NIPAH VIRUS
- Nipah virus (NiV) is a zoonotic virus that can spread between animals and people.
- The natural host of NiV is fruit bats, also known as flying foxes.
- NiV can also infect pigs and people
- NiV infection can cause a range of illnesses, from asymptomatic infection to acute respiratory illness and fatal encephalitis. The case fatality rate for NiV infection is estimated to be between 40% and 75%
- The symptoms of NiV infection typically appear 4-14 days after exposure to the virus. The initial symptoms are similar to those of the flu, including fever, headache, and cough.
- In severe cases, the virus can cause encephalitis, which is a swelling of the brain. Encephalitis can lead to coma and death.
- NiV can be transmitted from animals to people through contact with infected saliva, urine, or other bodily fluids.
- It can also be transmitted through contact with contaminated food or water. Person-to-person transmission of NiV is possible, but it is rare.
- Nipah virus outbreaks have been reported in several countries in Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Bangladesh, India, and Singapore.
- The virus has caused sporadic outbreaks, with varying levels of severity
- The first outbreaks of the Nipah virus among humans was reported from Malaysia (1998) and Singapore (1999).
- The virus takes its name from the village in Malaysia where the person in whom the virus was first isolated died of the disease.
- The transmission from animals happens mainly through consumption of contaminated food. According to the CDC, transmission can happen due to consumption of raw date palm sap or fruit that has been contaminated with saliva or urine from infected bats.
- Some cases of NiV [Nipah] infection have also been reported among people who climb trees where bats often roost.
- The animal host reservoir for this virus is known to be the fruit bat, commonly known as flying fox.
- Fruit bats are known to transmit this virus to other animals like pigs, and also dogs, cats, goats, horses and sheep
- Humans get infected mainly through direct contact with these animals, or through consumption of food contaminated by saliva or urine of these infected animals
- Since it was first identified in 1998-99, there have been multiple outbreaks of the Nipah virus, all of them in South and Southeast Asian nations. In Bangladesh, there have been at least 10 outbreaks since 2001.
In India, West Bengal had seen an outbreak in 2001 and 2007, while Kerala had reported several cases in 2018, and isolated cases in 2019 and 2021.
Zoonotic diseases, also known as zoonoses, are infectious diseases that can be transmitted between animals and humans. These diseases can be caused by bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi, and they pose a significant public health concern worldwide. Zoonotic diseases can be transmitted through direct or indirect contact with infected animals, their secretions, or contaminated environments. Some common examples of zoonotic diseases include:
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Influenza: Various strains of influenza viruses can infect both animals and humans. Influenza viruses can undergo genetic changes, leading to new strains that have the potential to cause pandemics.
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Rabies: Rabies is a viral disease that primarily affects mammals, including bats, dogs, and raccoons. It is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected animal and can be fatal if not treated promptly.
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Salmonellosis: Caused by the bacterium Salmonella, this disease is often associated with contaminated food products, particularly those of animal origin such as poultry and eggs.
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Lyme Disease: Transmitted by ticks, Lyme disease is caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi and is commonly found in wildlife, particularly deer. Humans can become infected when bitten by an infected tick.
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West Nile Virus: This mosquito-borne virus primarily circulates among birds but can be transmitted to humans through mosquito bites, leading to fever and, in some cases, severe neurological complications.
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E. coli Infections: Certain strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) can cause gastrointestinal illness in humans. Contaminated food and water, as well as contact with infected animals, can lead to E. coli infections.
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HIV/AIDS: While the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is primarily transmitted among humans, it is believed to have originated from the transfer of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) from non-human primates to humans, making it a zoonotic disease.
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COVID-19: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2, is believed to have originated in bats and was likely transmitted to humans through an intermediate animal host, highlighting the zoonotic nature of the virus.
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For Prelims: Viruses, Bacteria, Immunity, Vaccine types
For Mains: 1.Discuss the challenges in controlling viral diseases and the strategies employed by governments and international organizations in addressing viral epidemics. Highlight the lessons learned from recent viral outbreaks
2.Analyze the global problem of antibiotic resistance and its implications for healthcare. Suggest policy measures and interventions to combat the growing threat of antibiotic-resistant bacteria
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Previous Year Questions
1.Viruses can affect (UPSC CSE 2016)
1.Bacteria
2. Fungi
3. Plants
Select the correct code with the following code
A.1 and 2 only
B. 3 Only
C. 1 and 3
D. 1, 2, 3
Answer (D)
2. Which of the following statements is/ are correct? (UPSC CSE 2013)
1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy
2.Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium
3.Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 Only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 3
D. 1, 2, 3
Answer (A)
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OPEN ECOSYSTEMS
- A dessert is the final course of a meal, typically served after the main dishes, and is usually sweet in flavor. It is meant to provide a pleasant and satisfying end to the dining experience.
- Desserts come in a wide variety of forms, including cakes, pastries, cookies, puddings, ice creams, custards, fruits, and confections such as chocolates or candies. In many cultures, desserts hold a special place not just in everyday meals but also in celebrations and festivals, where they are often prepared with extra care and tradition.
