Following Deepavali, pollution in Delhi inched close to a five-year low with average concentrations of particulate matter (PM) 2.5 across several locations crossing 400 microgram per cubic metre (g/m³) — levels not seen since 2021.On Deepavali day, nine cities out of the 293 monitored by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) reported an air quality index (AQI) value of above 300, classed as ‘very poor’ air quality. On the day after Deepavali, Tuesday (for most of the country), this rose to 16 cities. Nearly all of these cities fell in North India and in the Indo-Gangetic plains. Nationally, Dharuhera in Haryana reported the worst AQI reading of 462 on Tuesday.

2. The Air Quality Index (AQI)

The AQI is a colour-coded index launched under the Swachh Bharat campaign to simplify the understanding of pollution levels. It helps convey the condition of the air and guides appropriate measures based on the severity of pollution. The AQI consists of six categories, each with a corresponding colour code: 'Good' (0-50), 'Satisfactory' (51-100), 'Moderately Polluted' (101-200), 'Poor' (201-300), 'Very Poor' (301-400) and 'Severe' (401-500).

3. Calculation of AQI

• To calculate the AQI, a technical study was conducted by an expert group, including medical professionals, air quality experts, and academics.
• Various pollutants, such as PM10, PM2.5, Nitrogen Dioxide, Ozone, Carbon, and others, are measured.
• Each pollutant is assigned a weight based on its impact on human health.
• The composite air quality index is determined by combining these weights, simplifying multiple data points into a single number and colour to represent overall air quality.
• Monitoring stations across the country assess these pollutant levels.

4. Impact of Pollutants on Health

• Among the most harmful pollutants are fine particulate matter, such as PM2.5, which has a diameter smaller than 2.5 micrometres.
• PM2.5 particles can easily enter the circulatory system, bypassing the nose and throat.
• They are associated with respiratory problems and reduced visibility, posing health risks such as asthma, heart attacks, bronchitis, and other respiratory issues.

5. Influence on Government Policy

• Governments, especially in areas like Delhi, use the AQI to announce measures to combat air pollution.
• When the AQI in the National Capital Region (NCR) reaches the 'severe' category, Stage 4 of the Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP) is implemented.
• GRAP is designed for emergency measures to prevent further deterioration of air quality.
• Specific actions may include prohibiting the use of non-BS-VI-compliant diesel four-wheelers and restricting the entry of trucks into the city while allowing petrol cars to continue operating as usual.

6. Conclusion

The Air Quality Index is an essential tool that simplifies the understanding of air pollution, assesses its health impacts, and influences government policies and actions to combat deteriorating air quality. As Mumbai braces for worsening air quality, the AQI will continue to be a critical resource for both the government and the public.

 Source: The Indian Express

COMPETITION COMMISSION OF INDIA

• The Competition Commission of India (CCI) is a regulatory authority established in India to promote and protect fair competition in the marketplace.
• It was established under the Competition Act, 2002, and became fully functional in 2009.
• The primary objective of the CCI is to prevent anti-competitive practices, ensure a level playing field for businesses, and promote consumer welfare
• The Competition Commission of India (within the Ministry of Corporate Affairs) has been established to enforce the competition law under the Competition Act, 2002.
• It should be noted that on the recommendations of Raghavan committee, the Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 (MRTP Act) was repealed and replaced by the Competition Act, 2002
• The Commission consists of a Chairperson and not more than 6 Members appointed by the Central Government
• It is the statutory duty of the Commission to eliminate practices having an adverse effect on competition, promote and sustain competition, protect the interests of consumers and ensure freedom of trade carried on by other participants, in markets in India as provided in the Preamble as well as Section 18 of the Act.
• The Commission is also mandated to give its opinion on competition issues to government or statutory authority and to undertake competition advocacy for creating awareness of competition law.
• Advocacy is at the core of effective competition regulation. Competition Commission of India (CCI), which has been entrusted with implementation of law, has always believed in complementing robust enforcement with facilitative advocacy. It is a quasi-judicial body.

• The Competition Act, 2002, as amended by the Competition (Amendment) Act, 2007, follows the philosophy of modern competition laws.
• The Act prohibits anti-competitive agreements, and abuse of dominant position by enterprises and regulates combinations (acquisition, acquiring of control and M&A), which causes or likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within India
• In accordance with the provisions of the Amendment Act, the Competition Commission of India and the Competition Appellate Tribunal have been established
• The government of India replaced Competition Appellate Tribunal (COMPAT) with the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT) in 2017
• The provisions of the Competition Act relating to anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominant position were notified on May 20, 2009

The International Competition Network, which is a global body dedicated to enforcing competition law, has a simpler definition. The three common components of a cartel are:

• an agreement;
• between competitors;
• to restrict competition.

