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DAILY CURRENT AFFAIRS, 26 JUNE 2025

GOODS AND SERVICE TAX (GST)

 
 
1. Context
 
The agenda for the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council at its next meeting will include deliberations on minimising the 12% tax slab and also finalising the tax treatment on service intermediaries, which could provide the sector relief worth thousands of crores, according to informed sources
 
2. What is the Goods and Services Tax (GST)?
  • The Goods and Services Tax (GST) is a value-added tax levied on the supply of goods and services at each stage of the production and distribution chain. It is a comprehensive indirect tax that aims to replace multiple indirect taxes imposed by the central and state governments in India.
  • GST is designed to simplify the tax structure, eliminate the cascading effect of taxes, and create a unified national market. Under the GST system, both goods and services are taxed at multiple rates based on the nature of the product or service. The tax is collected at each stage of the supply chain, and businesses are allowed to claim a credit for the taxes paid on their inputs.
  • The GST system in India came into effect on July 1, 2017, replacing a complex tax structure that included central excise duty, service tax, and state-level taxes like VAT (Value Added Tax), among others. The GST Council, consisting of representatives from the central and state governments, is responsible for making decisions on various aspects of GST, including tax rates and rules.
  • GST is intended to create a more transparent and efficient tax system, reduce tax evasion, and promote economic growth by fostering a seamless flow of goods and services across the country. It has a significant impact on businesses, as they need to comply with the new tax regulations and maintain detailed records of their transactions for GST filing

3.Goods and Services Tax (GST) and 101st Amendment Act, 2016

The Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India was introduced through the 101st Amendment Act of 2016. This constitutional amendment was a crucial step in the implementation of GST, which aimed to create a unified and comprehensive indirect tax system across the country.

Here are some key points related to the 101st Amendment Act and GST:

 

  • The 101st Amendment Act was enacted to amend the Constitution of India to pave the way for the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax.
  • It added a new article, Article 246A, which confers concurrent powers to both the central and state governments to levy and collect GST
  • The amendment led to the creation of the GST Council, a constitutional body consisting of representatives from the central and state governments. The council is responsible for making recommendations on GST rates, exemptions, and other related issues
  • The amendment introduced a dual GST structure, where both the central government and the state governments have the power to levy and collect GST on the supply of goods and services
  • For inter-state transactions, the 101st Amendment Act provides that the central government would levy and collect the Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST), which would be a sum total of the central and state GST
  • The amendment also included a provision for compensating states for any revenue loss they might incur due to the implementation of GST for a period of five years
The 101st Amendment Act was a critical legislative step that provided the constitutional framework for the implementation of GST in India. It addressed the need for a unified tax system, simplifying the tax structure and promoting a common market across the country. The subsequent establishment of the GST Council has played a pivotal role in the ongoing management and evolution of the GST system in India
 
4. What are the different types of Goods and Services Tax (GST)?

In India, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) is structured into different tax rates based on the nature of the goods and services. As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, the GST rates are divided into multiple slabs. It's important to note that tax rates may be subject to changes, and new amendments could have been introduced since then. As of my last update, the GST rates are as follows:

  • Nil Rate:

    • Some goods and services are categorized under the nil rate, meaning they attract a 0% GST. This implies that no tax is levied on the supply of these goods or services.

  • 5% Rate:

    • This is a lower rate, applicable to essential goods such as certain food items, medical supplies, and other basic necessities.

  • 12% Rate:

    • Goods and services falling in this category attract a 12% GST rate. Items such as mobile phones, processed foods, and certain services fall under this slab.

  • 18% Rate:

    • A higher rate of 18% is applicable to goods and services such as electronic items, capital goods, and various services.

  • 28% Rate:

    • The highest GST rate of 28% is applied to luxury items, automobiles, and certain goods and services that are considered non-essential or fall into the luxury category.

  • Compensation Cess:

    • In addition to the above rates, some specific goods attract a compensation cess, which is levied to compensate the states for any revenue loss during the transition to GST. This is often applied to items like tobacco and luxury cars.

  • Zero Rate:

    • Certain categories of goods and services may be specified as "zero-rated," which means they are effectively taxed at 0%. This is different from the nil rate, as it allows businesses to claim input tax credit on inputs, capital goods, and input services.