- The nature of desserts can vary greatly depending on geography, culture, and personal preference. For example, in Western cuisines, rich and indulgent desserts like cheesecakes or chocolate mousse are common, while in many Asian cuisines, desserts often involve ingredients like rice, coconut milk, or tropical fruits.
- In India, traditional sweets such as gulab jamun, rasgulla, or payasam are popular, often made with milk, ghee, and sugar, and flavored with cardamom, saffron, or nuts.
- Desserts are not only about taste—they often carry emotional and cultural significance. Many people associate them with comfort, celebration, and joy.
- Though primarily sweet, some desserts may include savory elements, spices, or textures that balance their flavors.
- With the rise of modern gastronomy, desserts have also become a space for innovation, where chefs experiment with presentation, flavors, and techniques to elevate them into art forms
| Deserts are, in fact, some of the planet’s most ancient, varied, and resilient ecosystems, intricately adapted to survive in extreme environments. Covering nearly one-third of the Earth’s land area, they support a remarkable range of plant and animal life, as well as human communities that have evolved unique ways of living in such climates. Despite their significance, deserts are often undervalued by people today—even though many of the world’s earliest civilizations, including those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley, arose in arid regions. Interestingly, some historians suggest that the very challenges posed by desert landscapes spurred human innovation, leading to the development of advanced irrigation methods and complex social structures necessary for survival in these tough conditions |
- Savannas, grasslands, and shrublands make up what are known as open ecosystems, which are typically defined by a continuous layer of grasses and little to no tree cover.
- In certain regions, however, the environment can also support scattered trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. The type and arrangement of vegetation in these ecosystems are largely influenced by broader environmental factors.
- Natural disturbances, such as fire and grazing by animals, have played a vital role in shaping and sustaining the dynamics of these ecosystems over time.
- Together, savannas and grasslands account for over half of the Earth’s terrestrial surface, extending across tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones.
- As a result, open ecosystems are incredibly diverse, encompassing a wide variety of landscapes and plant communities
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- India’s connection with open landscapes is marked by a striking contradiction. On one side, such spaces are idealized—real estate campaigns often showcase sprawling green lawns with aspirational names like Savana or Utopia.
- Yet, when it comes to the country’s own expansive natural open habitats—like grasslands, savannas, scrublands, and open woodlands—they are often neglected or worse, deliberately altered.
- Government records frequently label these ecosystems as "wastelands," a colonial-era classification that implies such land is unproductive and in need of improvement. In practice, this has meant converting these areas through afforestation, agriculture, or industrial development, rather than conserving them.
- This misclassification overlooks the ecological significance of these regions. India’s open ecosystems support rare and endemic species like the Great Indian Bustard, the caracal, and the Indian wolf. Unlike forests that store carbon in tall trees, these ecosystems store carbon primarily in their soil, playing a crucial role in climate regulation.
- These landscapes are also vital for millions of pastoralist communities—such as the Dhangar, Rabari, and Kuruba—who rely on them for grazing and livelihoods. When grasslands are enclosed or converted into artificial forests, it’s not only the natural ecosystem that suffers, but also the traditions, movement, and survival of these communities.
- In many cases, pastoralists serve as guardians of biodiversity and ecosystem balance. Yet, both India’s grasslands and the cultures that sustain them continue to receive inadequate recognition and protection in policy and practice
- Open ecosystems are not only important for their unique and ancient biodiversity but also for the vital ecological functions they perform. The vegetation in these landscapes plays a key role in regulating global environmental systems.
- It helps manage climate processes, controls environmental risks, and supports the health of natural resources by sustaining water availability and quality, sequestering carbon both above and below the ground, and supplying essential goods like food and fuel.
- These ecosystems also carry significant cultural and economic importance. They have supported human livelihoods for millennia and continue to do so today. In fact, it was within the grasslands and savannas of Africa that early humans first evolved.
- Over time, Indigenous communities around the world have shaped and maintained these ecosystems by using fire and managing animal populations. Societies across continents—whether in South America's Cerrado, North America's oak savannas, the Eurasian Steppes, or the vast open landscapes of Africa and Australia—maintain strong socio-cultural ties with these ecosystems, reflecting their deep-rooted historical and ecological relevance
Instead of attempting to convert deserts into forests, we should focus on understanding how life flourishes in conditions of scarcity. This doesn't mean we should ignore land degradation, but efforts to restore drylands must be thoughtful—rooted in native ecosystems, emphasizing soil and water conservation, and incorporating traditional land stewardship practices. Simple, time-tested methods such as water harvesting, rotational grazing, and protecting natural regeneration often prove more effective than high-profile tree-planting schemes that claim to “green” deserts but may disrupt the natural balance.
