GLOBAL SOUTH

1. Context

2. The need for the ‘Global North’ and the ‘Global South

• For a long time in the study of international political systems, the method of categorising countries into broad categories for easier analysis has existed.
• The concepts of ‘East’ and ‘West’ is one example of this, with the Western countries generally signifying greater levels of economic development and prosperity among their people and Eastern countries are considered as being in the process of that transition.
• Another similar categorisation is of First World, Second World and Third World countries, referring to countries associated with the Cold war-era alliances of the US, the USSR, and non-aligned countries, respectively.
• At the centre of these concepts is the World Systems approach introduced by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974, emphasising an interconnected perspective of looking at world politics.
• He said there are three major zones of production: core, peripheral and semiperipheral.
• The core zones reap profits, being the owners of cutting-edge technologies in countries like the US or Japan.
• Peripheral zones, on the other hand, engage in less sophisticated production that is more labour-intensive. In the middle are countries like India and Brazil.

3. The need for new terms

• In the Post-Cold War world, the First World/Third World classification was no longer feasible, because when the Communist USSR disintegrated in 1991, most countries had no choice but to ally at some level with the capitalist US the only remaining global superpower.
• Other classifiers have also seen criticism. The East/West binary was seen as often
  perpetuating stereotypical thinking about African and Asian countries.
• Categorising incredibly diverse countries into a monolith was felt to be too simplistic.
  Also, the idea that some countries were ‘developed’ while others were not was thought to be too wide a classification, inadequate for accurately discussing concerns.

4. Importance of Global South 

• What sets the terms Global North and South apart are that first, they are arguably more accurate in grouping like countries together, measuring similarly in terms of wealth, indicators of education and healthcare, etc.
• Another commonality between the South countries is that most have a history of colonisation, largely at the hands of European powers.
• Secondly, this classification trains more focus on the Global South. When leaders such as Jaishankar mentioned, they are also pointing to the region’s historical exclusion from prominent international organisations such as the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.
• As bodies like the UN and the IMF are involved in major decision-making that affects the world in terms of politics, economy and society, the exclusion is seen by these countries as contributing to their slower growth.
• As a result, the idea that the South can together advocate for common causes has
  come up, as underlined by the External Affairs Minister.

• Why the concept is being reiterated now partly because of the economic emergence of some of these South countries, such as India and China, in the last few decades.
• Many consider the world to now be multipolar rather than one where the US alone dominates international affairs.
• The progress achieved by many Asian countries is also seen as challenging the idea that the North is ideal.
• As Samuel P Huntington wrote in his 1996 book ‘The Class of Civilizations and the Remaking of Global Order, “East Asians attribute their dramatic economic development not to their import of Western culture but rather to their adherence to their own culture.”

5. Criticism of the classification

• Some of the earlier terms’ criticisms apply here, too, such as the argument that the term is too broad.
• In the ongoing debate about North countries paying for funding green energy, having historically contributed to higher carbon emissions, many in the Global North have objected to China and India’s exclusion from this, given their increasing industrialisation.
• There is also the question of whether the South simply aims to replace the North and the positions it occupies, again continuing a cycle in which a few countries accumulate crucial resources.
• Much controversy currently surrounds the question of whether elites of the global South and ‘rising powers’ genuinely have the intention to challenge the dominant structures of global capitalist development.
• In the rise of Asia, the continued neglect of Africa has been questioned as well.
• China is increasingly making inroads here through the Belt and Road Initiative for developing infrastructure.
• But whether that results in a win-win situation for both parties or focuses on profit for only China remains to be seen.

For Prelims & Mains

Previous Year Questions

RARE EARTH ELEMENTS

 

 

1.Context

 

Shortage of rare earth materials due to China’s export ban of these materials is a bigger concern for the Indian automobile sector than was earlier thought, with some firms already indicating they would be cutting output, said Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) president Rajiv Memani.

 

2.About rare earth metals

 

Rare earth elements or rare earth metals are a set of 17 chemical elements in the periodic table  the 15 lanthanides, plus scandium and yttrium, which tend to occur in the same ore deposits as the lanthanides, and have similar chemical properties

 

The 17 rare earths are cerium (Ce), dysprosium (Dy), erbium (Er), europium (Eu), gadolinium (Gd), holmium (Ho), lanthanum (La), lutetium (Lu), neodymium (Nd), praseodymium (Pr), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), scandium (Sc), terbium (Tb), thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), and yttrium (Y)

 

Despite their classification, most of these elements are not really “rare”. One of the rare earths, promethium, is radioactive

Source:Thermo Fisher Scientific

 

 

3.Applications of rare earths

• These elements are important in technologies of consumer electronics, computers and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, healthcare, environmental mitigation, and national defence, among others
• Scandium is used in televisions and fluorescent lamps, and yttrium is used in drugs to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cancer
•  Rare earth elements are used in space shuttle components, jet engine turbines, and drones
• Cerium, the most abundant rare earth element, is essential to NASA’s Space Shuttle Programme
• In recent years, rare earths have become even more important because there has been an increase in demand for green energy
• Elements like neodymium and dysprosium, which are used in wind turbine motors, are sought-after more than ever as wind mills across the world continue to grow
• Moreover, the push for switching from internal combustion cars to electric vehicles has also led to a rise in demand for rare earth magnets made from neodymium, boron, and iron and batteries

 

 4. China's export restrictions and impact on India

 

