2. The objective of a Uniform Civil Code (UCC) in India

• A Uniform Civil Code (UCC) aims to establish a consistent set of laws to replace the diverse personal laws associated with different religions. These laws pertain to crucial aspects like marriage, divorce, adoption, and inheritance. The constitutional basis for the UCC is found in Article 44, which directs the state to "endeavour to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India." This provision falls under the Directive Principles of State Policy, playing a significant role in governance, even though it is not legally enforceable.
• The inclusion of the UCC provision sparked intense debates during the deliberations of India's Constituent Assembly. There was a profound discussion on whether it should be considered a fundamental right or a directive principle. Opponents raised concerns that implementing a UCC might compromise the rights of religious minorities and erode India's cultural diversity. Some argued that it could conflict with the freedom of religion guaranteed under Article 19 (now Article 25) of the draft Constitution.
• While some, like Member K.M. Munshi, advocated for the UCC, emphasizing its potential to promote gender equality and eliminate discriminatory practices against women, others, like Member Naziruddin Ahmad, expressed reservations. Ahmad highlighted the need for community consent for implementing such a uniform set of laws.
• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, taking a more ambivalent stance, expressed the desirability of a UCC but recommended that it be "purely voluntary" in its initial stages. He argued that since the provision was recommendatory and not mandatory, it should not be imposed on all citizens.
• The matter was ultimately settled with a 5:4 majority vote, led by the sub-committee on fundamental rights headed by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. The decision was that the establishment of a UCC should not be categorized as a fundamental right.

3. Development of Uttarakhand's Uniform Civil Code (UCC)

• In June 2022, the Uttarakhand government established an expert committee led by former Supreme Court judge Justice Ranjana Prakash Desai to explore avenues for implementing a Uniform Civil Code (UCC). This initiative to implement a UCC in the state if re-elected. Despite the Chief Minister's announcement in June of that year that a draft UCC was prepared, the committee faced delays in submitting its report. The original deadline in November 2022 was extended multiple times.
• Right from the outset, the proposal encountered opposition from rival political parties, with Congress representatives in the state claiming that the UCC initiative was merely a political strategy to influence voters in the lead-up to the general elections. The tribal community, constituting 2.9% of the population, had not given consent to the UCC. Additionally, the Van Gujjar tribe, a Muslim nomadic group with around 60,000 members, expressed concerns about the proposed law.
• The controversies surrounding community consent and political motivations added complexity to the discussions surrounding the proposed implementation of the UCC in the state.

4. Anticipated Changes in Uttarakhand's Uniform Civil Code (UCC)

• The forthcoming draft of the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) in Uttarakhand is poised to bring about significant changes, primarily focusing on gender equality within legal frameworks. Notable provisions include equal treatment of men and women, particularly in matters related to inheritance. The UCC is expected to eliminate practices associated with marriage and divorce, such as polygamy, iddat (mandatory waiting period for women after the dissolution of a Muslim marriage), and triple talaq. Furthermore, the proposed Code is likely to ensure an equal property share for Muslim women, surpassing the current 25% share stipulated by Muslim personal law.
• Despite these amendments, the minimum age for marriage is anticipated to remain unchanged, with 18 years for women and 21 years for men. The UCC is set to encompass a range of issues, including divorce, marriage registrations, adoption, and provisions for the social security of ageing parents. Additionally, the committee has recommended the mandatory registration of live-in relationships.
• In clarifying the intentions behind the UCC, the proposed changes are not geared towards appeasing any specific community but rather aim to empower all sections of society. The implementation of the UCC would not impact reservations, marital rights, customs, or any other class-specific considerations. The emphasis is on fostering equality and empowerment across diverse segments of the population.

5. Supreme Court's Stance on Uniform Civil Code (UCC) and Related Petitions

Over the years, the Supreme Court has engaged in discussions on the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) through various judgments. However, it has consistently refrained from issuing directives to the government, emphasizing that law-making falls exclusively within the domain of Parliament. In the 1985 Shah Bano Begum case, the Court expressed regret over Article 44 remaining a "dead letter" and urged its implementation. This sentiment was echoed in subsequent cases like Sarla Mudgal versus Union of India (1995) and John Vallamattom versus Union of India (2003).