Our policies must acknowledge the ecological richness of diverse ecosystems, encourage soil-based carbon storage, and promote land use systems that support pastoralist communities. Healthy deserts and savannas, with their complex food chains, seasonal cycles, and longstanding human connections, are vibrant and functional landscapes—much more so than poorly conceived monoculture plantations. It may even be time to reconsider the name of World Day to Combat Desertification and Drought, perhaps renaming it as the World Day to Combat Land Degradation, in order to restore dignity and recognition to deserts as vital ecosystems in their own right
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For Prelims: UNCCD, Extreme Weather events, Climate change
For Mains:
1. The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) plays a vital role in addressing global environmental challenges. Discuss the key functions of the UNCCD and critically evaluate its effectiveness in achieving its objectives. (250 words)
2. Extreme weather events pose a significant threat to the global economy. Explain how desertification and climate change contribute to the occurrence of extreme weather events. Suggest mitigation strategies to address these challenges. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. What is/are the importance/importances of the 'United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification'? (UPSC 2016)
1. It aims to promote effective action through innovative national programmes and supportive international partnerships.
2. It has a special/particular focus on South Asia and North Africa regions, and its Secretariat facilitates the allocation of a major portion of financial resources to these regions.
3. It is committed to a bottom-up approach, encouraging the participation of local people in combating desertification.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
Mains
1. The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples. (UPSC 2020)
2. In what way micro-watershed development projects help in water conservation in drought-prone and semi-arid regions of India? (UPSC 2016)
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ORDANARILY RESIDENT
- The Election Commission (EC) prepares the electoral rolls in accordance with the Representation of the People Act, 1950 (RP Act). According to Section 19 of this Act, an individual must be "ordinarily resident" in a particular constituency to be eligible for inclusion in its voter list.
- Section 20 further defines the concept of "ordinary residence." It clarifies that merely owning or occupying a home in a constituency does not qualify someone as ordinarily residing there.
- On the other hand, someone who is temporarily away from their usual residence is still considered ordinarily resident.
- The law also extends this status to certain categories of individuals such as: (a) members of the Union’s armed forces, (b) members of a State’s armed police serving outside their home State, (c) those employed by the Government of India in positions abroad, and (d) persons holding constitutional posts as declared by the President in consultation with the EC.
- These individuals and their spouses are deemed ordinarily resident in the place where they would have lived had they not been posted elsewhere.
- In 2010, Section 20A was introduced to allow non-resident Indians (NRIs) who have moved abroad for extended periods to register as voters in the constituency corresponding to the address listed in their passports.
- The Registration of Electors Rules, 1960 (RER), framed by the Central Government in consultation with the EC, lays down the rules for creating and updating electoral rolls, including the addition or removal of names, in line with the RP Act
- The criterion of being ‘ordinarily resident’ in a constituency is intended to ensure that voters have a genuine connection to the area, thereby upholding the principle of representative accountability. It also serves as a safeguard against fraudulent voter registrations.
- In the 1999 Manmohan Singh case, the Gauhati High Court interpreted ‘ordinarily resident’ as someone who habitually lives in a particular place. This residence must be of a lasting nature, not just temporary or incidental.
- The individual must intend to live there permanently, and their presence in that location should be such that a reasonable observer would consider them a resident.
- This definition becomes complex in the context of migrant workers. According to the 2020–21 Periodic Labour Force Survey, about 11% of India’s population migrated for employment, which equates to nearly 150 million potential voters.
- Many of these workers engage in seasonal migration, returning to their home regions for part of the year.
- Migrant construction and security workers often reside in makeshift accommodations near their work sites, moving frequently between jobs within or across States.
- Nevertheless, they tend to vote in their home constituencies, where their families reside and their assets are located. Even though they do not live there continuously, their connection to the area aligns with the legal and judicial understanding of ‘ordinary residence’.
- While any migrant can choose to register to vote in their new location, strictly enforcing the ‘ordinary residence’ requirement to remove them from their original constituency’s rolls risks undermining democratic participation.
- Many migrant workers are reluctant or unwilling to register at their temporary work locations, and a rigid application of the rule could lead to their effective disenfranchisement
While the Constitution of India lays down the foundational principles of elections, such as universal adult franchise and the existence of the Election Commission, it does not go into the specifics of how elections should be conducted. The Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RPA 1951), fills this gap. It was passed by the Indian Parliament in July 1951, shortly before the first general elections in independent India.
The Act outlines the complete legal framework for elections and ensures free and fair electoral practices. It complements the earlier Representation of the People Act, 1950, which deals primarily with the preparation of electoral rolls and the allocation of seats in the legislatures
The RPA 1951 deals with several vital aspects of the electoral process:
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Conduct of Elections
The Act provides a legal basis for the conduct of elections to the Lok Sabha (House of the People), Rajya Sabha (Council of States), State Legislative Assemblies, and Legislative Councils. It details how constituencies should be demarcated, how candidates should file their nominations, and the procedures for voting, counting, and declaring results. -
Qualifications and Disqualifications
The Act lays down the qualifications required to become a member of Parliament or a State Legislature. It also sets out disqualifications based on certain grounds such as holding an office of profit, being of unsound mind, being an undischarged insolvent, or being convicted of certain criminal offenses.For example, under Section 8 of the Act, individuals convicted of certain crimes, including corruption, terrorism, and rape, are disqualified from contesting elections for a specified period.