6. Way forward

CCI needs to revisit its definition of ‘relevant market’. In the age of digital world, defining relevant market has been a tough task for regulators world-wide. Technological developments like Web 3.0, AI, IoT, Blockchain and issues like data protection and privacy, search bias, platform neutrality, confidentiality, etc, have created a need for a robust competition law. Such a law should meet the demands of the technological era we live in.

 

 

For Prelims: Statutory board, Constitutional body For Mains: 1.Discuss the role and functions of the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in promoting and ensuring fair competition in the Indian market 2.Examine the challenges and limitations faced by the Competition Commission of India (CCI) in effectively regulating and promoting competition in the digital economy

 

Previous year Questions  1. Competition Commission of India is which kind of body? (RSMSSB Sanganak 2018) A. Statutory body B. Constitutional. C. Single Member D. Private Answer (A)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

 

SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE

 

 

1.Context

 

Black hole activities suppress the birth of new stars around it, shows a new study that can help in a deeper understanding of how galaxies evolve and may provide answers to why some have very low star-formation rates.

 

2.Black Hole

 

• A Black hole is a region of space-time exhibiting gravitational acceleration so strong that nothing no particles or even electromagnetic radiation such as light can escape from it.
• The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform space-time to form a Black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon.
• The concept was theorized by Albert Einstein in 1915 and the term 'black hole' was coined in the mid-1960s by American physicist John Archibald Wheeler.

Usually, black holes belong to two categories:

• One category ranges between a few solar masses and tens of solar masses. These are thought to form when massive stars die.
• The other category is supermassive black holes. These range from hundreds of thousands to billions of times that of the sun from the solar system to which Earth belongs.

 

3.Types of Black Holes

There are four different forms of black holes

1. Stellar
2. Intermediate
3. Supermassive
4. Miniature

• The first is the SMBH, or supermassive black hole. This is the largest variety, with an unquantifiable number of solar masses. This is typically found at the heart of the universe's biggest galaxies. The SMBH is located in Sagittarius A in our solar system.
• The second is the singularity, which is the black hole's eye (or core). This is the point at which the curve becomes infinite.
• The photon sphere, a spherical boundary (with no thickness) where photons move perpendicularly to the sphere and are imprisoned in an elliptical orbit about the black hole, is the third.
• A micro black hole, also known as a little black hole or a quantum mechanical black hole, is the last form. Stephen Hawking first mentioned them in 1971.

4.Formation of Black hole

• Astronomers believe that depending on a star's mass, only one of the three things can happen once it runs out of fuel. A star with a mass less than that of the sun falls into a 'white dwarf' with a radius of barely a few thousand kilometres.
• If the mass of the star is between one and four times that of the sun, it can form a 'neutron star with a radius of only a few kilometres, which is known as a 'pulsar'.
• Only a few stars with mass greater than four times that of the sun may avoid collapsing and creating black holes within their Schwarzschild radii. As a result, black holes could be the remains of enormous stars.
• Milky way, according to most astronomers, was born from a vast cloud of gas that collapsed and broke up into individual stars.
• The nucleus, or core, of the galaxy, presently contains the most densely packed stars. It's possible that there was too much substance at the very centre to form a regular star, or that the stars that did form were too close together to form a black hole.
• As a result, it's been proposed that black holes as huge as a hundred million Suns could exist in the centre of some galaxies.

5.Rare Supermassive blackhole

• A rare supermassive black hole has been spotted by a team of Indian researchers and The monster black hole is about one billion light years away from the Earth. The black hole in question was captured, spewing a jet of radiation and particles in one direction, unlike others that fire jets in opposite directions. But strangely for this galaxy, only one side of the jet is seen. The supermassive black holes create powerful jets and radiation and particles.
• The supermassive black hole occupies the centre of the RAD 12 galaxy, which is elliptical or egg-shaped. RAD 12 is in the process of merging with another galaxy, RAD 12b, in the next one billion years. RAD 12b, which is elliptical, is bigger and brighter than RAD 12. The jet is bigger than its host, RAD 12. It resembles a 440 thousand light-years-long mushroom.
• This discovery may help scientists study why star formation does not occur in elliptical galaxies. Star formation requires extremely cooled gas, usually forged in a cloud of interstellar gas and dust. The temperature in these regions ranges from -253.15°C-263.15°C, according to the University of Oregon. Theoretically, jets remove cold gas and suppress star formation. Researchers speculate that jets fired by supermassive black holes will likely suppress future star formation.

