INDIAN CITIES AND CHALLENGES
1. Context
October 31 is observed every year as World Cities Day. The world’s urban population has reached an estimated 4.7 billion, or 57.5% of the world’s total population, with projections to double by 2050. The theme for this year’s World Cities Day is ‘Youth Climate Changemakers: Catalysing Local Action for Urban Sustainability’.
2. Challenges faced by Cities
The United Nations highlights that cities are encountering unprecedented challenges, particularly due to climate change. Although progress has been achieved in relation to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), urban areas continue to grapple with issues like poverty, inequality, and environmental decline. In the Global South, these difficulties are exacerbated by swift urbanization, insufficient infrastructure, and scarce resources. As a result, cities in this region frequently experience shortages in housing, limited access to clean water and sanitation, and heightened susceptibility to climate-related disasters
3. Indian Urbanisation
India's path of urbanization is distinct from that of cities in the Global North. In Western nations, urbanization occurred alongside industrialization, creating jobs that absorbed the rural workforce. Additionally, their urban growth was supported by significant economic transfers from their colonies. Economist Utsa Patnaik has pointed out that India contributed more than $45 trillion to the British economy during the colonial period. In contrast, India's urbanization is primarily driven by economic hardship, leading to what is termed "poverty-driven urbanization," which includes both rural-to-urban and urban-to-urban migration. The COVID-19 pandemic revealed the pressures on urban planning, as reverse migration trends exposed deficiencies in infrastructure
4. What are the Urban Challenges in India?
- In the absence of a 2021 Census, India lacks accurate data on its urban population. Estimates from the World Bank indicate that approximately 40% of India’s population resides in urban areas across around 9,000 statutory and census towns. Indian cities face significant challenges, including poor spatial planning, climate change, high levels of migration, increasing inequality and social segregation, and governance issues.
- Urban planning agencies have encountered difficulties due to two primary factors. First, spatial and temporal plans are often outdated and do not keep pace with population growth. Since the 1980s, deindustrialization has resulted in job losses in cities such as Ahmedabad, Delhi, Surat, and Mumbai, leading many displaced workers to migrate to peri-urban areas where they live in overcrowded conditions.
- Currently, about 40% of India’s urban population lives in slums. Second, planning efforts frequently prioritize capital growth over the needs of the community, which diminishes local ownership and involvement in the planning process.
- This has contributed to widening inequality, with upscale developments catering to the affluent while millions lack access to basic housing.
- Climate change also poses a significant threat to Indian cities, which are grappling with severe pollution and are increasingly vulnerable to urban flooding and the “heat island effect.” Notably, eight of the ten most polluted cities in India are located in the National Capital Region (NCR) surrounding Delhi.
- Despite the provisions of the 74th Constitutional Amendment, many Indian cities are still governed by undemocratic bodies. Although cities have elected representatives, they rarely have authority over urban planning, which is frequently delegated to parastatals and private organizations.
- For instance, fewer than three of the 18 functions listed in the 12th Schedule have been fully transferred to urban governments, and cities receive only 0.5% of the GDP in intergovernmental transfers.
- As we mark World Cities Day, these challenges underscore the urgent need for comprehensive national interventions
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Previous Year Questions
1.Discuss the various social problems which originated out of the speedy process of urbanisation in India. (UPSC CSE 2013)
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Source: The Hindu
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PLAN (CZMP)
1. Context
The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has approved the Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMPs) of 10 coastal districts of Kerala namely Kasaragod, Kannur, Kozhikode, Malappuram, Thrissur, Ernakulam, Kottayam, Alappuzha, Kollam and Thiruvananthapuram. The plan, prepared in tune with the provisions of the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification, 2019, permits the coastal districts to take advantage of the relaxed Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) rules and initiate development activities including construction of buildings towards the seaward side.
2. Process of Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMPs) Approval
The Ministry has instructed the State government to upload signed copies of the approved Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) for all 10 coastal districts on the Kerala Coastal Zone Management Authority's website within one month. Additionally, the Ministry clarified that any applications for Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) clearance received after the approval of CRZ 2019 will be reviewed according to the CRZ Notification, 2019. The Union government initiated the designation of certain areas as CRZ to preserve and protect the “unique environment of coastal stretches and marine regions,” ensure livelihood security for fishing and local communities, and foster sustainable development based on scientific principles, with consideration for natural hazards and sea-level rise linked to global warming
3. Necessity of CZMP for Kerala State
- Kerala has a coastline spanning approximately 590 km, with nine out of its 14 districts bordering the Arabian Sea. According to the 2011 Census, Kerala’s population density is 859 people per square kilometer, significantly higher than the national average of 382 people per square kilometer.
- The population density is particularly high in the coastal areas compared to other parts of the State. It is projected that the CRZ regulations will apply to five corporations, 36 municipalities, and 245 grama panchayats across 10 districts.
- The intense population pressure on land has led to widespread CRZ rule violations along Kerala’s coast, with thousands of unauthorized land alterations, including illegal wetland reclamation and encroachments.
- Numerous structures have been built along the coastline in clear disregard of these regulations.
- The CRZ 2011 framework, in place until the approval of the CZMP, emphasized the conservation of coastal ecosystems to safeguard the livelihoods of millions of fishers and coastal residents
4. Benefits of having Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMPs)
- The State government estimates that the approval of the CZMP will directly benefit approximately 1 million people, as previous restrictions on building new houses and repairing existing ones will be eased. The approval of the CZMP was set as a requirement for states to implement and benefit from CRZ 2019 regulations.