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Election Disputes and Petitions
The Act provides a mechanism for addressing disputes related to elections. Any election petition challenging the result of an election must be filed in the appropriate High Court. The Act outlines the process for hearing such petitions, the time limits, and possible outcomes, including setting aside an election or declaring another candidate as duly elected. -
Model Code of Conduct and Electoral Malpractices
While the Model Code of Conduct is not part of the Act itself, the RPA 1951 provides statutory backing to punish electoral offenses like bribery, impersonation, booth capturing, or promoting enmity between groups. It ensures that the electoral process is not distorted by unfair practices. -
Regulation of Political Parties and Candidates
The Act regulates the registration of political parties and requires them to follow certain norms. It also lays down rules for the disclosure of election expenses by candidates. There is a ceiling on the maximum amount a candidate can spend during the campaign, and failure to comply with this requirement may lead to disqualification. -
Role of Election Commission
The Act empowers the Election Commission of India to supervise, direct, and control the entire process of elections. It authorizes the Commission to cancel elections in the event of malpractices, disqualify candidates, and enforce electoral laws
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The RPA 1951 has undergone several amendments over the years to respond to the changing nature of Indian democracy. These include provisions for Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs), efforts to decriminalize politics, steps to increase transparency in political funding, and enabling overseas Indian citizens (NRIs) to vote. One of the most notable amendments was the 2002 introduction of the requirement for candidates to disclose their criminal records, assets, liabilities, and educational qualifications, enhancing transparency and informed voting |
The Representation of the People Act allows service voters, individuals holding designated official positions, and non-resident Indians (NRIs) to remain registered as voters in their original constituencies, even if they are no longer residing there permanently. Although the comparison may not be exact, it is important to recognize that many labourers—whether they migrate temporarily or for longer periods—do so due to limited employment opportunities in their home regions. Despite relocating for work, they often maintain strong ties with their native place and prefer to keep their voting rights in that constituency.
To support this preference, there is scope to amend the Representation of the People Act or the Registration of Electors Rules in a way that safeguards the electoral rights of migrant labourers. There should be efforts to develop inclusive and practical systems that facilitate their participation in elections. Meanwhile, concerns about duplicate voter registrations in multiple constituencies by migrants can be addressed independently through linking voter records with Aadhaar
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For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance-Constitution, Political System, Panchayati Raj, Public Policy, Rights Issues, etc.
For Mains: General Studies II: Parliament and State legislatures structure, functioning, conduct of business, powers & privileges and issues arising out of these.
1. Discuss the significance of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, in ensuring the decriminalization of politics. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Act in preventing individuals with a criminal background from entering the electoral process. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. According to the Representation of the People Act, 1951, in the event of a person being elected to both houses of Parliament, he has to notify within ______ days in which house he intends to function. (Delhi Police Constable 2020)
A. 22 B. 10 C. 20 D. 15
Answer: B
2. The Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955 extends to (MPPSC 2018)
A. whole of India
B. whole of India except the State of Jammu and Kashmir
C. Union Territories
D. only the- State of Jammu and Kashmir
Answer: A
3. Under the Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955, all offences are (MPPSC 2013)
A. Cognizable B. Bailable C. Compoundable D.Punishment with imprisonment and fine both
Answer: A
4. The right to vote is in which article of the Indian Constitution? (Bihar Forest Guard 2019)
A. Article 322 B. Article 324 C. Article 326 D. Article 330
Answer: C
5. Right to vote and to be elected in India is a (UPSC 2017)
A. Fundamental Right B. Natural Right C. Constitutional Right D. Legal Right
Answer: C
6. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 3 only Answer: D 7. The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) system was used for the first time by the Election Commission of India in (UPSC CAPF 2019) A. North Paravur Assembly Constituency, Kerala
B. Noksen Assembly Constituency, Nagaland
C. Mapusa Assembly Constituency, Goa
D. Nambol Assembly Constituency, Manipur
Answer: B 8. In which of the following options, Electronic Voting Machines were used for the first time during general elections all over India? (Rajasthan Police Constable 2020) A. 2014 B. 1999 C. 2004 D. 2009 Answer: C 9. Which one of the following statements about 'personal liberty' is not correct? (UPSC CAPF 2021)
A. State does not have the authority to deprive any person within the territory of India of his/her personal liberty without any rational basis.
B. Basis of depriving a person of his/her personal liberty must be in accordance with procedures established by law.
C. Personal liberty can be secured by the judicial writ of Habeas Corpus.
D. The majority view of the Supreme Court in A. K. Gopalan vs. State of Madras case invented 'due process of law'.
Answer: D
10. Consider the following statements about Electoral Bond Scheme 2018: (RPSC RAS 2018) (A) The aim of this scheme is to bring about transparency in the funding process of political parties.
(B) Only the political parties recognized by the Election Commission which secured not less than one per cent of the votes polled in the last general election to the House of People or the Legislative Assembly of the State shall be eligible to receive the Electoral Bonds.