 

For prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims:  Black holes, RAD 12, RAD 12b, Supermassive black hole (SMBH), Sagittarius A For Mains: 1. What is a Black Hole? Explain the formation and types of Black Holes. (250 words) .

 

Source: Down To Earth

 

GREENHOUSE GASES(GHGs)

 

 

1. Context

 

India’s long-awaited greenhouse gas (GHG) emission intensity targets for key industrial sectors were finally notified on Oct 8, 2025. But months of bureaucratic delay have forced a downward revision in ambition, weakening the country’s carbon market

 

2.What are greenhouse gases?

 

Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming. These gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases (such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride).

These gases allow sunlight to enter the Earth's atmosphere freely. Once absorbed, the Earth's surface emits infrared radiation, but instead of allowing this radiation to escape back into space, greenhouse gases trap and re-radiate some of it back towards the Earth's surface. This process warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect.

Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, amplifying the greenhouse effect and contributing to global climate change

Here are the major greenhouse gases:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most abundant greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. It is released when fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burned
• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted from agriculture, waste decomposition, and fossil fuel production. It is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, but it breaks down in the atmosphere more quickly
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, industrial processes, and burning fossil fuels. It is a long-lived greenhouse gas that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries
• Fluorinated gases These are man-made chemicals used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and fire extinguishers. They are very potent greenhouse gases, but they are emitted in much smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
• Water vapor (H2O): The most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Water vapor plays an important role in the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities do not significantly affect the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere

3. What is the Greenhouse gas effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun. This process is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder, and life as we know it would not exist.

Here's how the greenhouse effect works:

• Solar radiation: Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and passes through it, warming the Earth's surface.

• Absorption and re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy and then emits it as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of this infrared radiation.

• Re-emission: The absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface. This trapped heat warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface, similar to how a greenhouse traps heat.

• Balance: The greenhouse effect helps maintain the Earth's temperature in a range suitable for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect or global warming

 

4. What are hydrofluorocarbons?

 

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a class of synthetic greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, aerosol propellants, and other industrial applications. They are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
• HFCs were developed as alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were phased out due to their significant ozone-depleting potential. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs do not contain chlorine atoms, so they do not contribute to ozone depletion.
• However, they are potent greenhouse gases, with high global warming potentials (GWPs), meaning they trap heat in the atmosphere at a much higher rate than carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Due to their role in contributing to climate change, efforts have been made internationally to regulate and phase out the use of HFCs. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, adopted in 2016, aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
• Many countries are transitioning to alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials, such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide. These efforts are essential for mitigating climate change by reducing the emissions of potent greenhouse gases like HFC

5. What are the adverse effects?

 

The greenhouse gas effect, when intensified beyond natural levels due to human activities, leads to a range of adverse effects on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.

 

Some of these effects include:

• The primary consequence of intensified greenhouse gas effect is global warming. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to a rise in average global temperatures
• Global warming alters weather patterns and climatic conditions worldwide, leading to changes such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, droughts, and floods. These changes can disrupt ecosystems, agriculture, and water supplies, leading to ecological imbalances and economic losses
• Warmer temperatures cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. This phenomenon threatens coastal communities, low-lying islands, and habitats, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion
•  Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide dissolving into oceans, resulting in ocean acidification. This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species
• Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face extinction. The rapid pace of climate change often outpaces the ability of many species to adapt, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation
• Climate change exacerbates health risks, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, increased prevalence of infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity due to changing agricultural conditions
• Climate change can lead to displacement of populations due to extreme weather events, loss of livelihoods in sectors such as agriculture and fishing, and increased conflicts over resources like water and arable land. These disruptions can strain social systems and economies, particularly in vulnerable regions

6.What is Montreal Protocol?

 

The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement aimed at protecting the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It was negotiated in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. The protocol is regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties.

Key points about the Montreal Protocol include:

• Objective: The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, which are substances that contain chlorine and bromine atoms and are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

• Ozone Layer: The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules (O3). This layer plays a crucial role in absorbing and filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.

