HARBER BOSCH PROCESS
- Nitrates are molecules composed of oxygen and nitrogen, which are abundant in Earth's atmosphere. Despite nearly eight metric tonnes of nitrogen resting on every square meter of the planet's surface, it cannot nourish even a single blade of grass in its atmospheric form.
- Most nitrogen in the air exists as N2, where two nitrogen atoms are held together by a triple bond, sharing three pairs of electrons, making the molecule extremely stable.
- The energy needed to break this triple bond is very high (946 kJ/mol), making molecular nitrogen almost inert.
- However, once the bond is broken, nitrogen atoms can combine with other elements to form reactive compounds like ammonia (NH3), ammonium (NH4+), or nitrates (NO3–).
- These reactive nitrogen forms are essential for plants, which use them to synthesize enzymes, proteins, and amino acids. Healthy plants typically contain 3-4% nitrogen in their above-ground tissues, much more than other nutrients
- Among natural phenomena, only lightning possesses sufficient energy to break the N2 triple bond. During a lightning strike, nitrogen in the atmosphere reacts with oxygen, producing nitrogen oxides such as NO and NO2.
- These oxides can further react with water vapor to form nitric and nitrous acids (HNO3 and HNO2).
- When it rains, these reactive nitrogen-rich droplets act as fertilizers for agricultural lands, forests, and grasslands, replenishing the soil with approximately 10 kg of nitrogen per acre annually.
- In addition to lightning, a slow metabolic process conducted by Azotobacter bacteria can also generate reactive nitrogen.
- Certain microorganisms, like Rhizobia, have formed symbiotic relationships with legume plants (such as clover, peas, beans, alfalfa, and acacia) to supply reactive nitrogen in exchange for nutrients.
- Azolla, an aquatic fern that has a symbiotic relationship with the cyanobacterium Anabaena azollae, can absorb and convert atmospheric nitrogen into reactive nitrogen, making dried and decayed Azolla an effective fertilizer for farmland
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- Plants primarily obtain their reactive nitrogen from the soil, where they absorb minerals dissolved in water, including ammonium (NH4+) and nitrate (NO3-).
- Humans and animals require nine essential nitrogen-rich amino acids, which they get from plants. Nitrogen constitutes about 2.6% of the human body. The nitrogen consumed by both plants and animals returns to the soil through waste products and the decomposition of organic matter.
- However, this cycle is not fully closed, as some nitrogen is released back into the environment in its molecular form, and nitrogen from human waste is seldom returned to agricultural fields.
- While legumes have the ability to produce nitrogen on their own, key food crops such as rice, wheat, corn, and potatoes, as well as less common crops like cassava and bananas, rely on soil nitrogen.
- As the global population continues to grow, the nitrogen levels in agricultural soils are depleting more rapidly, necessitating the use of fertilizers to replenish them.
- Farmers have long recognized this issue. They cultivated legumes or applied ammonia-based fertilizers to boost crop yields when possible. Additionally, they utilized ammonium-rich minerals from volcanic activity and naturally occurring nitrates found in caves, walls, and rocks as sources of fertilizer
- Ammonia (NH4) consists of nitrogen and hydrogen, both of which naturally occur as diatomic molecules. When subjected to extreme heat, these molecules dissociate to form a compound, but this compound is only temporary due to the high temperature.
- To produce significant quantities of ammonia, the reversible reaction N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3 (with the '=' symbol representing bidirectional arrows) must occur under specific conditions.
- The German chemist Fritz Haber experimented by heating a mixture of N2 and H2 in a platinum cylinder at various temperatures while measuring the amount of ammonia produced.
- He also decomposed hot ammonia back into nitrogen and hydrogen in an effort to approach the equilibrium point from the reverse direction. At a temperature of 1,000 degrees Celsius, he discovered that the yield of usable ammonia was merely 0.01% of the mixture—insufficient for commercial production.
- Haber then speculated that increasing pressure might enhance the reaction. He determined that hydrogen and nitrogen would only remain bonded under extreme conditions, specifically at temperatures of 200 degrees Celsius and pressures of 200 atmospheres (which is 200 times the average air pressure at sea level).
- However, the rate of ammonia production remained too slow, leading Haber to search for a suitable catalyst. He also realized that by cooling the ammonia into a liquid state, he could efficiently collect a larger portion of it
- A young Englishman named Robert Le Rossignol, skilled in practical engineering, had recently joined Haber’s laboratory. He designed the seals necessary to maintain high pressure within an experimental chamber.