• China has imposed restrictions on the export of seven rare earth elements (REEs) — dysprosium, gadolinium, lutetium, samarium, scandium, terbium, and yttrium — which are part of the 17 REEs.
• The country dominates the global refining of heavy REEs, giving it substantial control over critical supply chains, ranging from consumer electronics to defense. Although these measures do not constitute a complete export ban, they may cause temporary supply disruptions, as exporters navigate the permit process.
• India may not face an immediate disruption due to these restrictions. Despite government efforts to enhance domestic manufacturing of semiconductors and defense systems, the more sophisticated phases of production largely take place abroad, particularly in China and Japan. Japan, in anticipation of such issues, has already built stockpiles to buffer against REE-related supply shocks.
• Recognizing the strategic importance of REEs, India is aware that it holds around 6% of global deposits. However, the country’s capacity for mining and refining is minimal, largely due to the environmental challenges associated with such operations.
• India does extract some light REEs through its state-run firm, Indian Rare Earths Ltd, including monazite from coastal sands in Kerala. Nonetheless, imports still play a role.
• According to a recent statement by the Ministry of Mines in the Lok Sabha, India imported approximately 2,270 tonnes of REEs in 2023–24. Consequently, the national approach involves a mix of increasing domestic output and maintaining import channels

 

5. Way Forward

 

To support the strategic use of essential resources such as rare earth elements, India has launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM). This initiative aims to strengthen the country’s supply chain for critical minerals by boosting domestic production and establishing alternative international supply partnerships. According to a presentation by the Ministry of Mines in January, global events like China’s export restrictions, the Russia–Ukraine conflict, and other geopolitical factors have exposed vulnerabilities in the global critical mineral supply, underscoring the urgency of diversifying sources.

As part of the NCMM, the Indian government plans to oversee or support around 1,200 mineral exploration projects. It also intends to offer exploration licenses to encourage private sector participation and conduct auctions for additional critical mineral blocks

 

 

For Prelims: Applications of rare earths, rare earth elements For Mains: 1.Europe’s largest known deposit of rare earth elements found in Sweden: Could the discovery change geopolitics?

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called ‘rare earth metals’. Why? (2012) China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (c)

 

Source:indianexpress

 

 

GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD

 

 

1.Context

 

United States President Donald Trump has said his administration is going to sign “a very big” trade deal “to open up India”, “where we are able to go in and compete (with) much less tariffs”.

 

2.What is GM Food?

• Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms that have altered DNA to change their properties
• Genetically modified crops can improve yield, build resistances to pests, frost or drought, or add nutrients
• Crops can also be modified to reduce carbon emissions and boost the sustainability of food production
• While widespread, GM crop production uses only about 10% of the land non-GM crop production uses.
• GM is nothing more than a breeding technique, much like crossing that we’ve been doing for thousands of years. But it’s more sophisticated, so we can make very precise changes, very rapidly
• GMOs were first introduced in the US in 1994, with modified tomato plants that ripened more slowly to prolong their shelf life
• Since then, a wide range of crops, such as soybeans, wheat and rice have been approved for agricultural use, along with GM bacteria grown to produce large amounts of protein
• Scientists in India have also developed strains of Sub-1 rice, which are much more resistant to flooding
•  Flooding is a major issue in rice-growing regions of northern India and Bangladesh, set to become worse as the climate crises develops, and now 6 million farmers in the region are using Sub-1 rice to safeguard their crops against inundation
• Golden rice, on the other hand, is a GM strain modified to contain vitamin A, designed to combat the shortage of dietary vitamin A in parts of Asia and Africa

2.1. Disease resistance

Gene editing technology has also helped save crop production from blights 

In the late 20th century, the papaya ringspot virus almost wiped-out papaya crops in Hawaii, but a local scientist developed a modified papaya that was resistant to the virus. Seeds were distributed to farmers, saving papaya production a decade later

Currently there’s no real solution except for massive fungicide applications

No one wants that, so we worked on adding genes or DNA changes from distantly related plants to achieve better resistances to the fungus

3. GM Controversy

• Many people find the idea of GM foods hard to swallow — a 2020 opinion poll found 50% of people in 20 surveyed countries perceived GM foods as unsafe
• When GM crops were first developed 30 years ago, uncertainty and concerns about safety were shared by scientists, but things are different now
• Scientists say that "GM food is completely safe to eat, and 30 years of information showing it’s not dangerous for the environment"
• There are concerns big corporate interests from companies like Monsanto, which promote more pesticides and monocultures and wrong forms of agriculture and seeds sold to farmers and expensive prices

4. GM Food Industry

• GM agriculture is moving on from the Monsanto big-dog corporate model
• GM products are increasingly focused on social and public enterprise and the industry is looking at more local solutions that help smallholder farmers in developing countries
• Regulation and licensing are a huge part of this. Many, including Replanet, strongly advocate for open-source seeds and GM technologies
• You can develop GMOs without patents developed by humanitarian public organizations
• It’s about creating a licensing landscape that empowers local farmers to adapt to the demands of sustainable agriculture, but quickly enough to meet rising populations and climate change

 

 

For Prelims: Bt Cotton, Bt Cotton For Mains: 1. Genetically modified food remains controversial, especially in Europe, but for some experts, it is the best science-based method for a sustainable global food system amidst biodiversity loss and a rising population. Discuss (250 Words)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

HOUSEHOLD CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE SURVEY (HCES)

 

 

1. Context

 

 The difference in daily per capita calorie intake between India’s top and bottom 5 per cent of consumers narrowed in 2023-24, with the former eating fewer calories and the latter increasing their intake.