• Ozone-Depleting Substances: The Montreal Protocol targets several categories of ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among others. These substances were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire extinguishers, and other industrial applications.

• Phasing Out: The protocol established a timetable for phasing out the production and consumption of ODS, with developed countries committing to earlier phase-out schedules and developing countries given more time to comply. Amendments to the protocol tightened regulations and accelerated the phase-out schedules over time.

• Success: The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as successful in achieving its objectives. By reducing the production and consumption of ODS, the protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Scientific assessments have confirmed a decrease in the atmospheric concentrations of ODS and a healing of the ozone layer.

• International Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol exemplifies successful international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. It has been ratified by almost every country in the world, demonstrating a shared commitment to protecting the ozone layer and mitigating climate change (as many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases)

7.Way Forward

 

Since 2020, the US has banned the import of HCFC 22 for any purpose other than in a process which results in its transformation or destruction. The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act, passed by Congress in December 2020, authorised the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to phase down the production and consumption of numerous forms of HFCs

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022) (A) Methane (B) Sulphur dioxide (C) Surface Ozone (D) Nitrogen dioxide (E) Carbon dioxide Choose the correct answer from the options given below : 1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only 2.(A), (C), (E) only 3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only 4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only Answer (2)

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

INFANT MORTALITY RATE (IMR)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The persistence of high infant mortality in Odisha isn't just a health indicator but it reflects socio-economic health realities of the state. We have listed four major reasons for the same

 

2. What is the Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)?

 

• The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is a key demographic and public health indicator that measures the number of deaths of infants under one year of age per 1,000 live births in a given year and population.
• In simple terms, it tells us how many babies do not survive their first year of life out of every 1,000 babies born alive.
• IMR reflects the overall health status, socio-economic conditions, and quality of healthcare services in a country. High IMR usually indicates issues such as malnutrition, poor maternal health, inadequate healthcare facilities, and lack of sanitation.
• Conversely, a low IMR shows improvements in medical care, immunization, maternal nutrition, and public health policies.
• For India, reducing IMR has been a central goal under various initiatives like the National Health Mission, Janani Suraksha Yojana, and Poshan Abhiyaan, as it is directly linked to the country’s progress on Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-being)

 

3. What are the trends in India’s IMR in the last decade as per the SRS, 2023?

 

 

• Over the past decade, Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, and Karnataka have managed to cut their Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) by more than half, marking the most significant improvements on this key child health indicator.
• According to the 2023 Sample Registration Survey (SRS), India’s IMR has fallen by over 37% in ten years—from 40 infant deaths per 1,000 live births in 2013 to 25 in 2023.
• The country’s IMR dropped below the global average around 2021, and its pace of decline has been faster than worldwide trends. However, India still lags behind the Asian average of 17.4 deaths per 1,000 births.
• In the most recent data, the national IMR showed a one-point decline from the previous year, while the average improvement during the last five years has been 1.4 points annually.
• Among the larger states, Kerala stands out with a single-digit IMR—just five deaths per 1,000 live births—a level comparable with developed nations. Yet, Kerala also records the widest gender gap, with IMRs of nine for boys and two for girls.
• Smaller states like Manipur, Sikkim, and Goa, along with nearly all Union Territories, also report single-digit IMRs.
• At the other end of the spectrum, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh have the highest IMRs in the country, each at 37, followed by Odisha and Assam, both at 30
• A report published earlier this week notes that the national average infant mortality rate (IMR) stands at 25 deaths per 1,000 live births. Referring to the findings, Kerala’s Health Minister Veena George highlighted that the State’s IMR is even lower than that of the United States, which recorded 5.6 deaths per 1,000 live births in 2022, and reaffirmed that Kerala has the lowest IMR in India.