(C) Electoral Bonds shall be valid for fifteen calendar days from the date of issue.
(D) The Electoral Bond deposited by an eligible political party in its account shall be credited on the same day.
Which of the above statements are correct? A. Only (A) and (B) B. (A), (B), (C) and (D) C. Only (B), (C) and (D) D. Only (A), (C) and (D) Answer: B Mains1. Discuss the role of the Election Commission of India in the light of the evolution of the Model Code of Conduct. (UPSC 2022) |
Source: The Hindu
STATE OF INEQUALITY REPORT
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- The World Bank's inequality data focuses on consumption rather than income or wealth, which raises several concerns. Firstly, consumption inequality tends to appear lower than disparities in income or wealth.
- This is because low-income households typically spend most of what they earn on basic needs, with little to no savings. When their income increases, their spending doesn't rise proportionately, as they now have the capacity to save. As a result, consumption patterns don’t fully reflect broader income or wealth inequalities.
- Secondly, the data used to assess consumption inequality primarily comes from the Household Consumption Expenditure Surveys (HCES) of 2011–12 and 2022–23.
- While these surveys may reliably capture spending at the lower end of the economic spectrum, they often miss the high-income outliers, thereby underreporting the true extent of inequality.
- Additionally, substantial methodological differences between the two survey rounds make direct comparisons over time problematic. This issue has been acknowledged by various experts and is even highlighted in the official documentation accompanying the 2022–23 HCES data
- The World Bank’s reported low Gini coefficient pertains specifically to consumption inequality and should not be equated with global measures of income disparity
- Accurately assessing income and wealth inequality in India is challenging, primarily because official surveys tend to overlook individuals with extremely high earnings and assets.
- To address this gap, researchers from the World Inequality Database (WID), under the leadership of economist Thomas Piketty, have used a broader set of data—including tax filings, national surveys, and rich lists—to develop more representative estimates of inequality in the country. Their findings reveal a stark contrast to the more optimistic picture presented by the World Bank.
- According to WID estimates, India’s Gini coefficient for pre-tax income in 2022–23 stood at 0.61. This places India among the most unequal nations globally, with 170 out of 218 economies reporting lower levels of income inequality.
- The scenario for wealth distribution is even more skewed. India’s wealth Gini is estimated at 0.75, suggesting a more severe concentration of assets than income or consumption. While this is a high figure, several countries still have even greater wealth inequality; in fact, 67 nations report a lower wealth Gini than India.
- The trends are also concerning. Income inequality, as measured by the Gini coefficient, has increased notably from 0.47 in 2000 to 0.61 in 2023. Wealth inequality has also risen, albeit less dramatically—from 0.7 in 2000 to 0.75 in 2023—largely because the baseline level of concentration was already high. These patterns clearly contradict the notion of declining inequality suggested by the World Bank.
- Moreover, the Gini coefficient, while widely used, tends to obscure the extreme accumulation of wealth by a small elite. It reflects the overall distribution but doesn’t indicate how much wealth is held by the richest few. When we focus on the top 1%, the inequality becomes even more pronounced.
- In 2022–23, the top 1% of adults in India owned nearly 40% of the country's net personal wealth. Only four countries—Uruguay, Eswatini, Russia, and South Africa—exhibited greater concentration among the wealthiest
- The estimated average Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE) for 2023-24 in rural and urban India is Rs. 4,122 and Rs. 6,996, respectively, excluding the value of items received for free through social welfare programs. When the imputed value of these free items is considered, the estimates rise to Rs. 4,247 for rural areas and Rs. 7,078 for urban areas.
- In nominal terms, the average MPCE (without imputation) grew by approximately 9% in rural areas and 8% in urban areas compared to 2022-23 levels. The urban-rural MPCE gap has also narrowed, decreasing to 70% in 2023-24 from 71% in 2022-23 and 84% in 2011-12, reflecting consistent consumption growth in rural areas.
- The largest increase in average MPCE from 2022-23 to 2023-24 occurred among the bottom 5-10% of the population in both rural and urban areas. Following the trend from the 2022-23 HCES, non-food items accounted for the majority of household expenditure in 2023-24, comprising about 53% of MPCE in rural areas and 60% in urban areas.
- Within the food category, beverages, refreshments, and processed foods continued to dominate household spending in 2023-24. Non-food expenditure remained concentrated in categories such as conveyance, clothing, bedding, footwear, miscellaneous goods, entertainment, and durable goods. For urban households, rent—including house rent, garage rent, and accommodation charges—accounted for around 7% of non-food expenditure.
- Consumption inequality has decreased in both rural and urban areas. The Gini coefficient for rural areas declined from 0.266 in 2022-23 to 0.237 in 2023-24, while in urban areas, it fell from 0.314 to 0.284 during the same period
Over the past several decades, the overarching trend in India has been an increase in both income levels and inequality, rather than any meaningful reduction. Interestingly, a decline in consumption inequality amid this broader rise in income is not surprising. As overall incomes grow—provided the real incomes of the poor do not decline (though some experts, like Utsa Patnaik, argue they have)—the spending capacity of lower-income groups tends to rise more sharply compared to the middle and upper classes. In contrast, wealthier groups, whose incomes grow faster, are more likely to channel a larger share into savings. These savings then contribute to the accumulation of greater wealth.