 

2. Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (2023-24)

 

• The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) initiated two consecutive surveys on household consumption expenditure for 2022-23 and 2023-24, following the normalization of conditions after the COVID-19 pandemic.
• The first survey, conducted from August 2022 to July 2023, had its summary results published as a factsheet in February 2024, with the detailed report and unit-level data released in June 2024.
• The Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) gathers data on household spending on goods and services, offering insights into economic trends, poverty, inequality, and social exclusion.
• It also updates the basket of goods and weights for the Consumer Price Index. The Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE) derived from the HCES serves as a crucial indicator for analytical purposes

 

3. Key takeaways from Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES) 2023-24

 

• The estimated average Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE) for 2023-24 in rural and urban India is Rs. 4,122 and Rs. 6,996, respectively, excluding the value of items received for free through social welfare programs. When the imputed value of these free items is considered, the estimates rise to Rs. 4,247 for rural areas and Rs. 7,078 for urban areas.
• In nominal terms, the average MPCE (without imputation) grew by approximately 9% in rural areas and 8% in urban areas compared to 2022-23 levels. The urban-rural MPCE gap has also narrowed, decreasing to 70% in 2023-24 from 71% in 2022-23 and 84% in 2011-12, reflecting consistent consumption growth in rural areas.
• The largest increase in average MPCE from 2022-23 to 2023-24 occurred among the bottom 5-10% of the population in both rural and urban areas. Following the trend from the 2022-23 HCES, non-food items accounted for the majority of household expenditure in 2023-24, comprising about 53% of MPCE in rural areas and 60% in urban areas.
• Within the food category, beverages, refreshments, and processed foods continued to dominate household spending in 2023-24. Non-food expenditure remained concentrated in categories such as conveyance, clothing, bedding, footwear, miscellaneous goods, entertainment, and durable goods. For urban households, rent—including house rent, garage rent, and accommodation charges—accounted for around 7% of non-food expenditure.
• Consumption inequality has decreased in both rural and urban areas. The Gini coefficient for rural areas declined from 0.266 in 2022-23 to 0.237 in 2023-24, while in urban areas, it fell from 0.314 to 0.284 during the same period

 

4. Consumption behaviour in Indian household

 

• Households across all States and Union Territories spend a larger portion of their budget on non-food items, with non-food expenditure accounting for 53% of the average MPCE in rural areas and 60% in urban areas.
• The key areas of non-food spending in 2023-24 include: (i) Conveyance, (ii) clothing, bedding & footwear, (iii) miscellaneous goods & entertainment, and (iv) durable goods. In urban areas, rent makes up around 7% of non-food expenditure.
• As in 2022-23, beverages and processed foods remain the largest contributors to food expenditure in 2023-24, followed by milk and milk products, and vegetables.
• A comparison of the contribution of various item categories to household consumption expenditure in both rural and urban areas for 2022-23 and 2023-24 is provided in Figures 4, 5, 6, and 7

 

 

5. Way Forward

 

The analysis of household consumption expenditure in India for 2023-24 highlights significant trends and shifts in both rural and urban areas. Non-food expenditure continues to dominate, with key contributors being conveyance, clothing, durable goods, and rent in urban areas. The increase in consumption, particularly in rural areas, demonstrates the sustained momentum of economic growth and development. Food expenditure remains largely driven by beverages, processed foods, and dairy products. The decline in consumption inequality, as reflected by the reduction in the Gini coefficient, further indicates positive changes in income distribution. These findings underscore the ongoing progress towards improving the economic well-being of households across India, with particular emphasis on balancing development and consumption patterns in both rural and urban regions

 

For Prelims:  Current events of national and international importance For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment

 

Source: Pib

 

AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE DAY 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The United States is celebrating its 249th Independence Day on Friday, July 4. This was the day in which the country’s founding fathers formally signed the Declaration of Independence, officially ending British rule over the colonies. Here’s a brief history.

 

2. Origins and disappointments of Crown

 

• Over a century and a half after Britain established its first lasting settlements in North America, tensions had begun to rise between the colonists and the British Crown.
• By the 1760s and early 1770s, the original 13 colonies, which lacked any voice in the British Parliament, faced a series of legislative measures that imposed steep taxes and restricted their freedoms.
• Acts such as the Sugar Act of 1764, the Tea Act of 1773, and the Intolerable Acts of 1774 were widely viewed by the colonists as unwarranted interference by Britain in their affairs.
• At the same time, Enlightenment ideals emphasizing liberty and equality were gaining ground, setting the stage for a revolutionary movement

 

3. Boston Tea Party and decisions

 

 

• On December 16, 1773, a protest group known as the Sons of Liberty took a bold stand against British rule by destroying a shipment of tea belonging to the British East India Company in Boston.
• This event, later known as the Boston Tea Party, sparked widespread opposition across the colonies to the tea tax and symbolized growing resistance to British authority. The colonists argued that it was unjust for Britain to impose taxes on them without granting them any representation in Parliament.
• In response to the escalating tensions, the 13 colonies united to form the Continental Congress. Initially, this body sought a peaceful resolution by organizing a boycott of British products and appealing to King George III for fairer treatment. However, these efforts were unsuccessful, and by April 1775, the colonies found themselves engaged in a full-scale war for independence from British rule.
• The conflict lasted until 1783, when Britain officially acknowledged the independence of the United States following its military defeat. This outcome was significantly influenced by the intervention and support of Britain's European adversaries, particularly France, Spain, and the Dutch Republic

 

4. Declaration of Independence

 

• Even before the Revolutionary War had ended, the Continental Congress took a decisive step by proclaiming independence from British rule.
• On July 2, 1776, representatives from 12 of the 13 colonies agreed unanimously that the American colonies were, by right, free and sovereign states.
• John Adams, who would later serve as the second President of the United States, predicted that July 2 would be remembered as a landmark moment in American history and celebrated by future generations as a national holiday.
• However, it was actually July 4 that became iconic. That was the day when the Declaration of Independence — the official document affirming the colonies' break from Britain — was adopted. This date has since been celebrated annually in the United States as Independence Day.
• The Declaration famously proclaimed: “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.”