• Kerala’s success is the outcome of consistent improvements in the health sector over the years. Data from the State’s Department of Economics and Statistics shows that the IMR stood at 7.42 in 2010, briefly rose to 8.2 in 2012, but has steadily declined since then.
• Further, the 2023 State Vital Statistics Report points out that institutional deliveries dominate childbirth practices in Kerala. In rural areas, 96.16% of deliveries took place in healthcare institutions, while in urban areas the figure reached 99.88%, reflecting strong access to maternal and child healthcare facilities

 

4. What are the factors behind the reduction in infant mortality in India?

 

 

The reduction in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in India over the past few decades is the outcome of a combination of healthcare interventions, socio-economic progress, and policy focus. Here’s an explanatory account:

 

• Improved antenatal, intranatal, and postnatal care has been central. Schemes like the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) and Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) incentivized institutional deliveries and provided free maternal care, reducing risks during childbirth
• A large majority of births now take place in healthcare institutions, supported by programs under the National Health Mission (NHM) and better rural health infrastructure. Institutional births reduce complications, ensure trained attendance, and provide immediate neonatal care
• Expansion of the Universal Immunization Programme and the introduction of Mission Indradhanush helped protect children from life-threatening diseases such as measles, diphtheria, and pneumonia, thereby reducing infant deaths
• The setting up of Special Newborn Care Units (SNCUs), Nutrition Rehabilitation Centres (NRCs), and improved access to pediatric services has strengthened survival chances for vulnerable infants
• Government schemes like the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), Poshan Abhiyaan, and mid-day meals have improved maternal and child nutrition. Better maternal health directly lowers the risk of premature or underweight babies, a major contributor to infant deaths
• Education of women has led to greater awareness about hygiene, healthcare, and nutrition, resulting in healthier pregnancies and better childcare practices. States with higher female literacy, like Kerala, consistently show lower IMRs
• Flagship initiatives under the National Health Mission, such as the India Newborn Action Plan (2014), set specific targets for reducing neonatal and infant mortality. Regular monitoring through the Sample Registration Survey (SRS) has kept the issue at the forefront of policy action

 

5. Why are there interstate differences in IMR in India?

 

 

• The Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report 2023 makes it clear that while India has achieved significant progress in reducing its Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), there are still striking differences between states. These interstate disparities arise from a complex interplay of health infrastructure, socio-economic development, governance, and social practices.
• One of the foremost reasons is the variation in healthcare access and quality across states. States such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Himachal Pradesh have built strong public health systems, ensuring trained medical personnel, institutional deliveries, and neonatal care facilities are widely available.
• In contrast, states like Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh still struggle with underfunded health services, shortages of doctors and nurses, and poor rural health outreach, which contributes to persistently high infant deaths.
• Maternal and child nutrition also plays a decisive role. In states with high rates of malnutrition and anaemia among mothers, babies are more likely to be born underweight or premature, making them vulnerable to infections and early death. This is particularly evident in central and eastern states where poverty, food insecurity, and weaker implementation of nutrition schemes have kept IMR higher.
• Education and awareness further shape these differences. States with high levels of female literacy, such as Kerala and Tamil Nadu, tend to have mothers who are more aware of hygiene, breastfeeding, vaccination, and healthcare needs, directly lowering infant mortality. On the other hand, low female literacy in poorer states often limits health-seeking behaviour, leading to preventable deaths.
• Another factor is infrastructure beyond health services, including sanitation, drinking water, electricity, and transport. Kerala, with nearly universal institutional deliveries, has also ensured that roads and ambulances connect rural households to hospitals.
• In contrast, hilly, tribal, and remote areas in states like Odisha and Madhya Pradesh face access barriers that delay or prevent timely medical intervention.
• Social and cultural practices also shape the gap. In some regions, deep-rooted gender biases lead to differential care for male and female infants.
• The SRS 2023 highlights Kerala as having the lowest IMR overall, but also shows a sharp gender disparity—IMR for boys being higher than for girls. Such gendered patterns differ from state to state, contributing to uneven outcomes.
• Finally, governance and policy prioritisation explain a large part of the difference. States that have consistently invested in health and social welfare—through schemes for maternal care, immunisation drives, and nutrition—show sustained improvements. States where such programs remain weakly implemented or irregularly continue to report higher infant deaths despite overall national progress

 

6. Why are there interstate differences in IMR in India?

 

 