- Under the new framework, the No Development Zone (NDZ)—the area where development is restricted—around tidal-influenced water bodies will be reduced to 50 meters from the previous 100 meters from the High Tide Line in at least 122 local bodies within the State.
- In 37 village panchayats designated as CRZ-III A, the NDZ has been scaled down to one-fourth of what it was previously. CRZ-III A areas are densely populated rural zones with a population density of 2,161 people per square kilometer, according to the 2011 Census.
- In these areas, the NDZ now extends 50 meters from the High Tide Line, compared to 200 meters under the CRZ 2011 guidelines.
- Additionally, 66 village panchayats will now fall under the CRZ-2 category, allowing the construction of commercial and residential buildings along the authorized building line.
- Overall, the NDZ in Kerala’s CRZ areas will be reduced by half, covering 108.397 sq. km instead of the previous 239.431 sq. km as outlined in the CRZ 2011 notification
5. What is the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)?
The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) refers to the coastal areas in India regulated under specific guidelines issued by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) to protect the country’s coastal ecosystems, maintain biodiversity, and support sustainable development while considering the livelihoods of coastal communities. These guidelines were first introduced in 1991 and have since been revised multiple times, with the most recent being the CRZ Notification 2019.
Classification of CRZ Zones
Under CRZ guidelines, coastal zones are divided into categories with different levels of regulation:
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CRZ-I: Ecologically sensitive areas such as mangroves, coral reefs, national parks, sanctuaries, and biologically active mudflats. Construction is largely restricted here, except for projects related to defense and specific essential services.
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CRZ-II: Areas that are already developed close to the shoreline. These include urban or developed areas where activities are permitted within certain restrictions, especially along existing building lines.
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CRZ-III: Undeveloped rural areas, typically in regions with a low population density. These are further divided into:
- CRZ-III A: Densely populated rural areas with a population density of over 2,161 people per square kilometer. The No Development Zone (NDZ) here is set at 50 meters from the High Tide Line.
- CRZ-III B: Areas with lower population density where the NDZ extends to 200 meters from the High Tide Line.
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CRZ-IV: Coastal areas and water bodies within territorial limits, including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, and other smaller islands. Activities here are tightly regulated to preserve marine ecosystems.
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CRZ regulations play a critical role in ensuring that development along India’s coastline is ecologically sustainable. They are essential for managing natural hazards, minimizing environmental degradation, and maintaining biodiversity while balancing economic growth and community needs.
These zones, therefore, represent a structured approach to protect India’s coastal areas from overexploitation, safeguard the interests of traditional communities, and promote responsible development in an era of climate change and rising sea levels
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6. Mangroves and Coastal Management
Mangroves are unique coastal ecosystems found in the intertidal regions of tropical and subtropical coastlines, characterized by salt-tolerant tree species that thrive in salty or brackish waters. They play a vital role in coastal management and environmental sustainability due to their ecological, economic, and protective functions.
Importance of Mangroves in Coastal Management
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Shoreline Protection: Mangroves act as natural barriers against coastal erosion, storm surges, and tsunamis. Their dense root systems stabilize the soil, reducing the impact of strong waves and high tides, and help prevent the loss of coastal lands.
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Carbon Sequestration: Mangrove forests are highly efficient carbon sinks, sequestering significant amounts of carbon dioxide in both their biomass and underlying sediments. This process helps mitigate the impacts of climate change by reducing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
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Biodiversity Hotspots: Mangrove ecosystems support a rich diversity of life, providing breeding and nursery grounds for numerous marine species such as fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. They also support a variety of terrestrial animals and migratory birds, contributing to biodiversity conservation.
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Water Purification: Mangroves filter pollutants from river water before it reaches the open ocean. Their roots trap sediment, heavy metals, and other contaminants, helping to improve water quality and protect coral reefs and seagrass beds from sedimentation.
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Livelihoods for Coastal Communities: Mangroves provide resources for local communities, including wood, medicinal plants, fish, and shellfish. Sustainable harvesting of mangrove resources offers income opportunities for people dependent on coastal ecosystems.
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Prelims: CZMPs are part of Environment and Ecology topics, where questions may cover regulations like the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notifications, coastal ecosystems, and related policies. Mains: CZMPs are relevant to Geography (GS Paper I) and Environment (GS Paper III), covering:
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following statements are appropriate to Mangrove Sites? (UPSC CAPF 2018)
1. Mangrove plants require appropriate mix of saline water and freshwater.
2. Mangrove plants require mudflats to enable it to grow and develop.
3. Mangrove plants are found in the inter-tidal zones of sheltered coasts.
4. Mangrove vegetation has been reported in all the coastal States including Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A.1 and 2 only
B.2, 3 and 4 only
C.1, 3 and 4 only
D.1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer (D)
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Source: The Hindu
ADITYA-L1
1. Context
The first science result from the Aditya-L1 mission, India’s first scientific mission dedicated to studying the sun, is out.
2. About Aditya-L1
- Aditya-L1's core objective revolves around positioning a spacecraft in the 'L1' spot in space, marking India's inaugural dedicated solar mission.
- This mission follows ISRO's successful AstroSat (2015), making it the agency's second astronomy observatory-class endeavour.
