacific belt of volcanoes 2. It is an active seismic zone 3. It is a zone of divergent plate margin Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only           B.  1 and 2 only           C.  2 and 3 only            D.1, 2 and 3   Answers: 1-B, 2-D, 3-B

 

 Source: The Indian Express