• Interstate differences in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) in India arise because health outcomes are shaped by a mix of healthcare access, socio-economic development, nutrition, education, and governance, all of which vary widely across states.
• In states such as Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Himachal Pradesh, IMR has dropped to single digits because of strong public health systems, high female literacy, widespread institutional deliveries, and effective implementation of maternal and child health schemes.
• These states have invested consistently in healthcare infrastructure, ensured better nutrition through schemes like ICDS and Poshan Abhiyaan, and created social awareness around immunisation, breastfeeding, and hygiene. Kerala, for instance, combines near-universal institutional deliveries with high maternal education levels, giving it one of the lowest IMRs in the country.
• By contrast, states such as Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha continue to record high IMRs. The reasons include weak health infrastructure, shortage of trained medical staff, poor access to emergency neonatal care, and low coverage of institutional deliveries, especially in rural and tribal belts.
• Malnutrition and maternal anaemia are also more prevalent in these regions, leading to low birth weight and greater vulnerability to infections. Poor sanitation and lack of safe drinking water worsen child health outcomes, while low female literacy and limited awareness about healthcare practices restrict preventive care.
• Differences in policy implementation and governance also explain the gaps. States that have prioritised maternal and child health through effective rollout of schemes like Janani Suraksha Yojana, Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram, and Mission Indradhanush have seen sharper declines in IMR. Others lag because of weaker monitoring, limited resources, and uneven outreach

 

For Prelims: Infant Mortality Rate (IMR), Sample Registration System (SRS), Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)   For Mains: GS II -  Issues relating to development and management of Social Sector/Services relating to Health, Education, Human Resources.

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements (UPSC 2016) 1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome 2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030 Which of the statements given above is/ are correct A. 1 Only            B. 2 Only                   C. Both 1 and 2                 D. Neither 1 Nor 2   2. Maternal Mortality Ratio (MMR) of India is released by which of the following office? (NCL Staff Nurse 2020) A. Office of Registrar General of India B. Office of CAG C. Office of Union Health Minister D. Office of Statistical computation of India   Answers: 1-B, 2- A

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

CRITICAL MINERALS

 

 

1. Context

 

Critical minerals are having a moment. Prime Minister Anthony Albanese is at the White House to talk up Australia’s rich deposits with President Donald Trump. China, which has a global stranglehold on rare earth elements, recently imposed new export restrictions, much to Trump’s annoyance

 

2. What are Critical Minerals?

 

Critical minerals are raw materials that are essential for economic and national security, but whose supply may be at risk due to geological scarcity, geopolitical issues, trade policy, or other factors

Critical minerals are typically defined by governments or organizations based on their importance to the economy and the potential risks to their supply

• Rare Earth Elements (REEs): neodymium, dysprosium, terbium
• Lithium
• Cobalt
• Graphite
• Gallium
• Indium
• Tungsten
• Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)

3. Why are critical minerals important?

 

• Minerals such as copper, lithium, nickel, and cobalt, along with certain rare earth elements, are considered critical due to their essential role in the global transition to greener and cleaner energy sources.
• According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the demand for lithium surged by 30% in 2023, with nickel, cobalt, graphite, and rare earth elements experiencing growth between 8% and 15%, collectively valued at $325 billion.
• The IEA's Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2024 report indicates that achieving the world's goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius within a net-zero emissions framework will necessitate a significant increase in demand for these minerals.
• By 2040, copper demand is projected to rise by 50%, nickel, cobalt, and rare earth elements by 100%, graphite by 300%, and lithium by 800%, which is vital for battery production.
• Developing sustainable supply chains for these minerals is therefore crucial. In India, the absence of readily available reserves has led to complete import dependence for minerals such as lithium, cobalt, and nickel. 

4. What is being done to spur production?

 

• Although India possesses natural reserves of several critical minerals, they remain largely unexplored and untapped. For example, despite holding 11% of the world's ilmenite deposits, which is the primary source of titanium dioxide used in numerous applications, India still imports a billion dollars' worth of titanium dioxide annually, as noted by former Mines Secretary Vivek Bharadwaj.
• Additionally, the "lucky" discovery of lithium reserves in the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) while exploring for limestone has raised hopes for achieving some level of self-sufficiency in lithium. Announced in February as India's first lithium find, these reserves are estimated at 5.9 million tonnes, prompting the government to expedite their extraction.
• Recognizing the risks of relying on a limited number of countries for these minerals and their processing, the central government amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 in August 2023 to allow mining concessions for 24 critical and strategic minerals.