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Image Source: ISRO
3. A Paradigm Shift in Solar Observations
- India's prior solar observations relied on ground-based telescopes and data from international solar missions.
- With ageing ground-based telescopes, India lacked a modern observational facility.
- Aditya-L1 seeks to address this gap and provide comprehensive solar data, advancing solar physics research.
4. Space weather alerts
- Astronomy-based space missions are gaining prominence due to their potential to inspire youth and contribute to scientific advancements.
- These missions, although time-consuming in development, play a crucial role in expanding our understanding of celestial phenomena.
- Solar flares, Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), and solar winds can disrupt space weather and impact satellite-dependent operations, such as telecommunications and power grids.
- Aditya-L1's role in studying the Sun is pivotal in enhancing our ability to predict and manage space weather disruptions.
- While AstroSat remains operational after eight years, Aditya-L1 presents a promising path for future Indian astronomy missions.
- With seven payloads, including instruments dedicated to solar observation, Aditya-L1 aims to advance our understanding of solar eruptions and flares.
- Solar physics now demands multiwavelength astronomy to comprehensively study solar events.
- Coordinating data from various instruments on Aditya-L1 is crucial to unravelling the complexities of solar phenomena.
- Aditya-L1 seeks to provide user-friendly information for safeguarding satellite-dependent operations.
- It may generate space weather alerts based on data obtained, enhancing our preparedness for space weather disturbances.
5. The Significance of L1
- Aditya-L1 embarks on a journey of nearly 100 days to reach L1, a location between the Earth and the Sun.
- This journey is shorter than Mangalyaan's voyage to Mars in 2014.
- After departing Earth's gravity, Aditya-L1 will enter a heliocentric path before reaching the L1 orbit.
- Six of Aditya-L1's payloads will remain inactive until approximately January 6, 2024, when the spacecraft is expected to enter a 'halo' orbit near L1.
- The activation of these payloads will enable the calibration of instruments before the commencement of scientific data collection.
- The L1 point in space, where Aditya-L1 will position itself, is one of the five Lagrange Points existing between any two celestial bodies in space.
- Being at L1 allows the spacecraft to make continuous observations with minimal energy expenditure.
- L1 is favoured for its unobstructed view of the Sun, making it ideal for solar research.
12. The Way Forward
- The Aditya-L1 mission represents a significant step in India's space exploration journey, offering the nation a unique opportunity to study the Sun comprehensively and contribute to space weather predictions.
- Positioned at the L1 point, this mission holds great promise for advancing our understanding of the Sun and its impact on Earth's space environment.
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For Prelims: ISRO, Aditya L1, AstroSat, Coronal Mass Ejections, 'halo' orbit,
For Mains:
1. Describe the significance of the Aditya-L1 mission in the context of India's space exploration efforts. Explain how it differs from India's previous solar experiments. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018)
1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors, and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3
C. 1 and 2
D. 3 only
Answer: A
2. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020)
A. space research B. agricultural research C. seed research D. marine research
Answer: A
3. Aditya L1 is a ______. (ISRO IPRC Technical Assistant Mechanical 2016)
A. Long-range missile
B. Rocket to moon
C. Spacecraft project
D. Light combat aircraft
Answer: C
4. With reference to 'Astrosat', the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.
2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth. Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
5. If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth? (UPSC 2022)
1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.
2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
3. Power grids could be damaged.
4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
B. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
C. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7
Answer: C
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Source: The Indian Express
BRICS
1. Context
At the 16th BRICS Summit hosted by Russia in Kazan (October 22-24, 2024), there were a few meetings on the sidelines which created a buzz. One such meeting was between India and Iran, both close civilisational friends and looking to strengthen a stagnating partnership. Iran, which is now embroiled in the war in Gaza, is looking for Indian support in de-escalating the crisis. India, too, has supported having a ceasefire and de-escalation at the earliest. Globally, India is being widely sought after to facilitate a peaceful resolution to the conflict as it enjoys trust and goodwill across both ends of the conflict, with Israel and Iran.
2. BRICS
- The BRICS alliance, composed of Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, has evolved from an economic consortium to a multifaceted geopolitical force.
- Emerging economies with considerable potential, these countries together form a collective that challenges traditional power dynamics and fosters cooperation in an increasingly interconnected world.
3. Formation and Evolution
- BRICS was officially established in 2006, with the objective of fostering economic growth, development, and cooperation among member nations.
- Over time, it has transformed into a platform for addressing a broader spectrum of global challenges, encompassing political, security, and social concerns alongside economic issues.
4. Geopolitical Relevance
- Counterbalance to Western Influence: BRICS serves as a counterweight to the dominance of Western powers. The coalition's diverse representation from different regions empowers non-Western countries to assert their interests on the global stage.
- Global South Unity: BRICS resonates with many countries in the Global South that seek a voice in international affairs. It presents an alternative to the traditional Western-dominated institutions, offering a platform for collaboration and advocacy.
5. Economic Cooperation and Growth
- Economic Powerhouses: Collectively, BRICS nations account for a substantial portion of the world's population and GDP. Their economic potential has led to discussions on reforming global financial institutions to better reflect contemporary realities.
- Intra-BRICS Trade: Trade among BRICS members has grown significantly. Initiatives like the New Development Bank (NDB) and the Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) bolster financial cooperation and stability within the group.