  • Exempt Supplies:

    • Some goods and services may be exempt from GST altogether. This means that they are not subject to any GST, and businesses cannot claim input tax credit on related inputs
 
5.Central GST (CGST), State GST (SGST), Union territory GST (UTGST) and Integrated GST (IGST)
 
 
Subject Central GST (CGST) State GST (SGST) Union Territory GST (UTGST) Integrated GST (IGST)
Levied by Central Government Respective State Governments Union Territory Administrations Central Government (on inter-state transactions)
Applicability On intra-state supplies (within the same state) On intra-state supplies (within the same state) On intra-union territory supplies (within the same union territory) On inter-state supplies (across states or union territories)
Rate Determination Determined by the Central Government Determined by the Respective State Government Determined by the Union Territory Administration IGST rate is a sum of CGST and SGST rates
Revenue Collection Collected by the Central Government Collected by the Respective State Government Collected by the Union Territory Administration Collected by the Central Government (on inter-state transactions)
Utilization of Revenue Shared between Central and State Governments Retained by the Respective State Government Retained by the Union Territory Administration Shared between Central and State Governments
Purpose Part of the dual GST structure, meant to cover central taxes Part of the dual GST structure, meant to cover state taxes Applicable in union territories for intra-territory supplies Applied to regulate and tax inter-state supplies
Input Tax Credit (ITC) ITC available for CGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for SGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for UTGST paid on inputs and services ITC available for both CGST and SGST paid on inputs
Tax Jurisdiction Applies within a particular state Applies within a particular state Applies within a particular union territory Applies to transactions across states and union territories
GSTN Portal for Filing Returns Central GSTN portal State-specific GSTN portals UTGSTN portal Integrated GSTN portal
 
 
6.What are the benefits of Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India?
 
The Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India was implemented with the aim of bringing about significant reforms in the indirect tax structure. Several benefits have been associated with the introduction of GST.
 
Here are some key advantages:
 
  • GST replaced multiple indirect taxes levied by the central and state governments, simplifying the tax structure. This streamlined system reduces the complexity of compliance for businesses
  • GST eliminates the cascading effect of taxes, where taxes are levied on top of other taxes. With a seamless credit mechanism, businesses can claim input tax credit on the taxes paid on their purchases, leading to a more transparent and efficient system
  • GST has facilitated the creation of a common national market by harmonizing tax rates and regulations across states. This has reduced trade barriers and promoted the free flow of goods and services throughout the country
  • The GST system has incorporated technology-driven processes, including electronic filing and real-time reporting, making it harder for businesses to evade taxes. This has contributed to increased tax compliance
  • The input tax credit mechanism under GST benefits manufacturers, as they can claim credits for taxes paid on raw materials and input services. This has a positive impact on the cost of production and enhances the competitiveness of Indian goods in the international market
  • GST brings transparency to the taxation system. The online filing of returns and the availability of transaction-level data make it easier for tax authorities to monitor and track transactions, reducing the scope for corruption
  • GST has replaced a complex system of filing multiple tax returns with a more straightforward mechanism. Businesses now need to file fewer returns, reducing the compliance burden
  • The implementation of GST has contributed to an improvement in the ease of doing business in India. The unified tax system has made it simpler for businesses to operate across states and has reduced the paperwork and bureaucratic hurdles associated with tax compliance
  • GST has led to the harmonization of tax rates across states and union territories, minimizing the tax rate disparities that existed earlier. This creates a more predictable tax environment for businesses
7.Goods and Services Tax (GST)-Issues and Challenge
 
  • Despite the intention to simplify the tax structure, the multi-tiered rate system (0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%) and the inclusion of cess on certain goods have introduced complexity. The classification of goods and services under different tax slabs can be challenging, leading to disputes and confusion
  • The successful implementation of GST relies heavily on technology. Issues such as technical glitches on the GSTN (Goods and Services Tax Network) portal, especially during the initial phases, have caused difficulties for businesses in filing returns and complying with regulations
  • The compliance requirements for businesses under GST, including multiple returns filing, have been perceived as burdensome. Smaller businesses, in particular, may find it challenging to adapt to the new system and comply with the various provisions
  • The transition from the previous tax regime to GST posed challenges, especially for businesses in terms of understanding the new tax structure, reconfiguring accounting systems, and ensuring a smooth transition of credits from the old tax system to the GST system
  • The classification of certain goods and services into specific tax slabs has been a source of contention. Ambiguities in classification have led to disputes and litigations, with businesses seeking clarity on the applicable tax rates
  • The implementation of GST has increased compliance costs for businesses due to the need for sophisticated IT infrastructure, the hiring of tax professionals, and efforts to ensure accurate reporting and filing
  • Challenges related to availing and matching input tax credits have been reported. Timely matching of credits and resolving discrepancies can be cumbersome, leading to concerns about the seamless flow of credit across the supply chain
  • The anti-profiteering provisions were introduced to ensure that businesses pass on the benefits of reduced tax rates to consumers. However, the implementation of anti-profiteering measures has been criticized for its complexity and potential for disputes
  • The periodic changes in the GST return filing system have created challenges for businesses in adapting their processes. Delays and complexities in return filing can affect working capital management
8.Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council)
 