- Friedrich Kirchenbauer, an adept mechanic, constructed the corresponding equipment. Haber later acknowledged both Le Rossignol and Kirchenbauer during his Nobel Prize acceptance speech, sharing the patents and prize money with them.
- In the experiment, the heated mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen would flow through a steel chamber maintained at a pressure of 200 atm. This chamber featured a valve capable of withstanding high pressure while allowing the N2-H2 mixture to move through.
- Additionally, Haber developed a device to transfer heat from the hot gases exiting the reaction chamber to the cooler incoming gases. This design enabled the outgoing mixture to cool rapidly while simultaneously heating the incoming gas, effectively serving two purposes.
- Serendipity played a role in finding the catalyst. At that time, innovators were searching for a suitable material for lightbulb filaments (with Thomas Edison yet to discover tungsten).
- Auergesellschaft of Berlin, a manufacturer of gas lamps and electric lights, had approached Haber for recommendations on a filament and provided his lab with various rare materials. Haber began experimenting with these materials to see if any could serve as effective ammonia catalysts.
- One such material was osmium, a rare and dense metal found in trace amounts in the Earth. When Haber introduced an osmium sheet into the pressure chamber, filled it with the N2-H2 mixture, and heated it, the nitrogen triple bond broke, allowing reactive nitrogen to combine with hydrogen and produce a significant quantity of ammonia. German propagandists soon celebrated this achievement with the phrase “brot aus luft!” — likening it to the biblical miracle of producing bread from air.
- Haber continued testing various catalysts and found that uranium was also effective. However, both osmium and uranium were too costly for large-scale applications. When Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik (BASF), a major German chemical company, decided to scale up Haber’s experiment for industrial production, it tasked its chemist Alwin Mittasch with finding a more affordable and readily available catalyst.
- Mittasch conducted thousands of experiments with 4,000 different materials and discovered that certain iron oxides worked well as catalysts. Eventually, innovative engineering by BASF’s Carl Bosch transformed Haber’s small-scale setup into a full industrial process for producing fertilizer.
- Five years after Haber and his team's breakthrough, BASF inaugurated its first ammonia factory in 1913
- A century ago, the average life expectancy at birth for an Indian was just 19 years, whereas today it exceeds 67 years. The Haber-Bosch method enabled industries to produce inexpensive synthetic fertilizers, playing a crucial role in the sevenfold increase in global food production during the 20th century.
- One estimate suggests that without the Haber process for nitrogen fixation, approximately one-third of the world’s population—around two billion people—would face food scarcity.
- However, environmentalists caution that the benefits of fertilizers should not be taken for granted. For instance, Haber’s nitrogen fertilizers are not without their drawbacks. An average adult contains about 1-2 kg of nitrogen in their body, yet in many regions, the annual application of fertilizers now exceeds 50 kg of nitrogen per person, with a global average of around 13 kg.
- This "extra" nitrogen is absorbed by plants along with larger amounts of other minerals. It also promotes bacterial growth and accelerates biochemical processes that release reactive nitrogen into the atmosphere, resulting in acid rain that degrades and damages land.
- Additionally, nitrogen fertilizers contribute to surface runoff into freshwater and coastal ecosystems, unintentionally fertilizing these bodies of water and causing deoxygenation. Even a small amount of moisture in these areas can lead to rampant weed growth.
- In conclusion, while Haber’s contributions were vital, they alone are insufficient to eliminate hunger and malnutrition.
- These issues persist alongside warehouses overflowing with grain surpluses, even within the same nation.
- The story of nitrogen fixation imparts a broader lesson: technological solutions alone cannot resolve societal challenges; political action and social mobilization are also essential
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For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance
For Mains: General Studies III: Science and Technology - developments and their applications and effects in everyday life
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RETAIL INFLATION
1. Context
2. What is Inflation?
- It is the rise in prices of goods and services within a particular economy wherein consumers' purchasing power decreases, and the value of the cash holdings erodes.
- In India, the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) measures inflation.
- Some causes that lead to inflation are demand increases, reduction in supply, demand-supply gap, excess circulation of money, increase in input costs, devaluation of the currency, and rise in wages, among others.
3. Retail Inflation
4. How Inflation is measured?
- In India, inflation is primarily measured by two main indices- WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index), Which measures Wholesale and retail-level price changes, respectively.
- The CPI calculates the difference in the price of commodities and services such as food, medical care, education, electronics, etc, which Indian consumers buy for use.
- On the other hand, the goods or services sold by businesses to smaller businesses for selling further are captured by the WPI.