6. Geopolitical Challenges and Opportunities
- Diverse Interests: As BRICS expands and diversifies, differing geopolitical interests may arise, potentially leading to internal divisions. However, this diversity also presents opportunities for creative solutions to global challenges.
- Diplomatic Outreach: BRICS engages with other regional and international organizations, strengthening its influence. The expansion of the group's membership underscores its growing geopolitical relevance.
7. India's Role and Beyond
- India's Diplomacy: India has played an active role within BRICS, emphasizing issues such as counter-terrorism, cybersecurity, and climate change. Its strategic partnerships contribute to the coalition's expansion and its influence in shaping its direction.
- Global Impact: BRICS expansion into a broader coalition incorporating West Asian countries like Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE signifies a deliberate shift towards greater global political relevance. This expansion highlights BRICS' adaptability to changing geopolitical dynamics.
8. BRICS New Members Dynamics
- Unanimous Decisions: BRICS decisions require unanimous agreement, reflecting collective decision-making.
- Geopolitical Partnerships: While Russia and China confront West-related challenges, Brazil, South Africa, and India maintain significant partnerships with the US and Europe.
- China's Expansion Drive: China spearheads BRICS expansion, prioritizing membership growth.
- Inclusion of Iran: China and Russia's influence is seen in Iran's inclusion, showcasing their collaboration.
- Mediation Efforts: China's role reconciles rivals Saudi Arabia and Iran within the alliance.
- Saudi Arabia's Shift: Saudi Arabia's entry signifies a move towards an independent foreign policy, diverging from the US alliance.
- Global Significance for Russia and Iran: BRICS membership elevates Russia and Iran's global partnerships, challenging Western dominance.
9. Implications for India
- Strategic Role: India played a lead role in drafting BRICS membership criteria, demonstrating its strategic influence within the alliance.
- Expanded Influence: The inclusion of new members who are strategic partners of India enhances its influence within BRICS.
- Geopolitical Balancing: BRICS expansion allows India to navigate between its ties with the West and its position within this non-Western coalition.
- Global Advocacy: With more representation and diverse members, India can push for UN reforms and increased Global South representation.
- Diplomatic Challenges: India might need to exert more effort to assert its influence in an alliance with a wider range of members and potential competing interests.
- Economic Opportunities: Collaboration with economically strong members like China can lead to enhanced trade and investment prospects for India.
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For Prelims: BRICS, Global South Unity, Western Influence, New Development Bank (NDB), and Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the Implications of BRICS' Expansion for India's Geopolitical Positioning and Influence within the Alliance.
2. Analyze India's Role in Shaping BRICS' Membership Criteria and Its Strategic Significance in the Expanded Coalition.
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Previous year Questions1. With reference to a grouping of countries known as BRICS, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014)
1. The First Summit of BRICS was held in Rio de Janeiro in 2009.
2. South Africa was the last to join the BRICS grouping.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
2. With reference to BRIC countries, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2010)
1. At present, China's GDP is more than the combined GDP of all three other countries.
2. China's population is more than the combined population of any two other countries.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
3. The 'Fortaleza Declaration', recently in the news, is related to the affairs of (UPSC 2015)
A. ASEAN
B. BRICS
C. OECD
D. WTO
Answer: B
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Source: The Hindu
RIGHT TO PRIVACY
1. Context
Justice KS Puttaswamy, former Karnataka High Court judge and the lead petitioner in the seminal ‘right to privacy case’, passed away on October 28th, at the age of 98.
Justice Puttaswamy famously challenged the constitutional validity of the Aadhaar scheme, which led to the Supreme Court recognising the right to privacy under the fundamental right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution.
2.What is the Right to privacy?
The Right to Privacy is a fundamental right that protects an individual's personal information from being disclosed without their consent. It encompasses various aspects, including the right to be left alone, control over personal data, and protection from unauthorized surveillance or intrusion
In many countries, the right to privacy is enshrined in the constitution. For instance, in India, the Supreme Court declared it a fundamental right under Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty) in the landmark judgment of Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) vs. Union of India (2017)
The right to privacy is a fundamental human right and legal concept that protects individuals from unwarranted intrusion into their personal lives, affairs, or information. It encompasses several key aspects:
- Personal information: Protection of an individual's personal data and control over how it's collected, used, and shared.
- Physical privacy: The right to have personal space free from intrusion, such as in one's home or private property.
- Communication privacy: Protection of personal communications, including phone calls, emails, and other forms of correspondence.
- Bodily privacy: The right to make decisions about one's own body and medical treatments without interference.
- Territorial privacy: Freedom from surveillance in public and private spaces.
- Information privacy: Control over the collection, use, and dissemination of personal information.