 

For Prelims: Tea Act of 1773, Sugar Act of 1764   For Mains: GS I - World History

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

WORLD WAR I

 

 

 

1. Context

 

One of the most immediate and obvious changes that WWI brought about was the collapse of longstanding empires. But what long-term impact did the “balkanisation” of empires have on regional and global stability?

 

2. Preface about World War I

• World War I is often regarded as the first truly global conflict, leaving a profound impact on nations across the globe. It officially came to an end on November 11, 1918, when an armistice was signed at 11 a.m., symbolically marking the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month.
• The war significantly altered the global balance of power, triggering the downfall of several major empires, including the Ottoman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the Romanov dynasty in Russia.
• The onset of World War I also marked the conclusion of what is often referred to as the ‘Hundred Years’ Peace,’ a period of relative stability in Europe that began after the Congress of Vienna in 1815.
• While conflicts like the Crimean War (1853–1856) did take place during this era, they were relatively localized and did not compare in magnitude or global reach to the devastation brought by World War I

 

3. Beginning of World War I

 

• The First World War was triggered on June 28, 1914, when Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist.
• This event occurred against the backdrop of rising tensions in the Balkans, where Serbia had expanded its territory through the Balkan Wars of 1912–13, alarming Austria-Hungary. One month after the assassination, Austria-Hungary, with Germany's support, declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. Russia, in turn, came to Serbia's defense.
• Historically, the Balkans had been under Ottoman control, stretching from Anatolia into predominantly Christian areas near Austria-Hungary. This region eventually gave birth to the term “balkanisation,” referring to the fragmentation of larger political entities into smaller, often hostile, parts.
• The conclusion of World War I exemplified this idea, as empires like the Ottoman Empire disintegrated, paving the way for the rise of smaller nation-states from their remnants.
• Although called a world war, the conflict was largely centered in Europe and fueled by rivalries among major powers such as Britain—then a dominant global empire—France with its colonial reach, Austria-Hungary, Germany's growing influence, and Russia. The war marked a turning point: despite being a conflict among European powers, it signaled the start of Europe's diminishing dominance.
• Following the war, two non-European powers began to rise. The United States gained prominence in the West, while the Soviet Union emerged in the East, having replaced the Russian Romanov Empire. These two nations would later become adversaries in the Cold War, which began shortly after the Second World War—just three decades after World War I ended

 

4. Deadly warfare

 

• The primary battlegrounds of the First World War were located in Europe. Some of the most well-known clashes—such as those at Ypres, the Somme, and Verdun—occurred along the Western Front, which extended from the Belgian coastline, through northern France, and down to the Swiss border.
• This front marked the farthest western point of Germany’s military campaign and involved the Central Powers, namely Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. Their advance was resisted by the Allied forces, particularly Britain and France, while Russia applied pressure from the east.
• The Western Front became infamous for its defining characteristic: trench warfare. Soldiers on both sides dug extensive trench networks, and these fortifications made forward movement extremely difficult. As a result, battles often turned into prolonged stalemates with little territorial gain.
• From a technological standpoint, World War I did not witness significant breakthroughs in warfare tactics. Aircraft played only a minor role and had not yet become a central force on the battlefield.
• Tanks, introduced by the British in 1916 to break through entrenched positions, were still in their infancy and had limited impact. This is evident in the static nature of the Western Front, which remained largely unchanged throughout the war, underscoring how much the conflict was dominated by the harsh realities of trench warfare

 

5. Human lives loss

 

• Although the Allied Powers—mainly Britain and France—eventually emerged victorious in World War I against the Central Powers, which included Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, not all their campaigns were successful.
• One notable setback was the Gallipoli campaign, waged between February 1915 and January 1916, where the Allies failed in their attempt to seize control of the Dardanelles Strait from the Ottomans.
• Due to the limited advancements in medical science at the time, many young soldiers perished on the battlefield from infections caused by untreated injuries. It’s important to note that penicillin, a life-saving antibiotic, was only discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928—years after the war had ended.
• The horrors and heavy loss of life deeply affected a generation of young men and inspired the poignant works of war poets such as Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, and Rupert Brooke. Their writings express the deep emotional and psychological trauma now recognized as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• India played a significant role in the war by sending over a million troops to fight in various regions, including Europe, the Middle East, and Africa. The India Gate in New Delhi stands as a memorial honoring the Indian soldiers who laid down their lives in these largely European conflicts

 

6. War came to an end

 

 

• In November 1917, a year before the conclusion of World War I, two pivotal developments occurred just days apart that would significantly shape the post-war global landscape. On November 7, the Bolshevik Revolution led to the downfall of the Romanov dynasty, ending centuries of imperial rule in Russia and laying the foundation for the formation of the Soviet Union.
• A few days earlier, on November 2, the Balfour Declaration was issued by Britain, expressing support for the establishment of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. This declaration eventually led to the founding of the state of Israel in May 1948, following World War II. Interestingly, the Soviet Union was among the earliest nations to recognize the newly created Israeli state.
• The Bolsheviks’ rise to power had immediate consequences, one of which was Russia's withdrawal from World War I. This was formalized through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. Meanwhile, the United States, which had entered the war later in 1917, played a decisive role in shaping the war’s conclusion and the peace process that followed.
• Notably, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson left a strong mark on the 1919 Treaty of Versailles with his vision for a peaceful world order, encapsulated in his famous “Fourteen Points.”