- Both WPI (Wholesale Price Index) and CPI (Consumer Price Index) are used to measure inflation in India.
5. What is the Inflation Target?
- Under Section 45ZA, in consultation with the RBI Act, the Central Government determines the inflation target in terms of the Consumer Price Index (CPI), once in five years and notifies it in the Official Gazette.
- Accordingly, on August 5, 2016, the Central Government notified in the Official Gazette 4 percent Consumer Price Index (CPI) inflation as the target for the period from August 5, 2016, to March 31, 2021, with the upper tolerance limit of 6 percent and the lower tolerance limit of 2 percent.
- On March 31, 2021, the Central Government retained the inflation target and the tolerance band for the next 5-year period-April 1, 2021 to March 31, 2026.
- Section 45ZB of the RBI Act provides for the constitution of a six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) to determine the policy rate required to achieve the inflation target.
6. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)
- The MPC is a statutory and institutionalized framework under the RBI Act, of 1934, for maintaining price stability, keeping in mind the objective of growth. It was created in 2016.
- It was created to bring transparency and accountability in deciding monetary policy.
- MPC determines the policy interest rate required to achieve the inflation target.
- The committee comprises six members and Governor RBI acts as an ex-officio chairman. Three members are from RBI and three are selected by the government. The inflation target is to be set once every five years. It is set by the Government of India, in consultation with the Reserve Bank of India.
- The current inflation target is pegged at 4% with -2/+2 tolerance till March 31, 2021.
7. What Caused the drop in Inflation?
- Retail Inflation or price gains based on the Consumer Price Index, slowed to 6.77 % last month, from September's 7.41%, aided by an appreciable deceleration in food price inflation.
- The year-on-year inflation based on the Consumer Food Price Index eased by almost 160 basis points in October, to 7.01%, from the preceding month's 8.60%, helped by a 'decline in prices of vegetables, fruits, pulses and oils, and fats', the Government said.
- With the food and beverages sub-index representing almost 46% of the CPI's weight, the slowdown in food price gains understandably steered overall inflation lower even as price gains in three other essential categories, namely clothing, and footwear, housing, and health remained either little changed from September or quickened.
- Inflation at the Wholesale Prices Level also continued to decelerate, with the headline reading easing into single digits for the first time in 19 months. A favorable base effect along with a distinct cooling in international prices of commodities including crude oil and steel amid gathering uncertainty in advanced economies was largely instrumental in tempering wholesale price gains.
8. Recent Measures by the Government
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Inflation, MPC, CPI, WPI, food Inflation, RBI, Headline inflation, Core inflation For Mains:
1. Explain the concept of inflation and its impact on an economy. Discuss the various causes of inflation and the measures that can be taken to control it, with specific reference to India. (250 Words)
2. What are the challenges and opportunities associated with managing inflation in India? Evaluate the effectiveness of recent policy measures in addressing inflationary pressures and maintaining price stability. Suggest strategies for sustainable economic growth while managing inflation risks. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government.
2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest.
3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015)
Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy? (a) 1 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 3 and 4
3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013) (a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall.
(b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks.
(c) Central bank is following an easy money policy.
(d) Central bank is following a tight money policy.
4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017) 1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates.
2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year.
3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 3 only D. 2 and 3 only 5. Read the following passage and answer the question that follows. Your answers to these items should be based on the passage only.
Policymakers and media have placed the blame for skyrocketing food prices on a variety of factors, including high fuel prices, bad weather in key food producing countries, and the diversion of land to non-food production. Increased emphasis, however, has been placed on a surge in demand for food from the most populous emerging economics. It seems highly probable that mass consumption in these countries could be well poised to create a food crisis.
With reference to the above passage, the following assumptions have been made: (UPSC 2021)
1. Oil producing countries are one of the reasons for high food prices.
2. If there is a food crisis in the world in the near future, it will be in the emerging economies. Which of the above assumptions is/are valid?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
6. India has experienced persistent and high food inflation in the recent past. What could be the reasons? (UPSC 2011)
1. Due to a gradual switchover to the cultivation of commercial crops, the area under the cultivation of food grains has steadily decreased in the last five years by about 30.
2. As a consequence of increasing incomes, the consumption patterns of the people have undergone a significant change.
3. The food supply chain has structural constraints.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
7. With reference to inflation in India, which of the following statements is correct? (UPSC 2015)
A. Controlling the inflation in India is the responsibility of the Government of India only
B. The Reserve Bank of India has no role in controlling the inflation
C. Decreased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
D. Increased money circulation helps in controlling the inflation
8. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017
2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $ 1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-D, 6-B, 6-C, 7-B
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STUBBLE BURNING
1. Context
2. What is Stubble?
Stubble refers to the leftover plant material, mainly crop residues, that remains in the field after the primary crop has been harvested. This includes the stems, leaves, and other organic material that is left behind.