The right to privacy is recognized in various international human rights documents, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and is enshrined in many national constitutions and laws. However, the extent and interpretation of privacy rights can vary between jurisdictions
3. What are the constitutional provisions related to the Right to Privacy?
The Right to Privacy, while not explicitly mentioned in many constitutions, is often derived from broader fundamental rights and principles. In India, the Right to Privacy has been recognized through judicial interpretation and is now considered a fundamental right.
| Article | Provision | Explanation |
| Article 21 | Right to Life and Personal Liberty | States that "No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law." The Supreme Court in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) vs. Union of India (2017) held that the Right to Privacy is an intrinsic part of the Right to Life and Personal Liberty under Article 21 |
| Article 19(1)(a) | Freedom of Speech and Expression | Guarantees the freedom of speech and expression. Privacy is linked to this right as it is essential for the effective exercise of this freedom. |
| Article 19(1)(d) | Freedom of Movement | Guarantees the right to move freely throughout the territory of India. Privacy is essential for the exercise of this right, ensuring individuals can move without unwarranted intrusion. |
| Article 14 | Right to Equality | Guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the laws. The Right to Privacy is seen as necessary to protect the dignity and autonomy of individuals, which are essential aspects of equality. |
Judicial Interpretations and Their Contributions:
| Case | Year | Contribution |
| Kharak Singh vs. State of Uttar Pradesh | 1963 | The Supreme Court first recognized the concept of privacy, though it did not explicitly declare it a fundamental right |
| Gobind vs. State of Madhya Pradesh | 1975 | The Court acknowledged that the right to privacy is a part of personal liberty under Article 21, though it was not given definitive recognition |
| Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) vs. Union of India | 2017 | The Supreme Court unanimously declared that the Right to Privacy is a fundamental right, protected under Articles 14, 19, and 21 of the Constitution. This judgment overruled previous contradictory rulings and firmly established privacy as a fundamental right |
4.Way Forward
While the fundamental principles of granting bail—ensuring the accused’s presence during trial and preventing tampering with evidence—remain the same, foreigners typically face stricter bail conditions due to higher perceived flight risks and complexities in legal jurisdictions. The court aims to balance these factors while ensuring justice and fair treatment
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For Prelims: Indian Polity and Governance
For Mains: GS-II: Polity, Constitution
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Previous Year Questions
1.‘Right to Privacy’ is protected under which Article of the Constitution of India? (UPSC CSE 2021) (a) Article 15 (b) Article 19 (c) Article 21 (d) Article 29 Answer (c) The Right to Privacy in India is protected under Article 21 of the Constitution of India. This was explicitly established by the landmark judgment of the Supreme Court of India in the case of Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India in 2017 Mains 1.Examine the scope of Fundamental Rights in the light of the latest judgement of the Supreme Court on the Right to Privacy. (UPSC CSE 2017) |
Source: Indianexpress
INDIA- CANADA
1. Context
Days after senior members of the Trudeau administration alleged that Union Home Minister Amit Shah was behind a campaign to target Khalistan separatists based in Canada, India has lodged a protest “in the strongest terms” through diplomatic channels, calling the allegations “absurd and baseless”.
2. Canada's Allegation
- Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau accusation that Indian security agencies might be linked to the murder of a Canadian citizen, Hardeep Singh Nijjar, sent shockwaves through diplomatic circles.
- Such a serious charge by a foreign leader against another nation before conclusive proof is rare and demands a thorough investigation.
- Canada's Foreign Minister Melanie Joly has emphasized the need for cooperation between the two countries in the investigation.
3. Diplomatic Escalation
- Canada took the initial step in the escalation by expelling an Indian diplomat in Ottawa, identified as the head of the Indian intelligence agency.
- In response, India expelled a Canadian diplomat based in New Delhi.
- India also issued travel advisories for its citizens in Canada, raising concerns about their safety. Visa services were suspended, affecting various categories of travellers.
4. About the Khalistan movement
- The Khalistan movement is a Sikh separatist movement that seeks to create an independent Sikh state called Khalistan in the Indian state of Punjab.
- The movement began in the 1970s and has been marked by violence and political unrest.
- The Khalistan movement is based on the belief that the Sikhs are a distinct people with their own unique culture and history.
- Sikhs believe that they have been persecuted by the Indian government, and they demand an independent state where they can govern themselves.
- The Khalistan movement has been supported by some Sikhs in India and abroad.
- However, it is opposed by the Indian government, which considers it to be a threat to national security.
4.1. Khalistan Problem Resurfaces
- This crisis has brought the long-standing issue of Khalistan back into India-Canada relations.
- While the relationship faced challenges in the past, including Canada's criticism of India's nuclear tests in 1998, the current issue centres around Canada's perceived support for separatist Khalistani groups.
- Canada's Liberal Party has been accused of pandering to these groups for votes, particularly in constituencies where Khalistani sympathies hold sway.
4.2. Khalistan and Canadian Politics
- Jagmeet 'Jimmy' Dhaliwal, associated with Canada's New Democratic Party, is viewed with suspicion by the Indian establishment due to his pro-Khalistan sympathies.
- Canada's hosting of events attended by individuals linked to pro-Khalistan outfits, like Jaspal Atwal, during Trudeau's visit in 2018, further strained relations.
- The Khalistan "referendum," encouraged by Pakistani intelligence agencies, has been a significant irritant in recent years.
5. Social and economic indicators between India and Canada
Canada's FDI in India: Canada accounts for a modest 0.56% of India's total Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). Out of the $645,386.0884 million in FDI equity inflow into India between April 2000 and June 2023, Canada contributed 0.5644% ($3,642.5243 million).
Indian Diaspora in Canada: Canada is home to a significant portion of overseas Indians. Of the 3,21,00,340 overseas Indians, 5.26% (16,89,055) reside in Canada. This includes 1,78,410 Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and 15,10,645 Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs).
Indian Students in Canada: Canada is a popular destination for Indian students. In 2022, out of an estimated 13,24,954 Indian students studying abroad, 13.83% (1,83,310) were enrolled in Canadian institutions, according to data from the Ministry of External Affairs.