Petitions for Uniformity in Laws

Between 2021 and 2022, six petitions were filed in the Supreme Court seeking uniformity in divorce, maintenance, and alimony laws, asserting that existing laws discriminated against women and thereby violated constitutional provisions under Article 14 (right to equality) and Article 15 (right against discrimination based on religion and gender). In March of the previous year, a Bench led by Chief Justice of India (CJI) D.Y. Chandrachud dismissed these petitions, emphasizing that such matters are within the exclusive legislative purview of Parliament.

Dismissal of Petition Challenging Uttarakhand's UCC Committee

In January of the same year, the Supreme Court dismissed a petition challenging the Uttarakhand government's establishment of an expert committee on the UCC. The Court highlighted that Article 162 permits the exercise of executive powers, stating, "Article 162 of the Constitution indicates that the executive power of a State extends to matters concerning which the Legislature of the State has power to make laws." The order emphasized that the constitution of such a committee, as per Entry 5 of the Concurrent List, dealing with "marriage and divorce; infants and minors; adoption; wills, intestacy, and succession," could not be challenged as ultra vires.

6. Law Commission's Perspective on the Uniform Civil Code (UCC)

• In 2016, the government sought the Law Commission of India's guidance on formulating a Uniform Civil Code (UCC) due to the diverse personal laws existing in the country. In response, the 21st Law Commission, led by former Supreme Court judge Justice Balbir Singh Chauhan, submitted a 185-page consultation paper in August 2018 titled "Reforms of family law." The paper concluded that, at that stage, the formulation of a UCC was deemed "neither necessary nor desirable." It emphasized that a unified nation did not inherently require "uniformity" and that secularism should not contradict the diverse cultural and religious practices prevailing in the country. While rejecting the immediate need for a UCC, the commission recommended amendments to eliminate discriminatory practices and stereotypes present in the existing personal laws.
• On June 14 of the following year, the 22nd Law Commission, led by Justice (Retd) Rituraj Awasthi, issued a notification seeking input from various stakeholders, including the public and religious organizations, on the UCC. Notably, Justice Awasthi, during his tenure as Chief Justice of the Karnataka High Court, had ruled in favour of the Karnataka government's order prohibiting the wearing of hijab in educational institutions.
• The Law Commission's transition from deeming a UCC as unnecessary in 2018 to actively seeking public opinion in 2022 signifies a shift in perspective. While the 2018 report emphasized the importance of maintaining cultural and religious diversity, the subsequent move to engage stakeholders suggests a willingness to reconsider and evaluate the need for a UCC, taking into account diverse viewpoints and societal changes.

7. Future Developments in the Uniform Civil Code (UCC) Landscape

• Following Uttarakhand's lead, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat have also established committees to kickstart the formulation of a Uniform Civil Code (UCC). This push for a UCC was included in the BJP's election manifesto for the Karnataka Assembly polls, although the Congress eventually secured a significant victory in that election.
• The question of whether the central government will propose a UCC on a pan-India level remains a topic of debate. The central government will likely proceed cautiously, observing the outcomes of the initiatives undertaken by individual states. The awaited report from the 22nd Law Commission is anticipated to carry persuasive weight in shaping the discourse.
• The renewed momentum towards a UCC may also be influenced by a pending query before the Supreme Court concerning the "scope and ambit of the right to freedom of religion under Article 25 of the Constitution." This question originated in the Sabarimala case and was framed by a Constitution Bench for reference to a larger bench. Despite three years passing, there has been no substantial progress on this matter.
• The evolving landscape of UCC initiatives in various states, coupled with the legal and political considerations at the national level, indicates a complex and dynamic situation. The outcome of these state-level efforts, coupled with the pending Supreme Court query, will likely influence the trajectory of discussions on the UCC at both the state and national levels. The UCC debate continues to be shaped by legal, political, and societal dynamics, with potentially far-reaching implications for India's legal framework and cultural diversity.

 LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR 

• The Constitution of India allows for the nomination of members to both Parliament and the State legislatures.
• However, the earlier provision of nominating two Anglo-Indian representatives to the Lok Sabha and one to State Legislative Assemblies was abolished in 2020.
• At present, the Rajya Sabha includes 12 nominated members, chosen by the President based on the advice of the Union Council of Ministers.
• In States that have a Legislative Council, about one-sixth of its members are nominated by the Governor, acting on the recommendations of the respective State Council of Ministers

• Nominations to State Legislative Assemblies in India are a constitutional provision aimed at ensuring inclusivity and representation of communities or groups that may otherwise remain outside the electoral process.
• Under Article 333 of the Indian Constitution, the Governor of a State has the power to nominate one member of the Anglo-Indian community to the Legislative Assembly of that State if, in the Governor’s opinion, the community is not adequately represented.
• This was a special arrangement meant to safeguard the political voice of the Anglo-Indians after independence. However, this provision was abolished by the 104th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2019, which came into effect in January 2020. Since then, no Anglo-Indian members are nominated to State Assemblies.

Apart from this, some Union Territories with Legislative Assemblies also have provisions for nomination. For example:

• In Puducherry, under the Government of Union Territories Act, 1963, the Central Government can nominate up to three members to the Legislative Assembly, in addition to the 30 elected members. This provision was upheld in the K. Lakshminarayanan vs. Union of India (2018) case, though questions were raised about whether the nominations should be based on the advice of the Council of Ministers.

• In Jammu & Kashmir, the J&K Reorganisation Act, 2019 (amended in 2023) provides for 90 elected seats in the Legislative Assembly. It also allows the Lieutenant Governor to nominate up to five members: two women, two Kashmiri migrants, and one displaced person from Pakistan-occupied Kashmir.

 

7. Way Forward

 

A Union Territory (UT) does not hold the same constitutional position as a full-fledged State within India’s federal structure. Still, UTs that have Legislative Assemblies function with their own elected governments, which remain accountable to the people. The practice of nominating MLAs usually does not raise concerns when the same political party governs both the Centre and the UT. However, conflicts arise when there are political differences between the two, as this can undermine the democratic process. In relatively smaller Assemblies, such as those of Jammu & Kashmir and Puducherry, the role of nominated MLAs becomes crucial, as they can potentially alter the balance of power—turning a majority into a minority government or vice versa—thus distorting the electoral mandate.

The case of Jammu & Kashmir is particularly unique, since it remained a State with special autonomy until 2019. Although its conversion into a UT has been upheld by the Supreme Court, the Union government has assured that statehood will be restored soon. Given this background, it would be more consistent with democratic principles if the Lieutenant Governor nominates the five members to the J&K Assembly based on the advice of the Council of Ministers. Such an approach would preserve the spirit of representative democracy

 

 

For Prelims: Rajya Sabha, Parliament, Article 249, Article 312, Special Provisions, Article 84, Article 102 For Mains:  1. Explain the procedure of nomination and election in the Rajya Sabha. How are the members of the Rajya Sabha chosen, and what are the criteria for their eligibility? (250 Words) 2.  Critically evaluate the role of the Rajya Sabha in the Indian parliamentary system. Identify any challenges faced by the house and suggest potential reforms.  (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Consider the following statements:  The Parliamentary Committee on Public Accounts (UPSC 2013) 1. consists of not more than 25 members of the Lok Sabha. 2. scrutinizes appropriation and finance accounts of the Government. 3. examines the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only     B. 2 and 3 only      C. 3 only         D. 1, 2 and 3     2. With reference to the Parliament of India, which of the following Parliamentary Committees scrutinizes and reports to the House whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-laws, etc., conferred by the Constitution or delegated by the Parliament are being properly exercised by the Executive within the scope of such delegation? (UPSC 2018) A. Committee on Government Assurances B. Committee on Subordinate Legislation C. Rules Committee D. Business Advisory Committee     3. According to the Representation of the People Act, 1951, in the event of a person being elected to both houses of Parliament, he has to notify within ______ days in which house he intends to function. (Delhi Police Constable 2020)  A. 22       B. 10        C.  20            D. 15   4. Regarding Money bill, Which of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC 2018) A. A bill shall be deemed to be a money bill if it contains only provisions relating to imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax B. A Money bill has provisions for the custody of the Consolidated Fund of India or the Contingency Fund of India C. A Money Bill is concerned with the appropriation of money out of the Contingency Fund of India D. A Money Bill deals with the regulation of borrowing of money or giving of any guarantee by the Government of India Answer: 1-B, 2-B, 3-B, 4-C

Source: The Indian Express

NATIONAL SPACE LAW

 

 

 

1. Context

 