Stubble burning is a common agricultural practice where farmers set fire to crop residues, such as straw and stubble, that remain in the field after the main crop (usually paddy or wheat) has been harvested. This practice is typically used as a quick and cost-effective method to clear the field for the next planting season. Stubble burning is particularly prevalent in regions with mechanized farming, where machines like combine harvesters leave behind a significant amount of crop residues.
3. Stubble burning contributes to air pollution
When stubble is burned, it releases a variety of pollutants into the air, including particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and sulfur dioxide. These pollutants can cause several health problems, including respiratory problems, heart disease, and cancer.
Stubble burning is a major contributor to air pollution in many parts of the world. In India, for example, stubble burning is responsible for up to 30% of the air pollution in Delhi during the winter months.
- Stubble burning generates fine particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) that can penetrate deep into the respiratory system, leading to respiratory problems and reduced air quality.
- The combustion of stubble releases carbon monoxide, which can have adverse health effects when inhaled, particularly in enclosed spaces.
- Stubble burning produces Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), which can react with other pollutants in the atmosphere, contributing to the formation of ground-level ozone, a major air pollutant.
- Burning stubble emits greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), contributing to climate change.
- The combustion of crop residues can release various hazardous chemicals and pollutants, further deteriorating air quality.
4. About the Central Scheme for the Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue
The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue (AMICMR) is a scheme launched by the Government of India to promote the use of in-situ techniques for managing crop residue. In-situ techniques are those that are used to manage crop residue on the field, rather than burning it. Examples of in-situ techniques include:
- Mulching is the practice of covering the soil with a layer of organic material, such as straw or leaves. This can help to suppress weeds, retain moisture, and improve soil health.
- Zero tillage is the practice of planting crops without tilling the soil. This can help to prevent soil erosion and retain moisture in the soil.
- Direct seeding is the practice of planting seeds directly into the soil, rather than transplanting seedlings. This can help to reduce soil disturbance and prevent the spread of weeds.
The AMICMR scheme provides financial assistance to farmers to purchase machinery that can be used for in-situ management of crop residue. The scheme also provides training and extension services to farmers on how to use these techniques.
The AMICMR scheme is a promising initiative that could help to reduce air pollution caused by stubble burning. However, the scheme needs to be scaled up and made more widely available to farmers to have a significant impact.
5. Conclusion
Stubble burning is a major contributor to air pollution in many parts of the world. However, there are several alternatives to stubble burning, such as in-situ management of crop residue. In-situ management of crop residue is a more sustainable way to manage stubble, as it does not release pollutants into the air and has several benefits for soil health and crop yields.
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For Prelims: Stubble burning, air pollution, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, PM2.5, PM10, Volatile Organic Compounds, ozone, carbon dioxide, methane, Climate Change, The Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue,
For Mains:
1. Critically evaluate the effectiveness of the Central Scheme on Promotion of Agricultural Mechanisation for In-Situ Management of Crop Residue (AMICMR) in addressing the issue of stubble burning in India. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? ( UPSC 2016)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 4 and 5 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer: B 2. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment (UPSC 2013, 2022) (a) Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen (b) Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide (c) Ozone and Carbon Dioxide (d) Nitrous Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide Answer:D 3. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (UPSC 2017) (a) Measuring oxygen level in blood (b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems (c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystem (d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions Answer: C 4. Consider the following: (UPSC 2019) 1. Carbon monooxide
2. Methane
3. Ozone
4. Sulphur dioxide
Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 1 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: D 5. What is Particulate matter? (BPSC 2016) A. Solid residue B. Air pollutant C. Water pollutant D. Soil pollutant E. None of the above/More than one of the above Answer: B 6. Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas because it: (OPSC OAS 2021) A. Binds to digestive hormones
B. Damages lungs
C. Destroys RBCs
D. Binds to haemoglobin
Answer: D 7. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019) 1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment.
2. Cattle release ammonia into environment.
3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 8. In the context of WHO Air Quality Guidelines, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. The 24-hour mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 15 μg/m³ and annual mean of PM2.5 should not exceed 5 μg/m³.