 

7. World War I to World War II

 

• Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, often referred to as the "War Guilt" clause, placed full responsibility for the outbreak of World War I on the Central Powers. Among the harshest outcomes of the treaty was the imposition of heavy war reparations on Germany.
• Not only was Germany defeated, but it was also made to shoulder the financial burden of the conflict, which deeply wounded national pride.
• This humiliation and economic strain contributed significantly to the instability of the Weimar Republic, established in Germany after the war.
• The Weimar regime eventually collapsed, paving the way for Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in 1933 and the eventual outbreak of World War II in 1939.
• The shortcomings of the Versailles Treaty, which was intended to secure lasting peace, were sharply criticized by British economist John Maynard Keynes, who had attended the peace negotiations. In his influential book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, Keynes warned that the punitive terms of the treaty would lead to future conflict.

 

8. Way forward

 Following the end of the First World War, the League of Nations was formed and implemented a system of mandates to govern former German and Ottoman territories. In the Middle East, this system placed Syria and Lebanon under French control, while Iraq and Palestine came under British administration. These arrangements, designed to manage the remnants of the collapsed Ottoman Empire, were fragile and often unstable. The failure of these political solutions is one of the reasons why another global war erupted just over twenty years later

 

For Prelims: Treaty of Versailles, League of Nations, Balfour Declaration, Bolshevik Revolution   For Mains: GS I - World History

 Source: The Hindu

 

SUGAR BOARDS

 

 

1. Context

 

In order to check the sugar intake of school-going children, the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has instructed over 24,000 affiliated schools across India to establish ‘sugar boards’, where information is displayed for educating students about the risks of excessive sugar intake

 

2. What are Sugar boards?

 

‘Sugar boards’ provide essential information, including recommended sugar intake, the sugar content in commonly consumed foods (such as junk food and cold drinks), health risks associated with high sugar consumption and healthier dietary alternatives

"Sugar boards" are educational visual displays designed to raise awareness—especially among school children—about the high sugar content in processed drinks and foods. These boards typically:

• Show common packaged beverages like sodas and fruit juices.

• Display the equivalent number of sugar packets or teaspoons next to each item.

• Include information on daily recommended sugar intake.

• Highlight the health risks of excessive sugar consumption.

• Offer suggestions for healthier food and drink alternatives

 

3. Necessity of sugar boards

 

• The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) has recommended that all schools across the country, not just those affiliated with the CBSE, implement 'sugar boards'. This includes institutions under various State education boards.
• In a letter sent to the CBSE in March this year, the NCPCR highlighted a troubling rise in Type 2 Diabetes among children—an illness traditionally associated with adults—over the last ten years.
• The commission attributed this rise to increased sugar consumption, largely due to the easy access to sugary snacks, drinks, and processed foods in and around school premises.
• Although India lacks comprehensive nationwide data on the prevalence of Type 2 Diabetes in children and teenagers, estimates suggest about 397 cases per 100,000 individuals in this age group, with only China reporting higher numbers at 734 per 100,000. 

 

4. India's regulations

 

• At present, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) enforces regulations for food brands that make specific nutritional claims. For example, a product can only be labeled as "low sugar" if it contains no more than 5 grams of sugar per 100 grams.
• However, an official noted that while such labeling standards exist, FSSAI has not yet established specific thresholds for high fat, salt, and sugar (HFSS) consumption tailored to the Indian population.
• Instead, India currently follows the World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations, which advise limiting sugar intake to 25 grams—or about six teaspoons—per day for both adults and children.
• Experts believe India needs to establish its own guidelines, developed from domestic research, due to the higher risk of heart disease among Indians linked to genetic predispositions.
• They stress the importance of gathering comprehensive epidemiological data through a nationwide study that tracks dietary habits and factors such as BMI, insulin sensitivity, cholesterol levels, and other health indicators.
• Despite ongoing discussions, FSSAI has yet to define HFSS criteria or finalize the health-star rating system for front-of-package labeling. During a recent meeting, stakeholders were unable to agree on what constitutes HFSS in school meals.
• It was concluded that the definition for school meals should align with that used for packaged food, and that a unified, comprehensive definition for HFSS is necessary

 

5. Way forward

 

The NCPCR is in the process of collecting data on childhood diabetes cases from public hospitals. Efforts are also being made to engage with parents during parent-teacher meetings to emphasize the value of nutritious eating habits. In addition, discussions have been held with pediatricians, who will be invited to conduct workshops and awareness sessions in schools. The launch of ‘sugar boards’ marks just the initial step in this broader health initiative

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

SPARTAENAE KARIGIRI 

 

 

1. Context

 

A team of researchers has identified a new species of jumping spiders of the Spartaeinae subfamily in southern India, known for their intelligent hunting skills and web-invasion tactics.

 

2. About Spartaeinae karigiri

 

 

Spartaeinae karigiri is a newly described species of jumping spider from the subfamily Spartaeinae, which falls under the family Salticidae — the jumping spiders. This species was discovered in India, specifically in the Karigiri Hills region, from which its name is derived.