The Goods and Services Tax Council (GST Council) is a constitutional body in India that makes recommendations on the Goods and Services Tax (GST). It was established under the Constitution (122nd Amendment) Act, 2016, which introduced the GST in India

The GST Council consists of the following members:

  • The Union Finance Minister, who is the Chairperson of the Council.
  • The Union Minister of State in charge of revenue or any other Minister of State nominated by the Union Government.
  • One Minister from each state, nominated by the Governor of that state.
  • The Chief Secretary of each state, ex-officio.
  • If the President, on the recommendation of the Council, so directs, one representative of each Union territory which has a legislature, to be nominated by the Lieutenant Governor of that Union territory.
  • Three to seven members (other than Ministers) to be nominated by the Union Government, of whom at least one member shall be from the field of economics and another from the field of chartered accountancy, legal affairs or public finance
9. Way forward
 
It's important to note that the composition and structure of the GST Council may evolve over time, and there might have been changes since my last update in January 2022. To obtain the latest and most accurate information about the GST Council and its members, it is recommended to refer to official government sources or recent announcements by the relevant authorities

 

For Prelims: Economic and Social Development and Indian Polity and Governance
For Mains: General Studies II: Functions and responsibilities of the Union and the States, issues and challenges pertaining to the federal structure, devolution of powers and finances up to local levels and challenges therein

General Studies III: Inclusive growth and issues arising from it
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1.Which of the following are true of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) introduced in India in recent times? (UGC Paper II 2020)
A. It is a destination tax
B. It benefits producing states more
C. It benefits consuming states more
D. It is a progressive taxation
E. It is an umbrella tax to improve ease of doing business
Choose the most appropriate answer from the options given below:
A.B, D and E only
B.A, C and D only
C.A, D and E only
D.A, C and E only
Answer (D)
 
Source: Indianexpress
 
 

                          FLASH FLOODS

1. Context
 
Flash floods in the Punnappuzha river that flows through Chooralmala, which witnessed a massive landslide on July 30 last year, triggered panic in Wayanad district of Kerala 

2. What is a Flood

  • Flood is an overflow of a large amount of water beyond its normal limits, especially over what is normally dry land.
  • Flooding is an overflowing of water onto land that is normally dry. 
  • Floods can happen during heavy rains, when ocean waves come on shore, when the snow melts quickly, or when dams or levees break. 
  • Damaging flooding may happen with only a few inches of water, or it may cover a house to the rooftop. 
  • Floods can occur within minutes or over a long period, and may last days, weeks, or longer. 
  • Floods are the most widespread of all weather-related natural disasters.

 

3. Common causes of floods can be divided into the factors triggering them.

These factors include -

  • Meteorological factors
  • Physical factors
  • Human factors

 3.1 Meteorological Factors

The natural causes of floods are discussed below -

  • Heavy Rainfall: The season of monsoon
  • Cloud Burst: Cloud Burst occurs due to intense precipitation in a short duration which can sometimes be accompanied by hail and storms and can cause a flood.
  • Climate Change: According to the International Panel for Climate Change, the rainfall intensity, duration and frequency are going to increase in the future.
  • Skewed Rainfall Pattern: 80% of the precipitation takes place in the monsoon months
  • Trans-National Rivers: The fact that some of the rivers (like the Brahmaputra, many tributaries of Ganga) causing damage in India to originate in neighbouring countries, adds another complex dimension to the problem
  • Cyclone & Heavy rainfall

 

3.2. Physical Factors.

  • Insufficient Drainage Management: Improper planning of the drainage system of an area can cause excess water due to heavy rainfall to get stuck and lead to a flood.
  • Catchment Area: Catchment area is an area from where the rainfall water flows into a river. This can be a lake or reservoir. During monsoon, when excess water exceeds the limited holding capacity of the catchment area, it leads to floods.

 

3.3. Human Factor

  • Siltation: Siltation refers to the flow of silt and sediments in the riverbed. As particles remain suspended in the river and accumulated in the riverbed, it disrupts the flow of the river, causing a flood.
  • Improper Agricultural Practices: If farmers are not cautious of the effects of farming practices meaning if they leave the waste material in the river or cannot handle water management properly, it can lead to a flood. 
  • Deforestation: Deforestation is one of the major human causes of floods. Trees act like a sponge that helps to hold soil and water and prevent flooding. As trees are being cut down at a fast pace to make way for urbanisation to grow, more water runs towards a river during heavy rainfall. As a result, a flood occurs.
  • Collapse of Dams: Dams are built to store water and provide water to people. As dams are human-made, these can be worn out and subsequently collapse causing floods. Also, if heavy rainfall sustains for a long time, State Governments often declare to open dam gates which can lead to a dangerous flood.- Temples of Modern India to Water Bombs
  • Unplanned Development
  • Neglect of Pre-Disaster Planning