5. Way Forward

 

The list of what's considered "critical" can vary by country and change over time based on technological developments and geopolitical situations. The management of critical minerals is an ongoing challenge that requires balancing economic needs, environmental concerns, and geopolitical realities

 

 

For Prelims: Critical minerals, Ministry of Mines, carbon emissions,  cleaner energy,  lithium, cobalt, nickel, graphite, tin, copper, Selenium, Cadmium, Centre of Excellence on critical minerals, Australia's CSIRO, Geological Survey of India,    For Mains:  1. What are critical minerals? Discuss their significance for a country's economic development and national security. Explain how the identification of critical minerals helps in reducing import dependency and ensuring resource security. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the mineral resources of India, consider the following pairs: (UPSC 2010) Mineral                         90%Natural sources in 1. Copper                       Jharkhand 2. Nickel                        Orissa 3. Tungsten                    Kerala Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?   A. 1 and 2 only            B. 2 only             C. 1 and 3 only            D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: B   2. Recently, there has been a concern over the short supply of a group of elements called 'rare earth metals.' Why? (UPSC 2012) 1. China, which is the largest producer of these elements, has imposed some restrictions on their export. 2. Other than China, Australia, Canada and Chile, these elements are not found in any country. 3. Rare earth metals are essential for the manufacture of various kinds of electronic items and there is a growing demand for these elements. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only              B. 2 and 3 only           C. 1 and 3 only          D.  1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   3. In India, what is the role of the Coal Controller's Organization (CCO)? (UPSC 2022) 1. CCO is the major source of Coal Statistics in Government of India. 2. It monitors progress of development of Captive Coal/Lignite blocks. 3. It hears any objection to the Government's notification relating to acquisition of coal-bearing areas. 4. It ensures that coal mining companies deliver the coal to end users in the prescribed time. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3            B. 3 and 4 only           C. 1 and 2 only          D. 1, 2 and 4   Answer: A   4. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)  A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year. B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels. C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place. D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.   Answer: A   5. Direction: It consists of two statements, one labelled as ‘Statement (I)’ and the others as ‘Statement (II)’. You are to examine these two statements carefully and select the answer using the codes given below: (UPSC ESE 2018) Statement (I): Green energy refers to one which does not harm the ecosystem of planet earth. Statement (II): All renewable energy is green energy. A. Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) individually true and Statement (II) is the correct explanation of Statement (I) B. Both statement (I) and Statement (II) are individually true, but Statement (II) is not the correct explanation of Statement (I) C. Statement (I) is true, but Statement (II) is false D. Statement (I) is false, but Statement (II) is true   Answer: C   6. Which type of battery is used in the recently launched world's first fully electric cargo ship by change? (Delhi Police Constable 2017) A.  Lead Acid        B. Manganese        C. Lithium ion        D. Nickel metal hydride   Answer: C   7. White gold is an alloy of (UPSC CAPF 2022)  A. gold, nickel and palladium B. gold, cobalt and palladium C. gold, titanium and platinum D. gold, magnesium and palladium   Answer: A   8. Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is its importance? (UPSC 2012)  1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity. 2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far. 3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency. 4. It can be used as 'conducting electrodes' required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs. Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1 and 2 only          B. 3 and 4 only         C.  1, 2 and 4 only          D.  1, 2, 3 and 4   Answer: C   9. Graphite and diamonds are__________. (WBCS Prelims 2020)   A. isotopes           B.  isomers             C. isotones           D. allotropes   Answer: D   10. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury. 2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only         B. 2 and 3 only        C.  3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: D   11. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (UPSC 2013) 1. Arsenic 2. Sorbitol 3. Fluoride 4. Formaldehyde 5. Uranium Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A. 1 and 3 only           B. 2, 4 and 5 only          C. 1, 3 and 5 only           D.  1, 2, 3, 4 and 5   Answer: C   12. In the context of solving pollution problems, what is/are the advantage/advantages of the bioremediation technique? (UPSC 2017) 1. It is a technique for cleaning up pollution by enhancing the same biodegradation process that occurs in nature. 2. Any contaminant with heavy metals such as cadmium and lead can be readily and completely treated by bioremediation using microorganisms. 3. Genetic engineering can be used to create microorganisms specifically designed for bioremediation. Select the correct answer using the code given below:  A. 1 only         B.  2 and 3 only          C.  1 and 3 only             D. 1, 2 and 3   Answer: C   13. Due to improper/indiscriminate disposal of old and used computers or their parts, which of the following are released into the environment as e-waste? (UPSC 2013)  1. Beryllium 2. Cadmium 3. Chromium 4. Heptachlor 5. Mercury 6. Lead 7. Plutonium Select the correct answer using the codes given below.  A. 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only           B. 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 only          C. 2, 4, 5 and 7 only               D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7   Answer: B   14. When was the Geological Survey of India (GSI) of India founded? (UPRVUNL Staff Nurse 2021) A. 1851             B. 1951            C. 1871              D. 1931   Answer: A

 

 

Source: The Hindu