Thus, it is entirely possible for consumption inequality to decline even as disparities in income and wealth widen—an outcome clearly visible in India’s current economic landscape. What stands out most is the stark concentration of income and wealth that has accompanied India’s growth, placing it among the most unequal countries globally. This level of inequality could have serious implications for the nation’s long-term economic development
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment |
ZONAL COUNCILS
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The concept of Zonal Councils was first introduced by Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru in 1956. During discussions on the States Reorganisation Commission's report, he proposed grouping the newly reorganized states into four or five zones. These zones would each have an Advisory Council aimed at fostering a spirit of cooperative governance, as per records from the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).
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In alignment with Nehru’s vision, five Zonal Councils were established under Part III of the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. These councils function as statutory bodies.
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Currently, the Zonal Councils are structured as follows:
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Eastern Zonal Council: Includes Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha, and West Bengal.
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Northern Zonal Council: Comprises Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Delhi (NCT), and the Union Territories of Chandigarh, Jammu & Kashmir, and Ladakh.
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Central Zonal Council: Consists of Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh.
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Western Zonal Council: Encompasses Goa, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and the Union Territory of Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu.
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Southern Zonal Council: Includes Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and the Union Territory of Puducherry.
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Additionally, the North Eastern Council (NEC) was formed as a statutory advisory body through the NEC Act of 1971 and became operational on November 7, 1972, in Shillong. Its members are Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Nagaland. Sikkim, initially part of the Eastern Zonal Council, was incorporated into the NEC in 2002
(a) The Union Home Minister serves as the Chairperson of each Zonal Council.
(b) The Chief Ministers of the states within a particular zone take turns serving as the Vice-Chairperson of that zone’s Zonal Council. Each holds this position for one year on a rotational basis.
(c) From each member state, the Chief Minister and two other ministers — appointed by the respective Governor — are part of the council. Additionally, two representatives from the Union Territories in that zone also participate.
(d) Each Zonal Council includes a nominee from the Planning Commission (now NITI Aayog), along with the Chief Secretaries and another senior official designated by each participating state.
In 2018, under the leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi, the Union Cabinet gave approval for the Union Home Minister to serve as the ex-officio Chairperson of the North Eastern Council. Meanwhile, the Minister for Development of the North Eastern Region (DoNER) was designated as the Council’s Vice-Chairperson.
The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has emphasized that Zonal Councils play a crucial role in resolving intergovernmental issues. They offer a valuable platform for open and candid discussions between the Centre and the States, as well as among States themselves. These councils promote regional cooperation among states that are interlinked by shared economic, cultural, and political ties.
4. Organisational structure of Zonal Councils
The Zonal Councils are high-level advisory bodies established under the States Reorganisation Act, 1956. They are designed to promote cooperation and coordination among states and the Centre. Each Zonal Council is headed and represented by key political and administrative leaders
Organisation structure as follows:
- The Union Home Minister acts as the ex-officio Chairperson of all five Zonal Councils
- The Chief Ministers of the states in the zone serve as Vice-Chairperson on a rotational basis, each for a term of one year
- The Secretary of the Inter-State Council Secretariat (ISCS) serves as the Member Secretary of all the Zonal Councils
Members
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The Chief Minister of each member state.
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Two other ministers from each state, nominated by the Governor.
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Two representatives from the Union Territories (UTs) in the zone (if applicable)
5. Interstate Council
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The Inter-State Council was formed under Article 263 of the Indian Constitution, which empowers the President to establish such a body when deemed necessary. Its primary functions include:
(a) Examining and offering advice on disputes that may arise between different states;
(b) Studying and deliberating on topics that involve a shared interest among some or all states, or between the Union and one or more states;
(c) Providing recommendations on such issues, particularly with the aim of improving policy coordination and implementation.
This council acts as a platform for structured dialogue among various levels of government.
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Importantly, the Inter-State Council is not a permanent constitutional institution. In 1988, the Sarkaria Commission, headed by Justice R. S. Sarkaria, was formed to review Centre-State relations. The commission proposed:
(a) Establishing a permanent Inter-State Council, referred to as the Inter-Governmental Council (IGC), under Article 263;
(b) Assigning the IGC the responsibilities mentioned in clauses (b) and (c) of Article 263, excluding matters related to socio-economic planning and development.
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The Council is chaired by the Prime Minister and comprises the Chief Ministers of all states and Union Territories with legislatures, Administrators of other UTs, and six Union Cabinet Ministers nominated by the Prime Minister.
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Since its inception in 1990, the Inter-State Council has convened eleven times. Its most recent meeting occurred in 2016, where key topics such as the Punchhi Commission’s recommendations on Centre-State relations, the use of Aadhaar for identification, and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) in public service delivery were discussed.