 4.Types of Flood

  • Coastal Floods: Coastal floods occur when strong winds or storms move towards the coast during high tide.
  • Flash Floods: Flash floods usually occur in hilly areas in limited space. Here the sudden heavy rainfall or snow thaws are the causes of flooding. The fast-moving torrent of Flash floods can sweep large objects such as cars, rocks and everything that comes in their path.
  • River Floods: River floods occur due to the inflow of water from heavy rainfall, snowmelt or powerful storms.
  • Pluvial Floods: Pluvial floods occur in areas that cannot hold rainwater and end up forming puddles and ponds. eg- rural areas.
  • Urban Floods: When the drainage system of urban areas fails to absorb rainwater.
5. Damages Caused by Floods in India

The impacts of floods affect both individuals and communities and have social-environmental consequences. 

  • Human Loss and Property Loss: Every year, millions of people become homeless and washed away due to floods.
  • Spread of Communicable Diseases: Waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid fever, hepatitis, and leptospirosis spread in flood-affected areas. Floods also lead to vector-borne diseases, transmitted through parasites and pathogens such as a mosquito. As a result, the health of flood victims deteriorates.
  • Destruction of Crops: Every year, floods destroy a large number of crops.
  • Loss of Livestock: Like humans, livestock also get displaced during floods and dies due to the loss of their habitats.
  • Disruption of Communication Link and Transportation: Flood causes damage to transportation links such as bridges, rail, power plants etc., thus causing communication disruption in those areas.
  • Economic and Social Disruption: The economy comes to a standstill as people are forced to move to another place, and revival of this situation takes time.
6. Flood Management

Approaches to dealing with floods may be any one or a combination of the following available options:

  • Attempts to modify the flood
  • Attempts to modify the susceptibility to flooding damage
  • Attempts to modify the loss burden
  • Bearing the loss.
  • The main thrust of the flood protection programme undertaken in India so far has been an attempt to modify the flood in the form of physical (structural) measures to prevent the floodwaters from reaching potential damage centres and modify susceptibility to flooding damage through early warning systems.

6.1 Structural measures

The following structural measures are generally adopted for flood protection:

  • Embankments, flood walls, sea walls
  • Dams and reservoirs
  • Natural detention basins
  • Channel improvement
  • Drainage improvement
  • Diversion of flood waters.

 

6.2 Non-structural measures

Non-structural measures include:

  • Flood forecasting and warning
  • Floodplain zoning
  • Flood fighting
  • Floodproofing
  • Flood insurance.

7.What are Flash Floods

  • Flash floods are the most dangerous kind of floods because they combine the destructive power of a flood with incredible speed. 
  • Flash floods occur when heavy rainfall exceeds the ability of the ground to absorb it. They also occur when water fills normally dry creeks or streams or enough water accumulates for streams to overtop their banks, causing rapid rises of water in a short amount of time. 
  • They can happen within minutes of the causative rainfall, limiting the time available to warn and protect the public.

 8. Status of Floods in India

8.1 NDRF Report

  • 40 million hectares (10% of the land mass) in India are prone to floods.
  • On average every year, 5 million hectares of land are affected, 1600 lives are lost and more than Rs. 1,800 crores is incurred.

8.2 Statistics

  • Between 1970 and 2004, 3 floods occurred per year on average. However, between 2005 and 2019, the yearly average rose to 11. 19 districts were affected annually on an average until 2005. After 2005, the number jumped to 55.
  • 2017 analysis suggests that 4.48 million Indians are exposed to riverine floods, the highest in the world.

9. What areas are at risk from flash floods?

  • Densely populated areas are at high risk for flash floods. The construction of buildings, highways, driveways, and parking lots increases runoff by reducing the amount of rain absorbed by the ground. This runoff increases the flash flood potential.
  • Areas near rivers are at risk from floods. Embankments, known as levees, are often built along rivers and are used to prevent high water from flooding bordering land. 
  • Dam failures can send a sudden destructive surge of water downstream. 
  • Mountains and steep hills produce rapid runoff, which causes streams to rise quickly. 
  • Saturated soils can also lead to rapid flash flooding. 
  • Sometimes the thunderstorms that produce heavy rainfall may happen well upstream from the impacted area, making it harder to recognize a dangerous situation.
  • Very intense rainfall can produce flooding even on dry soil.
  • Additional high-risk locations include recent burn areas in mountains and urban areas from pavement and roofs which enhance runoff.
  • Ice jams and snowmelt can help cause flash floods. A deep snowpack increases runoff produced by melting snow. Heavy spring rains falling on melting snowpacks can produce flash flooding.