India is set to celebrate its second National Space Day on August 23. Following Chandrayaan-3’s soft-landing near the lunar south pole to the upcoming Gaganyaan and Chandrayaan missions, as well as the Bharat Antariksh Station, the Indian space programme is set to make history many times over. Yet an essential component remains grounded — the legal architecture. In the race to explore, innovate, and commercialise outer space, a strong space law is necessary

 

2. Global Space Legislation

 

• The Outer Space Treaty of 1967 declares outer space as the common heritage of humanity, thereby prohibiting any claim of sovereignty over it.
• It also makes states accountable for all space activities carried out under their jurisdiction, whether by government agencies or private operators.
• Supplementary agreements to the treaty establish binding norms relating to rights, duties, and liability.
• However, these international agreements do not automatically apply within domestic legal systems. As highlighted by Aarti Holla-Maini, Director of the UN Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA), the UN space treaties lay down the essential guiding principles—from ensuring the peaceful use of outer space to defining the liability of states.
• To implement these norms effectively, countries need to pass national space laws, which ensure that their space industries grow responsibly, sustainably, and in harmony with global obligations.
• India is a party to the major UN space treaties but is still in the process of adopting a comprehensive national space law. Unlike policy, which expresses intent, legislation provides an enforceable legal framework.
• According to Rossana Deim-Hoffmann, who leads UNOOSA’s Global Space Law Project, domestic space laws bring clarity, predictability, and regulatory stability for both state and private players.
• Several nations—including the United States, Japan, and Luxembourg—have already introduced such laws, creating systems for licensing, liability management, and recognition of commercial space rights

 

3. India's Space Legislation

 

 

• India has adopted a gradual and carefully sequenced approach towards framing space legislation. Space law expert Ranjana Kaul explains that national space law must address two interconnected dimensions.
• The first involves technical rules governing the conduct of commercial space activities in orbit, which corresponds to the “authorisation” requirement under Article VI of the Outer Space Treaty (OST). The Department of Space has been advancing systematically in this area.
• This cautious strategy has already produced tangible outcomes, such as the Catalogue of Indian Standards for Space Industry, aimed at ensuring the safety of space missions; the Indian Space Policy, which specifies the types of activities open to private participation; and the IN-SPACe Norms, Guidelines and Procedures (NPG) 2023, which operationalise the policy in terms of authorising space-related activities.
• Yet, the second key element remains incomplete. Dr. Kaul points out that this pertains to the comprehensive legislative framework—or “space activities law”—which would incorporate provisions of the OST in a precise and well-drafted manner

 

 

4. Outer Space Treaty of 1967

 

• The Outer Space Treaty of 1967—formally known as the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies—is considered the foundation of international space law.
• It was adopted during the Cold War era, when both the United States and the Soviet Union were competing in space exploration, to ensure that outer space would not become another arena of conflict.
• The treaty establishes the principle that outer space is the “province of all mankind”, meaning it cannot be claimed by any one country. This rules out national appropriation of celestial bodies such as the Moon or planets, either through sovereignty, occupation, or any other means.
• Instead, space is to be used for peaceful purposes and for the benefit of all humanity, regardless of a nation’s level of scientific or technological development.
• Another crucial aspect of the treaty is the responsibility it places on states. Governments are not only accountable for their own activities in space but also for those carried out by private or commercial entities under their jurisdiction.
• This ensures that states must authorise and continually supervise private ventures in space. The treaty also lays down liability rules, making states internationally responsible for any damage caused by their space objects to other states or their citizens.
• Additionally, the treaty explicitly prohibits the placement of nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit, on celestial bodies, or in outer space in general. The Moon and other celestial bodies must be used exclusively for peaceful purposes, barring any military bases, installations, or weapons testing there.
• While the Outer Space Treaty provides broad guiding principles, it does not go into the fine details of how space activities should be regulated domestically. For that reason, countries are expected to enact national space legislation to implement its obligations within their own jurisdictions.
• In essence, the Outer Space Treaty created a global legal framework that has helped keep outer space free from territorial disputes and militarisation, while at the same time promoting international cooperation in the exploration and use of space

 

5. Industry Perspectives

 

 