A group of scientists has discovered a previously unknown species of jumping spider from the Spartaeinae subfamily in southern India. This group of spiders is noted for its clever hunting methods and its ability to invade other spiders’ webs. According to the researchers, this may be the first recorded instance of the genera Spartaeus and Sonoita—previously observed only in Southeast Asia and Africa—being identified in India. In their natural habitat, the male specimen was found concealed within rocky crevices, while the female was observed protecting a clutch of eggs.

 

Details of Spartaeinae karigiri:

 

• Spartaeinae is a primitive subfamily of jumping spiders, known for their unusual hunting techniques.

• Unlike most jumping spiders that rely on direct vision and leaping attacks, many Spartaeinae are araneophagic, meaning they prey on other spiders.

• They show intelligent hunting behavior, often mimicking vibrations on webs to lure other spiders.

Habitat and Discovery:

• The species was discovered in the Karigiri Hills, a hill range in Tamil Nadu, India.

• This area is a part of the Eastern Ghats, which is known for its rich biodiversity.

• These spiders are typically found in forest undergrowth, leaf litter, or shrubs, and they thrive in warm, moist environments.

 

3. Features of Spartaeinae karigiri

 

• A new species of jumping spider, named Spartaeus karigiri, has been identified by researchers in the southern region of India. This discovery marks a significant addition to the country's biodiversity and provides valuable insights into the distribution of the Spartaeinae subfamily of spiders.

• This finding is particularly noteworthy as it represents the first documented record of the genus Spartaeus in India. Previously, members of this genus were known to inhabit areas in East and Southeast Asia. The discovery of S. karigiri in India extends the known geographical range of this group of jumping spiders.
• Spartaeus karigiri belongs to the family Salticidae, commonly known as jumping spiders, which is the largest family of spiders. The subfamily Spartaeinae, to which this new species belongs, is considered to be a basal group, meaning it diverged early in the evolutionary history of jumping spiders. They are known for their often-unusual hunting techniques and morphology compared to other jumping spiders

 

 

For Prelims: Jumping spider, Spartaeinae subfamily, Karigiri Hills, Eastern Ghats   For Mains: GS III - Biodiversity Hotspots, Eastern Ghats biodiversity

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

FUEL GAS DESULPHURISATION (FDG)

 

 

1. Context

 

On June 4, The Hindu reported that a committee of experts, chaired by Principal Scientific Advisor (PSA) Ajay Sood, has recommended that India do away with a decade-long policy of mandating Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units in all coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs)

 

2. What is Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)?

 

• Flue gas is produced as a result of burning fossil fuels and contains several harmful pollutants such as carbon dioxide (CO₂), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter.
• Among these, flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) systems are specifically designed to remove SO₂ emissions. Since SO₂ is acidic in nature, it is neutralised using a basic substance within the FGD process.
• There are three main types of FGD technologies used globally: dry sorbent injection, wet limestone scrubbing, and seawater-based removal. In the dry sorbent method, a fine powdered material such as limestone is introduced into the flue gas stream, where it chemically reacts with SO₂. The resulting compounds are then extracted using equipment like electrostatic precipitators or fabric filters.
• The wet limestone technique, which is widely adopted due to its high efficiency, uses a slurry of limestone instead of dry powder. When SO₂ comes into contact with this slurry, it forms gypsum—a stable byproduct that has commercial use, particularly in the construction sector.
• For power plants located near coastlines, the seawater method is often employed. In this process, seawater captures the SO₂ from the flue gas. The used water is then treated adequately before being released back into the ocean, ensuring minimal environmental impact

3.Status of FDG units in India

 

• In 2015, the Union Ministry of Environment introduced regulations requiring all 537 coal-based thermal power plants (TPPs) across India to install flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) systems in order to curb sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions. The initial deadline for compliance was set for 2018.
• However, only a small number of power plants managed to meet this target. By April 2025, the timeline had been extended, with revised deadlines staggered between 2027 and 2029, based on the classification of each TPP. Notably, the installation of an FGD unit typically requires about two years.
• As per a government update released on August 1, 2024, only 39 out of the 537 coal-fired TPPs had completed FGD installation. Subsequently, on December 30, 2024, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) issued another notification, postponing the compliance deadline by an additional three years, but without providing any justification for the delay.
• In April 2025, a report commissioned by the Principal Scientific Adviser’s (PSA) office recommended that the Ministry consider withdrawing the 2015 directive that mandated FGD units across all coal-fired power plants in India

4. Why are SO2 emissions bad?

 

• SO₂ emissions are dangerous due to their role in acid rain formation, air pollution, and public health hazards. That is why technologies like Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) are crucial in reducing SO₂ from industrial sources like power plants
• Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) is a significant pollutant that contributes to global warming and poses serious respiratory health risks. In the atmosphere, SO₂ can transform into other sulphur compounds, which may then interact with various chemicals to generate particulate matter.
• Research based on atmospheric modelling indicates that approximately 15% of India’s ambient PM2.5 levels are linked to coal combustion. Of that, around 80% results from secondary particulate matter created by SO₂ emissions from burning coal.
• Therefore, implementing Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) systems is crucial to reducing this major source of PM2.5 pollution

 

5. FDG units are Contentious

 

 

• Installing flue gas desulphurisation (FGD) systems involves substantial financial investment. According to estimates by the Central Electricity Authority, the installation cost is around ₹1.2 crore per megawatt (MW). As of April 2025, India’s coal-based power generation capacity was 2,19,338 MW—accounting for over 46% of the nation’s total installed power capacity—and this figure is projected to grow.
• At a press briefing on June 10, Union Power Minister Manohar Lal Khattar noted that an additional 97,000 MW of capacity is planned, and incorporating FGD systems for this expansion would require an estimated ₹97,000 crore. He emphasized the need to weigh this carefully, ensuring public health isn't compromised, while also avoiding a sharp rise in electricity tariffs or increased emissions.