 

10. The impact of floods in India

11. Impact of flood on wildlife

12. Government actions regarding flood management

12.1.The National Flood Management Commission

  • Launched in 1954
  • Different structural and non-structural methods have been applied by various states under it.
12.2.Rashtriya Barh Aayog, 1976
  • To evolve a scientific, integrated and coordinated approach to flood control
  • It recommended Flood plain zoning and management to regulate human activities.
12.3.Regional task forces, 1996
  • It was set up to review the impact of the recommendations of Rashtriya Barh Aayog.
  • It recommended large flood moderation projects, following up the enactment of flood plain zoning.

12.4.National Water Policy, 2002

  • It recommended
  • Basin-wise plan for flood control and management.
  • Flood control to be given overriding consideration in reservoir regulation policy.
  • More emphasis on non-structural measures.
  • Strict regulation of settlements and economic activities in flood plains.

12.5. K. Mittal Committee, 2003
Its main recommendations were

  • Afforestation and treatment of catchment area, right land-use practices and others.
  • In the river itself a construction of suitable hydraulic structures that may trap silt.
  • Embankment along the aggrading river should be constructed, only after proper studies are made on its behaviour especially due to sedimentation load and resultant morphological changes.
 
 
Source: Indianexpress
 
 

CASTE CENSUS

 
 
1. Context
The Central Government has announced that the next Census would take place in 2027 and that it would collect information on castes. Can such a massive data exercise be made more useful through a restructuring of the existing Census process?
 
2. What is the Caste Census?

A caste census is a comprehensive survey or data collection effort that aims to gather detailed information about the caste composition of a population. This typically involves:

  1. Counting individuals belonging to different caste groups
  2. Collecting socio-economic data related to caste categories
  3. Assessing the representation of various castes in different sectors

The caste system is particularly relevant in India, where it has historically played a significant role in social stratification. A caste census can provide insights into:

  • Population distribution across caste groups
  • Economic status of different castes
  • Educational levels and employment patterns
  • Representation in government jobs and political positions

In India, the last comprehensive caste census was conducted in 1931 during British rule. Since then, calls for a new caste census have been made periodically, with proponents arguing it would help in formulating more targeted welfare policies and ensuring equitable representation.

3. Why the Caste Census?

Historically, British India’s censuses from 1881 to 1931 recorded all castes. Post-Independence, the 1951 census excluded caste enumeration, except for SCs and STs, which continued to be recorded in every census. In 1961, the government allowed states to conduct their own OBC surveys and create state-specific OBC lists, as there were no central reservations for OBCs at that time

A caste census is essential for several reasons:

  • Social Necessity: Caste remains a fundamental social framework in India. Inter-caste marriages were just 5% in 2011-12. Caste surnames and markers are common, residential areas are segregated by caste, and caste influences the selection of election candidates and cabinet ministers.

  • Legal Necessity: Effective implementation of constitutionally mandated social justice policies, including reservations in elections, education, and public employment, requires detailed caste data. Despite the Constitution using the term 'class,' Supreme Court rulings have established caste as a significant criterion for defining a backward class, necessitating comprehensive caste-wise data to uphold reservation policies.

  • Administrative Necessity: Detailed caste data helps correct wrongful inclusions and exclusions within reserved categories, prevents dominant castes from monopolizing reserved benefits, and is essential for sub-categorizing castes and determining the creamy layer's income/wealth criteria.

  • Moral Necessity: The lack of detailed caste data has allowed a small elite among upper castes and dominant OBCs to disproportionately control the nation's resources, income, and power

4. Arguments against the Caste Census

There are several arguments against conducting a caste census:

  • Social Division: Some argue that a caste census would exacerbate social divisions, although India's social hierarchies have existed for nearly 3,000 years, predating census efforts. Since 1951, counting SCs and STs has not led to conflicts among these groups. Moreover, India’s census already includes data on religion, language, and region, which are equally, if not more, divisive than caste. Ignoring caste in the census will not eliminate casteism any more than excluding religion, language, and region data will eradicate communalism and regionalism.

  • Administrative Challenge: Some claim that a caste census would be administratively complex. However, unlike the concept of race, which can be ambiguous but is still counted in many countries like the U.S., caste identification in India is relatively clear. The government has successfully enumerated 1,234 SC castes and 698 ST tribes. Therefore, counting the approximately 4,000 other castes, most of which are specific to certain states, should not pose an insurmountable challenge.