• IN-SPACe, which at present functions without a formal legal mandate, needs explicit statutory authority to effectively serve as the primary regulatory body for India’s space sector.
• A comprehensive national space law must outline in detail the licensing framework—covering eligibility criteria, application procedures, timelines, fee structures, and grounds for approval or rejection. Such clarity would help prevent unnecessary delays and bureaucratic hurdles that often arise from the involvement of multiple ministries.
• The dual-use nature of space technology adds further complexity, as companies frequently encounter prolonged approval processes even after receiving provisional clearances.
• To address this, clear policies on foreign direct investment (FDI)—such as permitting 100% FDI in satellite component manufacturing through the automatic route—would be vital for attracting capital, particularly for startups seeking to expand their operations.
• In addition, the sector requires the establishment of affordable insurance mechanisms to protect emerging companies handling expensive space assets. Protecting intellectual property (IP) rights is equally essential.
• Legislation should safeguard innovation without excessive state interference, encourage collaborative efforts between industry, academia, and government, and build confidence among potential investors

 

For Prelims: Foreign direct investment (FDI), Outer Space Treaty (OST), IN-SPACe   For Mains: GS II - Governance on Space

 

Previous Year Questions     1. What is the purpose of the US Space Agency’s Themis Mission, which was recently in the news? (UPSC 2008) A.  To study the possibility of life on Mars B.  To study the satellites of Saturn C.  To study the colorful display of high-latitude skies D. To build a space laboratory to study the stellar explosions     2. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014)                Spacecraft                                                         Purpose 1. Cassini-Huygens:                                 Orbiting Venus and transmitting data to theEarth    2. Messenger:                                            Mapping and investigating the Mercury 3. Voyager 1 and 2:                                   Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only           B. 2 and 3 only           C. 1 and 3 only                     D. 1, 2 and 3   3. Chandrayaan - 2 was launched from which of the following states by ISRO? (DSSSB LDC 2019)  A. Maharashtra           B.  Rajasthan             C.  Kerala             D.  Andhra Pradesh   4. The phases of the moon as we see from the Earth are due to changing relative positions of the sun, the earth and the moon. Which of the following statements is true?  (CTET  2022)   A. on a full moon day, the earth comes between the sun and the moon B. on a new moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun C. on a full moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun D. on a new moon day, the earth is between the sun and the moon. E. on a new moon day, the sun is between the moon and the earth  A. A, B          B.  B, C          C. C, D          D. A, E   5. ISRO is related to:  (SSC JE EE  2020)  A. space research          B. agricultural research           C. seed research        D. marine research 6. “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to (UPSC 2020)  A. Voyager-2          B. New Horizons          C. LISA Pathfinder          D. Evolved LISA   7. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only       B. 2 and 3           C. 1 and 2            D. 3 only     8. ‘Black hole’ is a (NDA  2019) (UPPSC 2019) A. huge black star which has zero acceleration due to gravity on its surface B. star which has moderate acceleration due to gravity on its surface C. star which has collapsed into itself and has large acceleration due to gravity on its surface D. star which has collapsed into itself and has zero acceleration due to gravity on its surface    9. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014) Spacecraft                                 Purpose Cassini-Huygens              Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth Messenger                        Mapping and investigating the Mercury Voyager 1 and 2               Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only       (b) 2 and 3 only            (c) 1 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3   10. Aditya L1 is a ______. (ISRO IPRC Technical Assistant Mechanical 2016)  A. Long-range missile B. Rocket to moon C. Spacecraft project D. Light combat aircraft     11. With reference to 'Astrosat', the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space. 2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 only           B.  2 only          C. Both 1 and 2         D. Neither 1 nor 2     12. If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth? (UPSC 2022) 1. GPS and navigation systems could fail. 2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions. 3. Power grids could be damaged. 4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth. 5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet. 6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed. 7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 only    B. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only    C.  1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only    D.  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7     13. A spinning neutron star emits radio-wave and is called (Maha TAIT 2017) A. Supernova        B. Pulsar            C. White dwarf          D. Protostar     14. Consider the following pairs:  (UPSC 2023) Objects in space   Description (1) Cepheids          Giant clouds of dust and gas in space (2) Nebulae            Stars which brighten and dim periodically (3) Pulsars            Neutron stars that are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? A. Only one             B. Only two          C. All three          D. None   Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-D, 4-A, 5-A, 6-D, 7-A, 8-C, 9-B, 10-C, 11-D, 12-C, 13-B, 14-A   Mains 1. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions, both in terms of technology and logistics. Explain critically (UPSC 2017) 2. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? (UPSC 2016)

 

 Source: The Hindu

 

CHARGE-COUPLED DEVICES

 

 

 

1. Context

 

A charge-coupled device (CCD) is a remarkable electronic component used to capture images by converting light into electrical signals. Its invention marked a significant milestone in technology, influencing fields such as photography, astronomy, medicine, and many others.