 

6. Way forward

 

The issue of installing Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units in India’s thermal power plants lies at the intersection of environmental responsibility, public health, and economic feasibility. While FGDs are essential to control sulphur dioxide (SO₂) emissions—major contributors to air pollution and PM2.5 formation—implementation has been sluggish due to high installation costs, regulatory delays, and lack of political urgency. With India’s coal power capacity set to expand, the environmental costs of inaction could be significant, undermining the country’s clean air targets and affecting millions of lives.

At the same time, the power sector faces pressure to keep tariffs affordable and ensure energy security. Although installing FGDs will raise electricity costs modestly, experts argue that these represent necessary and predictable investments in public health and environmental sustainability. The way forward requires a balanced approach: one that internalizes the cost of pollution, streamlines implementation timelines, and ensures the power sector does not externalize its environmental burden onto the public

 

For Prelims: Flue Gas Desulphurisation, Pollutants removed by FGD (especially SO₂)   For Mains: GS III - India’s coal-based installed power capacity

 

Previous Year Questions   1.With reference to the “New York Declaration on Forests”, which of the following statements are correct? (UPSC CSE 2020) It was first endorsed at the United Nations Climate Summit in 2014. It endorses a global timeline to end the loss of forests. It is a legally binding international declaration. It is endorsed by governments, companies, and civil society organizations Select the correct answer from the above given   A.1, 2 and 4 B.1, 3 and 5 C.3 and 4 D.2 and 5 Answer (A)   2.Consider the following: (UPSC CSE 2019) Carbon monoxide Methane Ozone Sulphur dioxide Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue?   A.1 and 2 only B.2, 3 and 4 only C.1 and 4 only D.1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer (D)

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

INITIAL PUBLIC OFFERING (IPO)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

OpenAI on Wednesday (May 28) indicated its openness to a potential future IPO, depending on the company’s own readiness as well as how public markets respond

 

2. Initial Public Offering (IPO)

 

An Initial Public Offering (IPO) is the process through which a private company offers its shares to the public for the first time and becomes a publicly traded company on a stock exchange

IPO stands for Initial Public Offering. Put simply, it is the process by which a company goes public.

It refers to the process by which a privately held company, or a government-owned enterprise like LIC, raises funds by offering shares to the public or to new investors.The IPO is the first step in the process of listing a company on the stock exchange.

In India, a company listing an IPO first has to file its offer document with the market regulator, Securities and Exchange Board of India (Sebi). The offer document contains all relevant information about the company, its promoters, its projects, financial details, the object of raising the money, terms of the issue, etc

3. Significance of IPO

A company often chooses to list on the stock exchange mainly to secure funding. Additionally, it helps expand and diversify its group of shareholders. Being listed requires the company to follow stricter disclosure norms and regulatory compliance, which ultimately protects the interests of shareholders. Moreover, it offers a convenient exit route for current investors

An Initial Public Offering (IPO) marks a major milestone for any company. It represents the transition from a privately held entity to a publicly traded one and brings several key benefits and strategic advantages:

• The most important reason for launching an IPO is to raise funds. The money raised can be used for business expansion, product development, debt repayment, infrastructure upgrades, or other strategic initiatives
• Going public significantly increases a company's brand recognition and trust among investors, customers, and partners. It demonstrates a level of transparency and financial strength that boosts the company’s reputation
• An IPO enables a company to broaden its shareholder base, reducing the ownership concentration among founders and early investors. This can bring in a wide range of institutional and retail investors
• Listing on the stock exchange provides a market for buying and selling shares, allowing early investors, promoters, and employees holding equity to exit or liquidate their holdings over time.
• Public companies are required to follow stricter regulatory norms and disclose financial and operational information regularly. This promotes better transparency, governance, and accountability—beneficial for both investors and the company
• With public listing, companies can offer Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs), making it easier to attract and retain talent by offering equity-based incentives that can be traded on the stock exchange

 

4. Eligibility

In India, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) has set specific eligibility norms that companies must fulfill before they can raise funds from the public:

• The company should possess net tangible assets worth at least ₹3 crore and a net worth of ₹1 crore or more in each of the last three complete financial years.

• Additionally, it must have recorded an average pre-tax profit of ₹15 crore or more in at least three out of the five most recent financial years

 

5. Who fixes IPO share prices?

 

The IPO share price is determined by the issuing company in collaboration with the merchant banker. This pricing is based on several factors, including the company's assets, income, profit margins, and anticipated future cash flows. Once the overall valuation is established, it is divided by the total number of shares to be available after the offer to calculate the price per share.

It is important to note that SEBI, the market regulator, does not have any involvement in setting this price

 

6.Who can invest in IPO?

 

Anyone who is 18 years or older can participate in investing, provided they have a brokerage account.

There are different types of investors eligible to apply for IPOs:

• Qualified Institutional Buyers (QIBs): This group includes entities such as foreign portfolio investors (FPIs), mutual funds, banks, insurance firms, and pension funds.