2. In a year, the highest levels of ozone pollution occur during the periods of inclement weather.
3. PM10 can penetrate the lung barrier and enter the bloodstream. 4. Excessive ozone in the air can trigger asthma.
Which of the statements given above are correct? A. 1, 3 and 4 B. 1 and 4 only C. 2, 3 and 4 D.1 and 2 only Answer: B 9. Which of the following is a VOC? (MP Vyapam Sub Engineer Mechanical 2022) A. Toulene B. Water C. Carbon dioxide D. Carbon monoxide Answer: A 10. Which of the following Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are emitted from anthropogenic sources only? (UGC NET 2023) A. Isoprene
B. Benzene
C. Terpene
D. Methane
E. Toluene
1. A, B and C Only 2. B and E Only 3. A and C Only 4. C, D and E Only Answer: 2 11. Which one of the following is associated with the issue of control and phasing out of the use of ozone-depleting substance? (UPSC 2015) A. Bretton Woods Conference B. Montreal Protocol C. Kyoto Porotocol D. Nagoya Protocol Answer: B 12. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs (UPSC 2012) A. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat
B. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation
C. all the solar radiations
D. the infrared part of the solar radiation
Answer: D 13. Which of the following adds/add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on the planet Earth? (UPSC 2014) 1. Volcanic action
2. Respiration
3. Photosynthesis
4. The decay of organic matter
Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 only C. 1, 2 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer: C 14. Which of the following statements are correct about the deposits of 'methane hydrate'? (UPSC 2019) 1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits.
2. Large deposits of 'methane hydrate' are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor.
3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two.
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 15. With reference to two non-conventional energy sources called 'coalbed methane' and 'shale gas' consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is a mixture of propane and butane only that can be extracted from fine-grained sedimentary rocks. 2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources exist, but so far no shale gas sources have been found. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: D Mains
1. Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? ( UPSC 2021)
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DRUG-RESISTANT TB
1. Context
2. About drugresistant TB
- As of 2017, India accounted for around one-fourth of the world's burden of multidrug-resistant (MDR) TB and of extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) TB.
- MDR TB resists treatment by at least two frontline drugs in TB treatment, isoniazid and rifampicin.
- XDR TB resists these two drugs, fluoroquinolones, and any second-line injectable drug.
XDR TB is rarer than MDR TB there were 1, 24, 000 cases of the latter in India (2021) versus 2, 650 cases of the former (2017). - TB incidence in India has been on the decline, but MDR TB and XDR TB endanger initiatives to locally eradicate the disease.
- In the first two years of the pandemic, there were reports that TB treatment was hit by disrupted supply chains, availability of healthcare workers for non-pandemic work, and access to drug distribution centres.
- A peer-reviewed 2020 study found that the incidence of MDR TB was "strongly correlated with treatment failure and spread through contact and not to treatment compliance".
3. Treatment for drug-resistant TB
- TB is an infection of the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the lungs, but often in other organs as well.
- It can be treated by strictly adhering to the doses and frequencies of drugs prescribed by a physician.
- Deviations from this schedule can lead the bacteria to become drug-resistant.
- Yet they happen because the drugs often have side effects that diminish the quality of life and or because patients haven't been afforded access to the requisite drugs on time.
- Drugresistant TB is harder to treat. One important option for those diagnosed with pulmonary MDR TB is bedaquiline.
- In 2018, the World Health Organisation replaced two injectable drugs for MDR TB with an oral regimen that included bedaquiline.
- At this time, bedaquiline had not completed phase III Trials.
- The recommendation was based on smaller studies, outcomes in TB elimination programmes worldwide, the difficulty of treating MDR TB and close monitoring of patients receiving the drug.
4. Effectiveness of Bedaquiline
- Typically, bedaquiline needs to be taken for six months: at a higher dose in the first two weeks followed by a lower dosage for 22 weeks.
- This period is shorter than other treatment routines for pulmonary MDR TB, which can last 924 months.
- One phase II Clinical trial observed that culture conversion (turning a patient's sputum culture from positive to negative) "at 24 weeks was durable and associated with a high likelihood of response at 120 weeks", due to bedaquiline.
- Unlike Second-line treatment options that are injected and can have severe side effects, like hearing loss, bedaquiline is available as tablets and is less harmful, although it has potential side effects of its own.
- Studies until 2018 found that it could be toxic to the heart and the liver. This is part of why it is recommended only as a treatment of last resort.
- India's Health Ministry has guidelines for bedaquiline use as part of the Programmatic Management of MDR TB under the National TB Elimination Programme.