  • Increased Reservation Demands: Critics suggest that a caste census could lead to more demands for reservations. However, detailed caste data could actually help manage these demands more effectively by providing a factual basis for discussions. This would enable policymakers to address reservation claims more objectively, such as those from Marathas, Patidars, and Jats. In contrast, governments often prefer vague data because it allows them to make arbitrary reservation decisions for electoral gain

5. The Case for Other Backward Caste (OBC) in Census
 
  • The Constitution allows reservations for OBCs in education (Article 15(4)) and public employment (Article 16(4)), similar to SCs and STs. Following the Mandal Commission's recommendations, OBCs also benefit from reservations in the Central government and its undertakings. The Supreme Court's ruling in the Indra Sawhney case (1992) emphasized that the OBC list, originally based on the 1931 Census, should be updated regularly.
  • Unlike SCs and STs, OBCs do not have reserved electoral constituencies for MPs and MLAs. However, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments (1993) introduced reservations for OBCs in panchayats and municipalities (Articles 243D(6) and 243T(6)). To implement this effectively, detailed caste and area-wise Census data of OBCs is necessary, which the government should have collected in the 2001 Census but did not.
  • When states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha, and Jharkhand attempted to implement OBC reservations in local elections, courts halted these efforts due to the lack of caste-wise OBC data. The judiciary demands this data to uphold reservations, while the executive has avoided collecting it.
  • In contrast, the Supreme Court upheld the 10% reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS) among non-OBCs, SCs, and STs (mainly upper castes) in 2022 without empirical support. Given the EWS reservation, the Census should now include all castes, as it did until 1931.
  • Though the Census is a Union subject, the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008, allows States and local bodies to collect relevant data. States like Karnataka (2015) and Bihar (2023) have conducted caste surveys, but Census data holds more authority and is less disputed. The government's reluctance to include caste in the Census is both legally indefensible and administratively imprudent
6. Failures attempts of Caste Census
  • After extensive lobbying by OBC leaders, Parliament unanimously resolved in 2010, with support from both Congress and BJP, to include caste enumeration in the 2011 Census. The last such enumeration was in the 1931 Census, which recorded 4,147 castes in India, excluding the depressed classes/untouchables.
  • However, the Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) of 2011 was poorly designed and executed, resulting in an absurd figure of 4.6 million castes, and its results were never released.
  • The failure of SECC-2011 can be attributed to its conduct outside the framework of the Census Act, 1948, which was not amended to include caste as a parameter. Instead, it was managed by the Union Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development, which lacked experience in conducting sociological surveys.
  • Additionally, the questionnaire was poorly designed with open-ended questions about caste, causing confusion among enumerators who struggled to differentiate between genuine castes, alternative names, larger caste groups, sub-castes, surnames, clan names, and gotras. In contrast, Bihar's 2023 Caste Survey provided a list of 214 specific caste names, with a 215th category labeled "Other Castes," resulting in more accurate data.
  • Despite the 2010 unanimous Parliamentary resolution, the Central government announced in 2021 that it would not include caste enumeration in the next Census.
  • It maintained this stance before the Supreme Court in response to a case filed by the Maharashtra government seeking the inclusion of OBCs in the 2021 Census. The Supreme Court's dismissal of Maharashtra's plea in December 2021 is contentious, given its own previous rulings
7. Way Forward
To address the failures of the SECC-2011, the Census Act of 1948 should be amended to mandate caste enumeration, removing the discretion from the Union executive. Caste should be included in the regular Census conducted by the Census Commissioner, with a few relevant questions added to the questionnaire. The government should also involve sociological and anthropological experts to create a draft list of castes specific to each state, publish this draft online for public feedback, and finalize it before distributing it to enumerators. The questionnaire should include questions about the respondent's sub-caste, caste, larger caste group, and caste surname. Using internet-enabled handheld devices preloaded with this information and limiting the enumerators' role to selecting the correct option will streamline the process and ensure accuracy.
States interested in caste enumeration should petition the Supreme Court to review its 2021 judgment. It is illogical to base OBC reservations on 1931 Census data and EWS reservations on no empirical data. The next Census must include caste enumeration
 
 
 
For Prelims: Socio-economic and caste census (SECC), Mandal Commission, Justice G Rohini's Commission, NITI Aayog, Article 341 and Article 342.
For Mains: 1. General Studies II: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections
 
 
Source: The Hindu
 
 

PARLIAMENTARY COMMITTEES

 
1. Context
Lok Sabha Speaker Om Birla on Monday (23rd June) inaugurated the national conference marking the platinum jubilee of the Parliamentary Estimates Committee in Mumbai’s Vidhan Bhavan complex. The two-day event, held at the Maharashtra Vidhan Bhavan complex in Mumbai, brought together committee chairpersons and members from across the country.
 