 

 

2. What is a Charge-Coupled Device?

 

• A Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) is a type of electronic sensor that plays a crucial role in capturing images. It is widely used in cameras, telescopes, scanners, and various scientific instruments.
• The CCD works on the principle of converting light into electrical signals. When light falls on its surface, it strikes tiny photosensitive cells called pixels, each of which generates an electrical charge proportional to the amount of light it receives.
• These charges are then transferred across the chip in a systematic way—almost like passing a bucket of water down a line—until they reach the edge of the device, where they are converted into a voltage signal. This signal is then processed into digital data to form an image.
• What makes CCDs particularly important is their high sensitivity and accuracy in capturing light, which allows them to produce very clear and detailed images, even in low-light conditions.
• Because of this, CCDs have been widely used in astronomy, medical imaging, and scientific research, where precision and clarity are vital.
• Although newer technologies like CMOS sensors have become more common in consumer electronics due to their lower power consumption and cost, CCDs remain highly valued in areas requiring top-quality image resolution and minimal noise

• When it was first developed in 1969, the Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) marked a breakthrough in technology by enabling the conversion of light into electrical signals through a sequence of capacitors that transferred electric charges step by step.
• Over time, this innovation revolutionised the way images are captured, processed, and shared, making it one of the most significant scientific achievements of the 20th century.
• A CCD is essentially an integrated circuit composed of a matrix of tiny picture elements, known as pixels. Each pixel functions as a miniature light detector, gathering incoming photons and transforming them into corresponding electrical charges. These charges are then systematically shifted across the chip—pixel by pixel—until they reach the output, where they are read, processed, and turned into a digital image.
• To visualise this, think of a grid in which each square records the amount of light it receives and converts it into a measurable electric signal. When all these signals are combined, they create a complete, accurate picture. This is the fundamental principle behind how a CCD works

3. Invention of CCD

 

• The first Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) was created in 1969 by Willard Boyle and George Smith at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey, USA (Smith passed away on May 28, 2025).
• Their original project focused on exploring semiconductor technology for innovative memory storage systems. During a brainstorming discussion, they recognised that electrical charges could be both stored and moved across a series of closely positioned capacitors.
• From this insight, Boyle and Smith designed a system in which capacitors were linked in such a way that charges could be shifted step by step along the device—a process they described as “charge coupling.” This controlled movement of charges later became the basis for using CCDs to capture images, as it allowed light to be converted into precise electrical signals.
• Their pioneering invention earned them the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics, underlining the transformative influence CCDs had on science and technology. Following their breakthrough, companies such as Fairchild Semiconductor and Sony advanced the technology further, adapting it for large-scale production and making CCDs widely available for cameras and other imaging applications

 

 

4. How does CCD work?

 

• A Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) works on the principle of the photoelectric effect, in which incoming light generates pairs of electrons and holes within a semiconductor material.
• When photons strike the semiconductor beneath each pixel, they release electrons, forming a packet of charge that is directly proportional to the intensity of the light falling on that pixel. Each pixel acts like a tiny capacitor, storing these electrons, and the amount of charge accumulated reflects the brightness of the light received.
• To read this information, a sequence of voltages is applied to electrodes above the pixels, which transfers the stored charges step by step from one pixel to the next—similar to passing buckets of water along a chain.
• This method of moving charge gives the CCD its name. Eventually, the charges reach a readout register, where they are converted into voltage signals. These signals are then amplified, digitised, and processed into a complete image.
• Because of this systematic transfer and conversion process, CCDs are able to generate highly accurate and detailed digital representations of the scene being recorded

 

5. Applications of CCD

 

 