Canada's Role in Indian Tourism: Canada is the fourth-largest source of tourists visiting India, based on 2021 figures. Canadian tourists accounted for 5.3% (80,437) of Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) in India during that year. Notably, a significant portion of these tourists (72.6%) were members of the Indian diaspora.
Bilateral Trade: India's bilateral trade with Canada amounted to $8,161.02 million in the financial year 2022-23, making up only 0.70% of India's total trade of $1,165,000.88 million. Despite its modest size, India maintains a trade surplus with Canada, with exports surpassing imports by $58.45 million.
Trade Highlights
India's major exports to Canada during 2022-23 included medicines, vannamei shrimp, smartphones, gold-set diamond jewellery, basmati rice, iron pipes for oil/gas pipelines, coaches powered by external electricity, diamonds, and cotton t-shirts.
Key imports from Canada included coking coal, potassium chloride, lentils (masur dal), newsprint, wood pulp (mechanical and chemical pulp processes), and copper ores and concentrates.
5.1. Top Indian Imports from Canada
Coking Coal: Coking Coal was the most valued item India imported from Canada during 2022-23. At 28.96 lakh tonnes, Canada was the fifth largest supplier of coking coal to India after Australia, the US, Singapore, and Russia.
Potassium Chloride: Canada is India’s biggest source of potassium chloride. During 2022-23, India imported 11.43 lakh tonnes of the chemical from Canada. The other countries that supplied potassium chloride to India were Israel, Jordan, Belarus, Turkmenistan, and Russia.
Lentils: Canada is the biggest supplier of ‘masur’ dal to India. During 2022-23, India imported 4.85 lakh tonnes of lentils from Canada. The other countries exporting lentils to India are Australia, the Netherlands, the UAE, and Sri Lanka.
News Print: Canada is a major source of newsprint. During 2022-23, India imported 2.5 lakh tonnes of ‘Other Newsprint’ (under HSN code 48010090) from Canada, which was the highest from any country. The other countries that supplied the newsprint to India were Russia, Korea, Malaysia, and the UAE.
Wood Pulp: Canada is also a major source of wood pulp obtained by a combination of mechanical and chemical pulp processes. During 2022-23, India imported 2.06 lakh tonnes of wood pulp from Canada. The other countries that supplied wood pulp to India last year were New Zealand, Sweden, Estonia, the US, and the Netherlands.
6. Diplomatic Complexity
- Diplomats familiar with Canada's foreign policy assert that the country is often influenced by immigrant interests.
- Pro-Khalistan elements, though a minority in the Canadian Sikh community, control several influential gurdwaras and can exert political influence in key constituencies.
- This small but influential group shapes Canada's policy towards India.
7. Geopolitical Implications
- Canada holds a significant role in global geopolitics, being part of the G7 and sharing intelligence within the Five Eyes alliance.
- This diplomatic standoff poses a challenge for Western powers, including the US, UK, Australia, Germany, France, and Japan, as they maintain strategic partnerships with both Canada and India.
- Balancing these relationships becomes crucial in the wake of this crisis.
8. Conclusion
- The India-Canada diplomatic crisis underscores the importance of addressing each other's concerns and conducting a fair and impartial investigation into the allegations.
- Both nations must work to de-escalate tensions and find a way forward while considering the broader geopolitical implications of their actions.
- This crisis serves as a lesson for Canada and its partners on how to handle the sensitive issue of Khalistan in diplomatic relations.
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For Prelims: India-Canada, Khalistan, Foreign Direct Investment, Tourism, Bilateral Trade, Geo-politics, Wood Pulp, News Print, Lentils, Potassium Chloride, Coking Coal
For Mains:
1. Examine the resurgence of the Khalistan movement in India-Canada relations. How has Canada's perceived support for Khalistani groups affected bilateral ties? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. In the context of bilateral trade negotiations between India and the European Union, what is the difference between European Commission and European Council? (UPSC 2010)
1. European Commission represents the EU in trade negotiations whereas the European Council participates in the legislation of matters pertaining to economic policies of the European Union.
2. European Commission comprises of the Heads of State or government of member countries whereas the European Council comprises of the persons nominated by European Parliament.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
2. With reference to Foreign Direct Investment in India, which one of the following is considered its major characteristic? (UPSC 2020)
A. It is the investment through capital instruments essentially in a listed company.
B. It is a largely non-debt creating capital flow.
C. It is the investment which involves debt-servicing.
D. It is the investment made by foreign institutional investors in the Government securities.
Answer: B
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Source: The Indian Express
INDIA-NEPAL
1. Context
Nepal Prime Minister K P Sharma Oli is likely to undertake an official visit to China next month, his first bilateral, four months after he took over as head of the new government replacing the Left coalition government led by Pushpa Kamal Dahal (Prachanda).
2. India-Nepal Bilateral relations
India and Nepal share a long and intertwined history, marked by cultural, religious, and economic connections.
- Ancient Ties: The historical connections between the people of India and Nepal date back to ancient times. There have been exchanges of culture, traditions, and religious practices, particularly due to the influence of Hinduism and Buddhism in the region.
- Political Relations: The emergence of powerful kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent, such as the Maurya and Gupta empires, influenced the political landscape of Nepal. Over the centuries, various dynasties ruled both regions, and they often maintained close ties.
- Medieval Period: During the medieval period, both regions witnessed the spread of Islam, and the Mughal Empire's influence in India impacted the political dynamics in Nepal. The rulers of Nepal maintained their autonomy during this period.