- The WHO's decision revitalised a debate about the ethics of making a much-needed but insufficiently tested drug available quickly versus lowering the safety threshold for pharmaceutical companies producing drugs for desperate patients.
5. Reasons for the rejection of the Patent application
- Both groups argued that J&J's method to produce a "Solid pharmaceutical composition" of bedaquiline is "obvious, known in the art" and doesn't require an "inventive step".
- According to the Indian Patent Act 1970 Section 2 (1) (ja), an "inventive step" is an invention that is "not obvious to a person skilled in the art".
- The latter also contended that the current application drew significantly from a previous patent, WO 2004/011436, which discussed a similar compound on which bedaquiline is based and whose priority date (2002) well preceded the new application.
- The Patent Office rejected the application on these and other grounds, including Sections 3d and 3e of the Act.
- These pertain to the "mere discovery of a new form of a known substance which does not result in the enhancement of the known efficacy of that substance" and "a substance obtained by a mere admixture resulting only in the aggregation of the properties of the components thereof", respectively, which are not patentable.
6. Significance of the rejection
- India has the largest population of people living with drug-resistant TB.
- J&J's patent on bedaquiline meant the drug cost $400 (revised to $340 in 2020) per person, plus the cost of other drugs.
- The rejection is expected to lower the cost of bedaquiline by up to 80 per cent.
- So far, the Indian government has directly procured and distributed the drug through Statelevel TB programmes.
- After July 2023, manufacturers of generic drugs such as Lupin will be able to produce generic versions of bedaquiline.
- The argument based on WO 2004/011436 is also relevant to "evergreening a strategy where a patent owner continuously extends their rights and or applies multiple patents for the same entity. Indian law disallows this.
For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: TB, Johnson & Johnson, bedaquiline, XDR TB, MDR TB, World Health Organisation, Indian Patent Act 1970,
For Mains:
1. How will Drug Resistant TB help the treatment of multidrugresistant tuberculosis? What are the costs and production implications? What is India’s target year to eliminate TB? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
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Read the following passages and answer the question, your answers to these items should be based on the passages only. A majority of the TB infected in India are poor and lack sufficient nutrition, suitable housing and have little understanding of prevention. TB then devastates families, makes the poor poorer, particularly affects women and children, and leads to ostracisation and loss of employment. The truth is that even if TB does not kill them, hunger and poverty will. Another truth is that deep-seated stigma, lack of counselling, expensive treatment and lack of adequate support from providers and family, coupled with torturous side-effects demotivate patients to continue treatment - with disastrous health consequences. Which one of the following is the most logical, rational and crucial message conveyed by the above passage? (UPSC 2019)
Answer: 2 Curing TB requires more than diagnosis and medical treatment. |
MONETARY POLICY COMMITTEE (MPC)
Monetary policy refers to the actions and strategies undertaken by a country's central bank to control and regulate the supply of money, credit availability, and interest rates in an economy. Its primary goal is to achieve specific economic objectives, such as price stability, full employment, and sustainable economic growth.
Central banks use various tools to implement monetary policy, including:
Interest Rates: Adjusting the interest rates at which banks lend to each other (known as the federal funds rate in the United States) influences borrowing and spending in the economy.
Open Market Operations: Buying or selling government securities in the open market to regulate the money supply. When a central bank buys securities, it injects money into the system, and when it sells them, it reduces the money supply.
Reserve Requirements: Mandating the amount of reserves banks must hold, affecting their ability to lend money.
By influencing the availability and cost of money, central banks aim to stabilize prices, control inflation, encourage or discourage borrowing and spending, and promote economic growth. However, the effectiveness of monetary policy can be influenced by various factors such as global economic conditions, fiscal policies, and market expectations.
3.What is the primary objective of the monetary policy?
The primary objective of monetary policy typically revolves around maintaining price stability or controlling inflation within an economy. Central banks often set an inflation target, aiming to keep it at a moderate and steady level. Stable prices help in fostering confidence in the economy, encouraging investment, and ensuring that the value of money remains relatively constant over time.
However, while controlling inflation is often the primary goal, central banks might also consider other objectives, such as:
Full Employment: Some central banks have a secondary objective of supporting maximum employment or reducing unemployment rates.
Economic Growth: Encouraging sustainable economic growth by managing interest rates and credit availability to stimulate or cool down economic activity.
Exchange Rate Stability: In some cases, maintaining stable exchange rates might be an important consideration, especially for countries with open economies heavily reliant on international trade.