• Since their invention in 1969, Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs) have transformed multiple fields by enhancing the way light can be recorded as digital data. In everyday life, they replaced traditional photographic film with electronic sensors, paving the way for the rise of digital cameras.
• This shift allowed people to instantly preview, edit, and store images on digital media, reshaping both personal photography and modern communication.
• CCDs also became central to CCTV systems, delivering clear video feeds that support security in banks, shopping centres, hospitals, and other public spaces.
• In the field of medicine, CCDs play a crucial role in diagnostic imaging technologies such as X-rays, CT scans, and endoscopy.
• Their high sensitivity and resolution make it possible to generate sharper images, enabling doctors to detect problems more precisely and design better treatments.
• Similarly, in scientific research, CCDs are essential in instruments like microscopes, spectrometers, and particle detectors, where their precision allows researchers to examine cells, materials, and fundamental physical processes in fine detail.
• Perhaps one of their most important contributions is in astronomy, where CCDs have become the preferred technology for telescopic imaging. Unlike older photographic plates, CCDs can detect extremely faint light sources with much greater sensitivity.
• This advancement has revolutionised space observation, helping astronomers explore distant galaxies, identify exoplanets, and investigate a wide range of cosmic phenomena, thereby deepening humanity’s understanding of the universe

 

For Prelims: Pixels, Cubits, Electrons, Neurons, microscopes, Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)   For Mains:  GS III - Science and technology

 

Source: The Hindu

 

HISTORY OF CRIMEA

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Harkening back to Russia’s annexation of Crimea in 2014, Zelenskyy asserted that peace “must be lasting” and “not like it was years ago”. “Ukraine was forced to give up Crimea and part of our East—part of Donbas—and Putin simply used it as a springboard for a new attack. Of course, Crimea should not have been given up then, just as Ukrainians did not give up Kyiv, Odesa, or Kharkiv after 2022,” Zelenskyy said.

 

2. The Origins of Crimea

 

 

• The Crimean Peninsula, situated between the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, has historically been prized for its fertile soil and strategically located ports. In antiquity, it was referred to as Tauris or Taurida by the Greeks, later falling under the control of the Romans, Genoese merchants, and for a short period, the Kievan Rus—the medieval polity considered the forerunner of present-day Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus.
• By the 13th century, Crimea was absorbed into the Mongol Golden Horde and eventually developed into the Crimean Khanate, ruled by the Crimean Tatars—an Islamic community now recognised as the indigenous people of the region. The very name “Crimea” derives from the Tatar term “krym,” meaning rock fortress

 

3. Timeline of Crimea

 

• In 1475, the Ottoman Empire took control of the Crimean Khanate, though the Crimean Tatars continued to flourish in the region. Nearly three centuries later, in 1774, the Ottomans were defeated by Catherine the Great of Russia.
• Although Crimea was formally declared independent, it effectively remained under Russian influence.
• By 1783, the peninsula was fully absorbed into the Russian Empire, leading many Tatars to migrate to Ottoman territories.
• The region soon became a theatre of conflict, most notably during the Crimean War (1853–1856), which pitted Russia against Britain and France.
• Moving into the 20th century, Crimean Tatars set up their own Parliament, a step rejected by the Bolsheviks following their rise under Vladimir Lenin.
• In 1918, the Bolsheviks defeated the Tatars and proclaimed the short-lived Taurida Soviet Socialist Republic, taking its name from ancient Greek references to the area. Soon after, Ukrainian forces backed by Germany expelled the Bolsheviks.
• By 1921, Crimea was reorganised as the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR), the largest constituent of the USSR.
• During World War II (1941–1944), Nazi Germany occupied Crimea until the Soviet Union regained control. Following this, Crimea was downgraded to an oblast, and Joseph Stalin ordered the mass deportation of the Crimean Tatars, accusing them of Nazi collaboration.
• Over 200,000 Tatars were expelled, primarily to Central Asia—most settling in Uzbekistan. Ukrainian sources claim that nearly 46% of those deported perished during this forced exile.
• In 1954, Stalin’s successor Nikita Khrushchev transferred Crimea from the RSFSR to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (UkrSSR). By this point, according to scholar Doris Wydra’s 2003 study The Crimea Conundrum, around 90% of the population was ethnically Russian.
• With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Ukraine emerged as an independent nation, and Crimea was granted autonomous status following a referendum.
• This also enabled the gradual return of Crimean Tatars, a process that had begun in the late 1980s.
• By 2001, as noted in Multilingualism in Post-Soviet Countries, Tatars comprised 12% of Crimea’s population, while Russians made up 58% and Ukrainians 24%.
• Finally, in 2014, under President Vladimir Putin, Russia annexed Crimea, ending its official status as part of Ukraine and sparking an ongoing geopolitical conflict