2. What are the Committees of Parliament?
  • The legislative process commences with the introduction of a Bill in either house of Parliament. However, this process can be intricate, and due to the limited time available for in-depth discussions, it often becomes challenging.
  • Furthermore, the growing political polarization and the narrowing of the political center have led to increasingly heated and inconclusive debates within Parliament.
  • Consequently, a substantial portion of legislative matters is effectively addressed within the framework of Parliamentary Committees.
  • A Parliamentary Committee is a group of Members of Parliament (MPs) appointed or elected by the House, or nominated by the Speaker.
  • These committees operate under the Speaker's guidance and subsequently present their findings and recommendations either to the House or directly to the Speaker.
  • The roots of the Parliamentary Committee system can be traced back to the British Parliament. Their legitimacy is derived from Article 105, which outlines the privileges of MPs, and Article 118, which empowers Parliament to establish regulations governing its processes and business conduct.
3. What are the various Committees of Parliament?
  • Parliamentary Committees can be categorized into distinct groups, including Financial Committees, Departmentally Related Standing Committees, Other Parliamentary Standing Committees, and Ad hoc Committees. These classifications serve specific purposes within the legislative process.
  • The Financial Committees, namely the Estimates Committee, Public Accounts Committee, and the Committee on Public Undertakings, were originally established in 1950. They were designed to enhance financial oversight and accountability within Parliament.
  • In 1993, the formation of seventeen Departmentally Related Standing Committees was undertaken to bolster the scrutiny of parliamentary activities.
  • The primary objectives were to provide members with more extensive involvement in the examination of significant legislation and to expand the scope of parliamentary review. Subsequently, the number of these committees was raised to 24, each consisting of 31 members, with 21 being from the Lok Sabha and 10 from the Rajya Sabha.
  • Ad hoc Committees, on the other hand, are constituted for specific, time-bound purposes. Once these committees have fulfilled their designated tasks and presented their findings to the House, they are dissolved.
  • Notable examples include Select and Joint Committees on Bills, as well as committees like the Railway Convention Committee and the Committee on Food Management and Security in Parliament House Complex, which fall within the Ad hoc Committee category.
  • Additionally, Parliament has the authority to establish a Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) with a particular focus, featuring members from both Houses.
  • These committees are responsible for in-depth examinations of specific subjects or Bills. Alternatively, any of the two Houses can establish a Select Committee comprising members from that respective House.
  • Typically, these JPCs and Select Committees are chaired by Members of Parliament from the ruling party and are disbanded upon the submission of their reports.
4. How are the Committees constituted?
  • There are a total of 16 Departmentally Related Standing Committees for the Lok Sabha and eight for the Rajya Sabha, with each Committee comprising members from both Houses. The leadership of these committees is typically drawn from the respective House they belong to.
  • Notable Lok Sabha committees include those covering areas like Agriculture, Coal, Defence, External Affairs, Finance, Communications and Information Technology, Labour, Petroleum & Natural Gas, and Railways.
  • Similarly, prominent Rajya Sabha committees encompass Commerce, Education, Health & Family Welfare, Home Affairs, and Environment.
  • Each House also has other Standing Committees, including the Business Advisory Committee and the Privileges Committee, whose members are nominated by the Presiding Officer of the respective House. Ministers are generally not eligible for election or appointment to Financial Committees and specific Departmentally Related Committees.
  • The decision to refer a matter to a Parliamentary Committee lies with the Presiding Officers, although this choice is commonly made in consultation with party leaders within the House.
  • The appointment of committee heads follows a similar process, with the convention typically being that the main Opposition party's nominee assumes the role of the PAC (Public Accounts Committee) chairman. However, recent restructuring has seen a shift from this pattern.
  • The committee heads are responsible for scheduling meetings, setting the agenda, and preparing the annual report.
  • They can make decisions aimed at efficiently managing the committee. During meetings, the chairperson presides and can determine which individuals should be summoned before the panel.
  • An invitation to appear before a Parliamentary Committee carries the same weight as a court summons. If someone is unable to attend, they must provide reasons, which the committee may or may not accept.
  • However, the chairman usually requires the support of the majority of members to summon a witness.
  • Members of Parliament typically serve on Parliamentary Committees for a one-year term, and the composition of these committees generally remains consistent in terms of party representation.
5. How important are the recommendations of the Committees?
  • The reports produced by Departmentally Related Standing Committees are advisory in character.
  • While they are not legally binding on the government, they do hold substantial influence. Historically, governments have often embraced the recommendations provided by these committees and integrated them into the legislation after it returns to the House for deliberation and approval.
  • Additionally, these committees analyze policy matters within their respective Ministries and offer suggestions to the government.
  • The government is obligated to provide feedback regarding its acceptance of these recommendations.
  • As a result, the Committees present Action Taken Reports, which outline the government's progress in implementing each recommendation.
6.Way forward
Parliamentary committees in India provide a crucial mechanism for the legislative branch to scrutinize the executive branch (the government), hold it accountable, and conduct in-depth examinations of various aspects of governance and policy. They play a vital role in ensuring transparency, accountability, and effective governance in a democratic system
 