- The British Influence: As the British East India Company expanded its influence in the Indian subcontinent, the territories surrounding Nepal were affected. However, Nepal managed to remain independent and maintained its sovereignty.
- Anglo-Nepalese War (1814-1816): The Anglo-Nepalese War took place between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Nepal. The war concluded with the signing of the Sugauli Treaty in 1815, which defined the boundary between British India and Nepal, establishing the Kali River as the western boundary of Nepal.
- Treaty of Friendship (1950): The Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed in 1950 between India and Nepal is a crucial document that governs their relations. The treaty establishes close ties, including provisions for free movement of people and goods between the two countries.
- Economic Cooperation: Over the years, economic cooperation has played a significant role in India-Nepal relations. Trade, transit facilities, and developmental assistance have been important aspects of their bilateral cooperation.
- Cultural and People-to-People Ties: The cultural affinities between the people of India and Nepal have remained strong. The open border allows for extensive people-to-people interactions, and shared religious practices, especially Hinduism, further contribute to the close bond between the two nations.
- India and Nepal boast robust defence cooperation. India supports Nepal's military modernization through equipment, training, and disaster assistance. Joint exercises like SURYA KIRAN foster collaboration. Since 1950, Chiefs of the Army exchanged honorary ranks, symbolizing the deep bond. Gorkha regiments showcase this connection further.
3. India-Nepal Border Dispute
The India-Nepal border dispute, simmering for decades, continues to be a major point of contention between the two nations. Understanding the complexities of this issue requires delving into its historical roots, contested areas, and ongoing efforts towards resolution.
Tracing the Origins
- Treaty of Sugauli (1816): This treaty between the British East India Company and Nepal defined the initial border, but ambiguities in the document sowed the seeds of future disagreements.
- Kalapani Valley: This strategically located valley at the confluence of the Kali and Mahakali rivers is a major flashpoint. Both India and Nepal claim ownership, each citing historical records and maps.
- Lipulekh Pass: This mountain pass provides access to Kailash Mansarovar, a sacred pilgrimage site for Hindus. India's construction of a road here in 2020 reignited tensions.
- Susta Area: Located in Nepal's Terai region, this fertile land along the Gandak River is another disputed territory.
Impact of the Dispute
- Strained Bilateral Relations: The border issue casts a shadow on the otherwise friendly ties between India and Nepal.
- Local Communities Affected: Uncertain land ownership hampers development projects and impacts the lives of people living along the border.
- Security Concerns: Unresolved territorial claims can potentially pose security risks in the region.
Efforts Towards Resolution
- Joint Technical Level Boundary Working Group (JTLBWG): Established in the 1980s, this group has successfully demarcated most of the border but remains deadlocked on the disputed areas.
- Diplomatic Consultations: Both countries engage in regular talks to find a solution, but progress has been slow.
- Public Discourse: Civil society groups and media in both countries play a role in raising awareness and advocating for peaceful resolution.
4. Why is Nepal so important?
Nepal is important to India for various strategic, cultural, economic, and geopolitical reasons. The close relationship between the two countries is rooted in historical, geographical, and sociocultural ties. Here are several reasons why Nepal is significant to India:
- Nepal shares a long and open border with India. This geographical proximity fosters people-to-people connections, facilitates trade, and allows for easy movement of goods and people between the two countries.
- India and Nepal share deep cultural and religious ties, with Hinduism being the predominant religion in both nations. Many Hindu pilgrimage sites, such as Pashupatinath Temple and Lumbini (the birthplace of Lord Buddha), are located in Nepal, attracting pilgrims from India.
- Nepal holds strategic importance for India due to its location between India and China. The geopolitical dynamics of the region make Nepal a crucial player in India's efforts to maintain regional stability and security.
- Several rivers originating in Nepal flow into India, making water resources a significant aspect of the relationship. Cooperation on river management and water-sharing agreements is essential for both countries.
- India and Nepal engage in extensive economic cooperation, including trade and transit agreements. The open border facilitates the movement of goods, contributing to economic integration between the two nations.
- Both countries share concerns related to regional security, including counter-terrorism and the maintenance of peace in the region. Collaboration on security matters is crucial for addressing common challenges.
- The historical relationship between India and Nepal is characterized by mutual respect and support. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed in 1950 solidified the close ties and included provisions for economic and security cooperation.
- India and Nepal maintain diplomatic relations at various levels. High-level visits and diplomatic engagements help in addressing bilateral issues and strengthening the overall relationship.
- As both India and China seek to expand their influence in the region, Nepal's strategic position becomes crucial. India aims to maintain strong ties with Nepal to counterbalance any growing influence from other countries, including China.
- Given the shared borders and historical connections, a stable and friendly Nepal is vital for ensuring overall regional stability. India's interests in maintaining peace and harmony in its neighbourhood underscore the importance of a positive relationship with Nepal.
5. China, India and Nepal- Trilateral Dynamics
- Balancing Act: Nepal often engages in a delicate balancing act between its two large neighbours, India and China. It seeks to maintain cordial relations with both countries while safeguarding its own interests.
- Infrastructure Projects: China's infrastructure projects in Nepal, particularly under the BRI, have been a source of concern for India. The geopolitical implications of such projects contribute to the complexity of trilateral relations.