 

4. Annexation of Crimea in 2014

 

• In 2013, Ukraine was shaken by massive demonstrations that came to be known as the Euromaidan Revolution. Large crowds filled Kyiv’s central square to oppose President Viktor Yanukovych, who was supported by Moscow, after he declined to sign an agreement that would have deepened Ukraine’s trade and political ties with the European Union.
• By February 2014, Yanukovych had fled the country, and the Ukrainian Parliament appointed an acting president in his place.
• Sensing its weakening grip on Ukraine, Russia swiftly moved to seize control of Crimea.
• In February, Russian forces expanded their presence on the peninsula, occupying key installations, including the Crimean Parliament. Soon after, the Parliament—under Russian influence—conducted a referendum, claiming that 97% of voters supported joining Russia.
• Within days, President Vladimir Putin, citing the referendum outcome, signed an agreement incorporating Crimea into Russia.
• The Kremlin defended the annexation, arguing that it corrected the “historical mistake” of Crimea’s 1954 transfer to Ukraine. Russia also emphasised its cultural and linguistic connections with the peninsula, where the majority of residents spoke Russian.
• Yet, according to Eleanor Knott, Assistant Professor at the London School of Economics, her fieldwork in Crimea (2012–2013) showed that while many locals saw themselves as ethnically Russian, they did not strongly associate with Russian political or cultural life.
• Most considered their primary identity to be “Crimean,” and younger generations often viewed themselves as Ukrainian citizens.
• The annexation was met with strong international condemnation, particularly from the United States, the European Union, and the United Nations, with critics alleging that the referendum had been manipulated.
• In response, Putin issued sharp warnings to the West, invoking Russia’s nuclear arsenal and threatening full-scale war should Ukraine attempt to reclaim Crimea by force

 

5. Crimea in the Present Times

 

• Most of the international community, reaffirmed by a 2014 UN General Assembly resolution, continues to regard Crimea as an integral part of Ukraine.
• Traditionally, the United States has upheld this position. However, former President Donald Trump has increasingly distanced himself from it.
• Posting on Truth Social, just a day before his scheduled meeting with President Volodymyr Zelenskyy and European leaders, Trump remarked: “Remember how it started. No getting back Obama given Crimea (12 years ago, without a shot being fired!), and NO GOING INTO NATO BY UKRAINE. Some things never change!!!”
• Crimea’s annexation by Russia occurred during Barack Obama’s presidency in 2014. At that time, Obama declined to provide Ukraine with lethal military aid.
• In a speech delivered on March 26, 2014, he emphasised that “The United States and NATO do not seek any conflict with Russia… Now is not the time for bluster. There are no easy answers, no military solution.”
• Later, in a 2023 interview with CNN, Obama explained that back in 2014 there had been “some sympathy to the view that Russia was representing its interests” in Crimea, especially given the presence of pro-Russian sympathisers within Ukraine’s Parliament.
• He added that alongside then-German Chancellor Angela Merkel, he had worked to unite European leaders to impose sanctions on Moscow in order to deter further advances into Donbas.
• Trump’s more recent comments followed a meeting with Vladimir Putin in Alaska, which ended without any breakthrough on halting the war in Ukraine. Still, the meeting suggested a shift in Trump’s outlook.
• Whereas he had earlier warned Putin of “severe consequences” if a ceasefire was not agreed upon, he now described a peace settlement as the “best way” to end the conflict.
• Placing responsibility on Ukraine, Trump asserted that Zelenskyy could end the war almost immediately if he chose to, though he could also continue fighting

 

 

For Prelims: Ukraine, USSR, Russia-Ukraine War, Commonwealth of Independent States, Rus' land, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Tsarist policy of Russification, Ottoman empires,  For Mains: 1. Discuss the evolution of Ukraine and critically analyse factors that led to Russia's war on Ukraine. (250 Words) 2. What is The tsarist policy of Russification Discuss the rise and fall of the USSR. (250 Words)

 

Source: Indianexpress