• Retail Individual Investors (RIIs): These are individuals who apply for an amount up to ₹2 lakh in a single IPO.

• High Net Worth Individuals (HNIs): Retail investors who invest more than ₹2 lakh fall under this category

 

For Prelims: The Companies Act, 2013, The Securities and Exchange Board of India Act, 1992, The Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 (SCRA), The Depositories Act, 1996, Securities exanchange board of India (SEBI). For Mains: 1. Explain how stock market is regulated in India and discuss the objectives of SEBI?

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY (IAEA)

 

 

1. Context

 

The global nuclear watchdog, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), has said that there has been “no radiation leak” from any nuclear facility in Pakistan after the escalated military engagement with India. During Operation Sindoor, Sargodha, one of Pakistan’s biggest air bases, near Kirana Hills, was targeted by India. Kirana Hills is reported to house some nuclear installations. 

 

2. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

 

 

• The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) was founded in 1957 in response to growing global concerns and hopes regarding the expansion of nuclear technology. Its establishment was inspired by U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower’s landmark “Atoms for Peace” speech delivered to the United Nations General Assembly on December 8, 1953.

• In recognition of its significant contributions to global peace and safety, the IAEA and its Director General at the time, Mohamed ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. The award acknowledged their efforts to prevent the military use of nuclear energy while promoting its safe application for peaceful purposes.

• IAEA safeguards are rooted in binding international agreements, which countries voluntarily accept upon entering into treaties with the agency. These safeguards are crucial in ensuring states adhere to nuclear non-proliferation commitments through independent monitoring and verification.

• The IAEA categorizes its safeguards into three primary types, all of which can be supplemented by an Additional Protocol (AP):
  (a) Comprehensive Safeguards Agreements, applicable to non-nuclear-weapon states under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT);
  (b) Voluntary Offer Agreements, involving nuclear-weapon states that are parties to the NPT;
  (c) Item-Specific Safeguards Agreements, which are applied to countries outside the NPT framework.

• In 2014, India officially ratified the Additional Protocol, enhancing the IAEA’s ability to monitor its civilian nuclear facilities. India, along with Pakistan and Israel, has signed item-specific safeguard agreements with the IAEA. These nations, although nuclear-capable, are not part of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).

• The IAEA created the Incident and Emergency Centre in 2009 to manage international cooperation and provide assistance in the event of nuclear or radiological emergencies, irrespective of their origin or magnitude

 

3. Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)

 

 

• After India conducted its nuclear tests in 1974, the United States advocated for the creation of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), a coalition of 48 countries that establishes and enforces common guidelines for the export of nuclear technology and materials. The primary objective of this group is to prevent nuclear proliferation, and decisions on membership require unanimous agreement.

• Since 2008, India has actively sought membership in the NSG. Gaining entry would allow India to participate in shaping the rules of global nuclear trade and eventually enable it to engage in the sale of nuclear equipment.

• The NSG operates in alignment with the broader global nuclear non-proliferation framework, which is centered around the 1968 Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT). The NPT only recognizes countries that tested nuclear weapons before January 1, 1967, as nuclear-weapon states. As India conducted its tests later, it does not qualify under this definition and, like Pakistan and Israel, has not signed the treaty.

• Although nuclear energy was seen as a potential area for international collaboration, India's non-membership in the NPT meant it was excluded from access to nuclear technology. The signing of the US-India Civil Nuclear Agreement helped break this deadlock.

• Under this agreement, India committed to separating its military and civilian nuclear facilities, placing the latter under the oversight of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). India also aligned its export control policies with those of the NSG and three other major non-proliferation regimes — the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), the Wassenaar Arrangement, and the Australia Group.

• In February 2025, both India and the United States reaffirmed their commitment to fully implement the US-India 123 Civil Nuclear Agreement. They also agreed to advance cooperation on the development of American-designed nuclear reactors in India, emphasizing large-scale domestic manufacturing and potential transfer of technology

 

4. Nuclear Export Control Regime

 

 

• Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR): Formed in 1987, the MTCR is a voluntary association of countries committed to preventing the spread of missiles and related technologies capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction. It currently includes 35 member nations. India became a member in June 2016, while China remains outside the group.
• Australia Group: This is an informal coalition of countries working together to ensure that exports of chemical and biological materials do not aid in the development of weapons. By coordinating export control policies, the group seeks to prevent the misuse of these materials. India officially joined as the 43rd member on January 19, 2018.
• Wassenaar Arrangement (WA): Established in 1996, the Wassenaar Arrangement promotes openness and responsible behavior in the trade of conventional weapons and dual-use technologies to prevent excessive stockpiling and to keep such items out of the hands of terrorists. India became the 42nd member state of the WA in 2017

 

 

For Prelims: Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG), Wassenaar Arrangement (WA)   For Mains: GS III -International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)

 

Previous Year Questions   1.In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA safeguards” while others are not? (2020) (a) Some use uranium and others use thorium (b) Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies (c) Some are operated by foreign enterprises and others are operated by domestic enterprises (d) Some are State-owned and others are privately owned Answer (b) 2.In the Indian context, what is the implication of ratifying the ‘Additional Protocol’ with the ‘International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)’? (UPSC CSE 2018) (a) The civilian nuclear reactors come under IAEA safeguards. (b) The military nuclear installations come under the inspection of IAEA. (c) The country will have the privilege to buy uranium from the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). (d) The country automatically becomes a member of the NSG. Answer (a)

 

 

Source: Indianexpress