- Regional Stability: Stability in Nepal is crucial for both India and China to ensure regional peace and security. The three countries have overlapping interests in maintaining stability in the Himalayan region.
6. India's Neighbourhood First Policy
India's Neighbourhood First Policy is a strategic foreign policy initiative aimed at prioritizing and strengthening relations with its immediate neighbours. This policy, which gained prominence in the early 2000s, seeks to:
- Build friendly and mutually beneficial relationships with all neighbouring countries.
- Engage in active development partnerships through infrastructure projects, economic cooperation, and knowledge sharing.
- Create a stable and secure regional environment conducive to collective growth and prosperity.
- Promote regional cooperation and integration on issues like trade, security, and cultural exchange.
Key Pillars of the Policy
- Consultative and non-reciprocal approach: Engaging neighbours with respect for their sovereignty and prioritizing their needs.
- Focus on outcome-oriented solutions: Delivering tangible benefits through concrete projects and initiatives.
- People-to-people contacts: Fostering cultural exchange, educational opportunities, and tourism to build lasting bonds.
- Security cooperation: Addressing regional security threats through collaboration and joint efforts.
Examples of Implementation
- Boosting trade and investment: Free trade agreements, border trade facilities, and infrastructure development projects.
- Cooperation in energy, water resources, and disaster management: Sharing expertise, technology, and resources for mutual benefit.
- Cultural exchange programs: Promoting understanding and appreciation of each other's traditions and languages.
- Security partnerships: Joint training exercises, intelligence sharing, and border management cooperation.
Challenges and Opportunities
- Internal conflicts and political instability in some neighbouring countries can hinder progress.
- Competition from other major powers like China for influence in the region.
- Building trust and resolving bilateral issues like border disputes require ongoing dialogue and diplomacy.
7. The Way Forward
The recent developments underscore the complexity and significance of India-Nepal relations and the trilateral dynamics involving China. The resolution of the border dispute, ongoing diplomatic efforts, and collaboration in various sectors will play pivotal roles in shaping the future of these relationships.
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For Prelims: India, Nepal, China, Kalapani Valley, Treaty of Sugauli, Lipulekh Pass, Susta Area, Treaty of Friendship, Anglo-Nepalese War
For Mains:
1. Discuss the historical ties between India and Nepal, highlighting key milestones and factors shaping their relationship. (250 Words)
2. Assess the key pillars of India's Neighbourhood First Policy. Discuss the challenges and opportunities in its implementation, considering recent developments in India-Nepal relations and regional geopolitics. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2016)
Community sometimes
mentioned in the news In the affairs of
1. Kurd Bangladesh
2. Madhesi Nepal
3. Rohingya Myanmar
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
A. 1 and 2 B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 D. 3 only
2. The Treaty of Sugauli, 1816 was signed between the British and ______ (Bihar Police SI 2019) (SSC CPO 2019)
A. Sikhs B. Gurkhas C. Marathas D. French
3. Lipulekh Pass is in which state of India (SSC CHSL 2020) (OSSC WEO 2022)
A. Assam B. Himachal Pradesh C. Uttarakhand D. Jammu and Kashmir
4. When was the Indo-Bhutan Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed? (UPRVUNL AE EE 4 2021)
A. 1949 B. 1953 C. 1951 D. 1950
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A
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Source: The Indian Express
FLASH FLOODS
1. Context
The deadliest flash floods in Spain’s modern history have killed at least 214 people and dozens were still unaccounted for, four days after torrential rains swept the eastern region of Valencia
2. What is a Flood
- Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
- Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry.
- Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break.
- Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop.
- Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer.
- Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.
3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.
These factors include -
- Meteorological factors
- Physical factors
- Human factors
3.1 Meteorological Factors
The natural causes of floods are discussed below -
- Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
- Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.
- Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
- Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
- Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
- Cyclone & Heavy rainfall
3.2. Physical Factors.
- Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.
- Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.
3.3. Human Factor
- Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.
- Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood.
- Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.
- Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs
- Unplanned Development
- Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning
4.Types of Flood
- Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.
- Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.
- River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.
- Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.
- Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.
5. Damages Caused by Floods in India
The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences.
- Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.
- Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.
- Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.
- Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.
- Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.
- Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.
6. Flood Management
Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:
- Attempts to modify the flood
- Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
- Attempts to modify the loss burden
- Bearing the loss.
- The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.
6.1 Structural measures
The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:
- Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
- Dams and reservoirs
- Natural detention basins
- Channel improvement
- Drainage improvement
- Diversion of flood waters.
6.2 Non-structural measures
Non-structural measures include:
- Flood forecasting and warning
- Floodplain zoning
- Flood fighting
- Floodproofing
- Flood insurance.
7.What are Flash Floods
- Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed.
- Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time.
- They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.
8. Status of Floods in India
8.1 NDRF Report
- 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
- On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.
8.2 Statistics
- Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
- 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.
9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?
- Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
- Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land.
- Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream.
- Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly.
- Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding.
- Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
- Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
- Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
- Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.
10. The impact of floods in India
11. Impact of flood on wildlife
12. Government actions regarding flood management
12.1.The National Flood Management Commission
- Launched in 1954
- Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.
12.2.Rashtriya Barh Aayog, 1976
- To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
- It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.
12.3.Regional task forces, 1996
- It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
- It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.
12.4.National Water Policy, 2002
- It recommended
- Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
- Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
- More emphasis on non-structural measures.
- Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.
12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were
- Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
- In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
- Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.
Source: Indianexpress