These additional objectives can vary depending on the economic conditions, priorities of the government, and the central bank's mandate. Nonetheless, ensuring price stability is typically the fundamental goal of most monetary policies, as it forms the basis for a healthy and growing economy.
4. Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)
- In line with the amended RBI Act, 1934, Section 45ZB grants authority to the central government to establish a six-member Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) responsible for determining the policy interest rate aimed at achieving the inflation target.
- The inaugural MPC was formed on September 29, 2016. Section 45ZB stipulates that "the Monetary Policy Committee will ascertain the Policy Rate necessary to meet the inflation target" and that "the decisions made by the Monetary Policy Committee will be obligatory for the Bank."
- According to Section 45ZB, the MPC comprises the RBI Governor as the ex officio chairperson, the Deputy Governor overseeing monetary policy, a Bank official nominated by the Central Board, and three individuals appointed by the central government.
- The individuals chosen by the central government must possess "capabilities, ethical standing, expertise, and experience in economics, banking, finance, or monetary policy" (Section 45ZC)
- The Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) plays a crucial role in managing inflation through its decisions on the policy interest rate.
- When inflation is too high, the MPC might decide to increase the policy interest rate. This action aims to make borrowing more expensive, which can reduce spending and investment in the economy.
- As a result, it could help decrease demand for goods and services, potentially curbing inflation.
- Conversely, when inflation is too low or the economy needs a boost, the MPC might decrease the policy interest rate.
- This move makes borrowing cheaper, encouraging businesses and individuals to spend and invest more, thus stimulating economic activity and potentially raising inflation closer to the target level.
- The MPC's goal is to use the policy interest rate as a tool to steer inflation toward a target set by the government or central bank.
- By monitoring economic indicators and assessing the current and expected inflation levels, the MPC makes informed decisions to maintain price stability within the economy
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For Prelims: Economic and Social Development
For Mains: General Studies III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment.
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Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. The Governor of the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is appointed by the Central Government.
2. Certain provisions in the Constitution of India give the Central Government the right to issue directions to the RBI in the public interest.
3. The Governor of the RBI draws his natural power from the RBI Act.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: C
2. Concerning the Indian economy, consider the following: (UPSC 2015)
Which of the above is/are component(s) of Monetary Policy? (a) 1 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1, 3 and 4 Answer: C 3. An increase in Bank Rate generally indicates: (UPSC 2013) (a) Market rate of interest is likely to fall. (b) Central bank is no longer making loans to commercial banks. (c) Central bank is following an easy money policy. (d) Central bank is following a tight money policy. Answer: (d) 4. Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Monetary Policy Committee (MPC)? (UPSC 2017) 1. It decides the RBI's benchmark interest rates. 2. It is a 12-member body including the Governor of RBI and is reconstituted every year. 3. It functions under the chairmanship of the Union Finance Minister. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only B. 1 and 2 only C. 3 only D. 2 and 3 only Answer: A |
GIG ECONOMY
| Subject | Formal Labor Market | Informal Labor Market |
| Regulation | Regulated by government laws and policies | Not regulated by formal labor laws |
| Job Security | Generally offers job security | Often lacks job security |
| Benefits | Provides benefits like health insurance and retirement plans | Rarely provides benefits |
| Legal Protections | Employees have legal protections and must adhere to standards | Workers lack legal protections |
| Income | Regular and predictable income | Irregular and uncertain income |
| Employment Contracts | Jobs usually involve formal contracts | Work is often done without formal contracts |
| Examples | Corporate jobs, government positions | Freelance work, informal vendors, day labourers |
- Maintaining the impressive growth rates of recent years into the medium to long term, while expanding the consumption base, will be difficult given that a significant portion of the country's workforce remains stuck in low-productivity jobs.
- Recent government surveys indicate that the number of informal businesses in the country has increased from 57.6 million in 2010-11 to 63.4 million in 2015-16, and further to 65 million in 2022-23
- If the economy were generating more productive employment opportunities, both the number of informal firms and the workforce within them would be significantly decreasing.
- Combining the 110 million workers in non-farm informal businesses with the approximately 230 million engaged in agriculture accounts for almost two-thirds of the labor force still employed in low-productivity jobs in less efficient sectors—sectors that now contribute an even smaller share of the total economic value added than before.
- This is in addition to those informally employed in construction and the formal parts of the economy.
- In the absence of low or semi-skilled job opportunities in the more productive formal manufacturing sector, and without the necessary education to enter more skilled formal employment in both manufacturing and high-end services, their only alternatives are precarious forms of employment in the gig economy.”
- The issue of job scarcity has long been a part of India's development narrative, not limited to the current administration.