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A Standing Committee supports the Council by facilitating continuous dialogue, reviewing matters for the Council’s consideration, and overseeing the implementation of its recommendations. The most recent formation of this committee took place in November 2024
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For Prelims: Zonal Councils, Inter state Council, NITI Aayog, States Reorganisation Act, 1956
For Mains: GS II - Polity and Governance
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following bodies does not/do not find mention in the Constitution? (UPSC CSE 2013)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only Answer (d) Mains 1.What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism. (2024) |
Source: Indianexpress
RIGHT TO VOTE
- Electoral rolls in India are regularly updated by the Election Commission to ensure that all eligible citizens are included and ineligible names (such as those of deceased individuals or people who have moved away) are removed. Usually, this happens through Annual Summary Revisions.
- However, sometimes, a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) is conducted, particularly when there are reports of major discrepancies in the electoral rolls or if there have been significant demographic changes.
- In Bihar, the Election Commission of India (ECI) ordered a Special Intensive Revision of the voter list, which involved house-to-house verification by booth-level officers (BLOs). This revision began in June 2024 and was set to continue till August, with the final roll expected to be published later
- The revision has been ordered after the conclusion of the 2024 Lok Sabha elections and just months before the scheduled 2025 Bihar Assembly elections. Opposition parties, particularly the Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), have raised concerns that the exercise might be used to manipulate voter lists in a way that could favor the ruling party at the state or central level.
- Opposition leaders and civil society groups have warned that the SIR could result in mass deletion of voters, especially among marginalised communities like Dalits, minorities, and migrant labourers who might not be present at home during the verification period.
- These groups are often the most vulnerable during such exercises due to lack of documentation or frequent change of residence.
- On July 10, the Supreme Court instructed the Election Commission (EC) to accept Aadhaar cards, voter ID cards, and ration cards as valid identity documents for the ongoing Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in Bihar.
- The Court also scheduled the next hearing on the group of petitions challenging the EC’s move for July 28. In doing so, the Court emphasized that the 'right to vote' lies at the heart of India’s democratic structure, drawing national attention to the core mechanisms behind the country’s electoral system and the origin of its policy of universal adult suffrage (UAS).
- India’s approach to the right to vote, as enshrined in its Constitution, stands in marked contrast to the historical trajectory seen in many Western nations. Influenced by thinkers such as J.S. Mill, who argued that voting should be reserved for the “educated” and denied to the “uninformed,” several countries began with a highly exclusive franchise.
- For instance, in the United Kingdom, voting was initially limited to male property holders. It wasn't until 1918 that all men gained voting rights, and women had to wait until 1928 to be included.
- Similarly, in the United States, while constitutional amendments—the 15th in 1870 and the 19th in 1920—technically extended voting rights to African Americans and women respectively, practical obstacles like poll taxes and literacy tests kept many citizens disenfranchised for decades
- Unlike many other countries that took a gradual approach to granting voting rights—often limiting them to elite sections and undergoing long, sometimes violent struggles—India adopted a bold and inclusive strategy from the very beginning.
- Instead of restricting suffrage, India chose universal adult franchise at the time of independence, embracing the principle of democratic equality from the outset. Article 326 of the Indian Constitution guaranteed every adult citizen the right to vote, regardless of their gender, caste, religion, education, or economic status.
- This was a progressive move, especially when compared to other nations that were still cautiously expanding voting rights. Initially, the voting age was set at 21, but it was later lowered to 18 by the 61st Constitutional Amendment in 1989.
- The nation’s strong commitment to inclusive democracy was further underlined by several landmark Supreme Court rulings, starting with the Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case in 1973, which declared democracy a core feature of the Constitution’s ‘basic structure’.
- For democracy to thrive, it is essential that citizens retain the unchallenged right to choose their government freely—an essential pillar that must remain inviolable.
- This vision of inclusivity was implemented through two foundational laws: the Representation of the People Act of 1950, which oversees the creation and updating of electoral rolls, and the 1951 Act, which deals with the conduct of elections, eligibility of candidates, and electoral offences.
- The Election Commission of India (ECI) has consistently worked to fulfil this constitutional promise by introducing several administrative reforms. A notable example is the innovation introduced by Sukumar Sen, India’s first Chief Election Commissioner.
- Faced with the enormous task of registering 173 million mostly illiterate voters, he introduced the use of visual symbols for political parties—transforming a logistical challenge into a democratic milestone.
- In India, the ECI bears the crucial responsibility of ensuring that every eligible citizen, no matter how remote their location, can exercise their right to vote. As Winston Churchill aptly put it, “At the bottom of all tributes paid to democracy is the little man, walking into a little booth, with a little pencil, making a little cross on a little bit of paper…” His words serve as a powerful reminder that the legitimacy of any democracy ultimately hinges on protecting and upholding the sanctity of the vote
- The nature of the ‘right to vote’ in India has been a topic of legal and constitutional debate for decades. During the framing of the Constitution, both Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and K.T. Shah had advocated for its inclusion as a fundamental right.
- However, the Constituent Assembly’s Advisory Committee ultimately decided against this proposal. This position was later affirmed by the Supreme Court in the Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India case (2006), where a Constitution Bench ruled that the ‘right to elect’ is not a fundamental or constitutional right, but rather a statutory one derived from Section 62 of the Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951.