- However, recent changes include the youth bulge, increasing labor force participation rate—particularly among women driven into the workforce by financial distress—the declining share of value added by the informal sector, and the growing capital intensity in production sectors that contribute more to value addition and are labor-intensive by nature
- The consequences of failing to create a sufficient number of more productive jobs, and the resulting deepening labor market duality, are likely to be manifested in various ways, including reduced social mobility and high-income inequality.
- As others have noted, this will determine whether the country follows the path of East Asia or takes the route of Latin America
- The proliferation of smartphones and the internet has facilitated the growth of digital platforms that connect gig workers with customers. Apps and websites have made it easier to find and offer short-term jobs
- India has a large youth population that is tech-savvy and open to flexible work arrangements. The gig economy offers opportunities that appeal to the younger generation seeking autonomy and varied work experiences
- The formal sector has not been able to generate enough jobs to match the growing labor force. As a result, many individuals turn to gig work for income, as it often requires lower barriers to entry compared to traditional employment
- Financial distress and the need for supplementary income have pushed more people towards gig work. This includes individuals who may already have a job but need additional income to meet their financial needs
- The gig economy offers flexibility in work hours and the choice of assignments, which attracts individuals who prefer non-traditional work arrangements over the constraints of full-time employment.
- Companies are increasingly outsourcing tasks to freelancers to reduce costs associated with full-time employees, such as benefits and office space. This shift towards a more flexible workforce model has contributed to the growth of gig work
- The ability to work remotely has opened up international opportunities for gig workers. Indian freelancers can now find work with companies around the world, broadening their employment prospects
- The regulatory framework in India is still catching up with the gig economy, providing a more lenient environment for gig platforms and workers compared to the heavily regulated formal sector
- The gig economy allows workers to leverage diverse skill sets and explore multiple career paths simultaneously. This appeals to individuals looking to diversify their professional experience
- There is growing consumer demand for services that gig workers provide, such as food delivery, ride-hailing, home services, and freelance professional services. This demand fuels the expansion of gig opportunities
| Advantages | Disadvantages |
| Workers can choose their own hours and work location | Gig workers often face uncertain income and job stability. |
| Diverse Opportunities | No Employment Benefits |
| Access to a variety of job types and industries | Absence of benefits like health insurance, retirement plans, and paid leave |
| Increased Income Potential | Income Variability |
| Potential to earn more by taking multiple gigs or high-paying tasks | Earnings can be unpredictable and inconsistent. |
| Opportunity to develop and diversify skill sets. | Many gig workers are not protected by labor laws and regulations |
| Easier entry into the workforce without extensive qualifications. | Limited opportunities for career advancement and long-term growth |
| Greater control over the type of work undertaken and methods of working | Flexibility can lead to overworking and blurred boundaries between work and personal life |
| Ability to work for international clients and companies | Gig workers may miss out on the social aspects and support networks found in traditional workplaces |
| Companies can save on costs related to full-time employees (benefits, office space, etc.). | Potential for gig workers to be underpaid and overworked without proper oversight |
| Can quickly adapt to changing market demands and consumer needs | Limited access to training and professional development resources |
- Gig workers often face unpredictable and inconsistent income, making financial planning difficult
- Gig workers typically do not receive traditional employment benefits such as health insurance, retirement plans, paid leave, and unemployment benefits
- The temporary and project-based nature of gig work means that workers lack job security and can be easily terminated
- There is often a lack of clear legal frameworks to protect gig workers, leading to issues with worker rights, minimum wage enforcement, and job classifications.
- The flexibility of gig work can lead to overworking and difficulty in maintaining a work-life balance, as the lines between personal and professional time can become blurred.
- Gig workers can be vulnerable to exploitation, including low pay, long hours, and lack of proper working conditions, without sufficient oversight and protection
- Gig workers may miss out on the social interactions and support networks that come with traditional workplaces, leading to feelings of isolation and lack of community
- There are limited opportunities for career advancement, professional development, and skill enhancement in the gig economy
- Gig workers often lack access to training and development programs that can help them improve their skills and advance their careers
- Gig workers are usually responsible for managing their own taxes, which can be complex and burdensome without proper knowledge and resources
- Reliance on digital platforms and technology can pose challenges, including the need for constant internet access and the risk of being affected by platform changes or technical issues
- Without formal workplace regulations, gig workers may face unsafe working conditions and lack proper health and safety protections
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For Prelims: Gig Economy
For Mains: GS III- Gig Economy and Associated Problems around
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