- Although a two-judge bench in Rajbala v. State of Haryana (2016) referred to voting as a constitutional right, the earlier and more authoritative decision in Kuldip Nayar remains the guiding precedent.
- Again, in the 2023 Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India case, the Supreme Court refrained from revisiting this issue, reaffirming that it had already been conclusively addressed in the Kuldip Nayar ruling.
- Justice Ajay Rastogi, however, in a dissenting opinion, argued that the right to vote stems from Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution (freedom of expression) and embodies the spirit of Article 21 (right to life and personal liberty).
- Despite his reasoning, this remains a minority viewpoint, and under current jurisprudence, voting continues to be classified as a statutory entitlement.
- Still, courts have consistently emphasised that, even if not fundamental in a legal sense, the right to vote is deeply embedded in the democratic framework of the country.
- It serves as a vital mechanism through which citizens participate in governance and decision-making, making it essential to the functioning and legitimacy of the Indian Republic.
- As philosopher John Dewey aptly observed, democracy extends beyond a governmental system—it represents a broader social and ethical ideal
- The foundation of free and fair elections lies in the accuracy of electoral rolls, as mandated by the Representation of the People Act, 1950. When these rolls contain significant flaws—such as widespread omissions, inclusion of ineligible individuals, duplicate entries, or factual errors—it threatens the principle of “one person, one vote.”
- Such discrepancies open the door to impersonation, voter exclusion, or vote dilution, ultimately skewing the democratic verdict.
- To maintain the credibility of the electoral process, Section 21 of the 1950 Act grants the Election Commission (EC) the authority to compile and update electoral rolls as necessary.
- Although errors in voter lists are sometimes inevitable, the judiciary has consistently maintained that only major, systematic flaws that have a tangible impact on election results can call the validity of an election into question.
- Minor irregularities or isolated cases of disenfranchisement are not sufficient grounds for overturning results. Allegations of errors, such as those recently reported in Bihar, merit investigation.
- At the same time, it's important to recognise that cleansing voter rolls is essential—excluding a rightful voter weakens democracy, but so does allowing someone who is ineligible to remain on the list.
- Therefore, rather than obstructing the process, attention should be directed toward strengthening and refining it. The Supreme Court’s recommendation to accept a broader range of identity documents helps ensure that all legitimate voters retain their right to participate in elections.
- While the legal right to challenge or seek inclusion in the electoral rolls rests with individual citizens rather than political parties, the Supreme Court in Lakshmi Charan Sen v. A.K.M. Hassan Uzzaman (1985) emphasised that in a society with widespread illiteracy and limited political awareness, political parties have a responsibility to assist in ensuring that eligible voters are registered and ineligible names are removed.
- In a party-driven parliamentary system like India’s, such proactive engagement is essential for maintaining the credibility and integrity of elections
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Qualification for an Ordinary resident
Under Article 324 of the Constitution, the Election Commission (EC) acts as the constitutional authority responsible for overseeing and managing the electoral process. One of its fundamental responsibilities is the preparation of reliable electoral rolls. This task is carried out in accordance with Section 19 of the Representation of the People Act, 1950, which stipulates that every Indian citizen who is at least 18 years old, ordinarily resides in a particular constituency, and is not otherwise disqualified, is eligible for registration as a voter. The term “ordinarily resident” refers to someone who has a genuine and continuous presence in a location, rather than a brief or temporary stay. For instance, a student residing in a hostel may not meet the criteria if their permanent residence is elsewhere and they intend to return there. However, simply being away from one’s usual place of residence temporarily does not disqualify someone from being considered an ordinary resident of that place. This standard helps prevent fake or misleading entries in the voter list and ensures that electors have a meaningful connection to the constituency they vote in, thereby reinforcing the principle of accountable and representative democracy |
The controversy surrounding the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) in Bihar and the wider discussions on electoral reforms underscore a fundamental principle of democracy: the strength of India’s democratic system relies on electoral rolls that are precise, inclusive, and easy to access. As the Supreme Court prepares to continue hearings on July 28, it is essential for the Election Commission to carry out the revision exercise with both diligence and inclusivity, ensuring the process remains fair and credible.
At the same time, it is crucial for citizens to be made aware of their role in the process—by checking and correcting their voter information, they become active participants in safeguarding electoral accuracy. Protecting the right to vote goes beyond fulfilling a legal mandate; it is a collective democratic duty that demands alert institutions, engaged and informed citizens, and progressive legal frameworks
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For Prelims: Election Commission of India (ECI), Representation of the People Act (RPA), 1951
For Mains: GS II - Polity and Governance
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Previous Year Questions
1. The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) system was used for the first time by the Election Commission of India in (UPSC CAPF 2019)
North Paravur Assembly Constituency, Kerala
B.Noksen Assembly Constituency, Nagaland
C.Mapusa Assembly Constituency, Goa
D.Nambol Assembly Constituency, Manipur
Answer (B)
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