 
For Prelims: Standing Committees, Ethics Committees,  Adhoc Committees
For Mains: Parliamentary Committees of Indian Parliament
 
 
Previous Year Questions
1. Consider the following statements: The Parliamentary Committee on Public Accounts (UPSC CSE 2013)
1. consists of not more than 25 members of the Lok Sabha.
2. scrutinizes appropriation and finance accounts of the Government.
3. examines the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 and 3 Only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer (B)
2.With reference to the Parliament of India, which of the following Parliamentary Committees scrutinizes and reports to the House whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-laws, etc. conferred by the Constitution or delegated by the Parliament are being properly exercised by the Executive within the scope of such delegation ? (UPSC CSE, 2018)
(a) Committee on Government Assurances
(b) Committee on Subordinate Legislation
(c) Rules Committee
(d) Business Advisory Committee
Answer (b)
3.Which one of the following is the largest Committee of the Parliament? (UPSC CSE, 2014)
(a) The Committee on Public Accounts
(b) The Committee on Estimates
(c) The Committee on Public Undertakings
(d) The Committee on Petitions
Answer (b)
 
Source: Indianexpress
 
 

TOTAL FERTILITY RATE (TFR)

 
 
 
1. Context
 
The under-representation of women in diplomacy and the importance of breaking down structural barriers to support women in global decision-making roles were highlighted during the International Day of Women in Diplomacy observed on June 24. 
 

2. About the Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is a key demographic indicator that helps us understand the average number of children a woman in a specific population will have during her lifetime, assuming current birth patterns persist. It's different from the crude birth rate, which simply measures the number of births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. 

What it measures

  • The average number of children a woman will have throughout her reproductive lifespan.
  • It considers age-specific fertility rates, which means it takes into account the different birth rates at different ages within the population.
  • Provides a longer-term perspective on population dynamics compared to the crude birth rate.

Significance

  • Helps assess population growth trends and predict future population size.
  • Informs policy decisions related to education, healthcare, social security, and economic development.
  • Understanding TFR is crucial for analyzing the potential demographic dividend, which refers to the economic and social benefits that can arise from a large working-age population due to declining fertility rates.

Calculation

  • Summing the age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) for all fertile age groups (typically 15-49 years) and multiplying by five.
  • ASFRs represent the average number of births per 1,000 women in a specific age group.

Key TFR levels

  • Replacement fertility rate: Around 2.1 children per woman, ensures population stability without growth or decline due to births and deaths (excluding migration).
  • TFR below replacement: Indicates a declining population, with potential implications for workforce size and economic growth.
  • TFR above replacement: Leads to population growth, requiring investments in infrastructure and resources to support the growing population.
 

3. What does the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 mean?

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 means that, on average, each woman in the population is expected to give birth to two children over her reproductive lifetime. This value represents the replacement level of fertility, where each generation replaces itself in the population. When the TFR is around 2.0, it indicates that the population is stable, with births balancing deaths over time.

A Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.0 indicates several key things

  • Average Children per Woman: In that specific population, on average, a woman will have two children during her lifetime, assuming current birth patterns remain unchanged. This means that each generation of women is replacing itself, without population growth or decline due solely to births and deaths (excluding migration).
  • Replacement Fertility Rate: A TFR of 2.0 is often referred to as the replacement fertility rate. This is because it signifies the level of fertility needed to maintain a stable population size over time, considering only births and deaths. However, it's important to note that the exact replacement level can vary slightly depending on mortality rates, particularly child mortality.
  • Demographic Transition: A TFR of 2.0 suggests that the population is likely in the later stages of the demographic transition. This transition involves a shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates. In this stage, populations typically experience a decline in fertility, followed by a decline in mortality, leading to a stabilization of population size.
  • Global Context: While 2.0 is the replacement fertility rate, the global average TFR is currently around 2.3, indicating slight population growth. However, many developed countries have TFRs below replacement level, which can lead to an ageing population and potential challenges for social security systems and workforce size.
  • Policy Implications: Understanding the TFR is crucial for policymakers in various areas like education, healthcare, social security, and economic development. A TFR below replacement may necessitate policies encouraging childbirth or attracting immigration to address potential workforce shortages. Conversely, a high TFR might require investments in infrastructure and resources to support a growing population.

 

4. What is the Replacement Fertility Rate?

The Replacement Fertility Rate (RFR) is the level of fertility required to maintain a stable population size in a given area, considering only births and deaths (excluding migration). This means that each generation of women has just enough daughters to replace themselves and their mothers in the population.

Key Points about RFR

  • Typically around 2.1 children per woman This number varies slightly depending on a country's mortality rates, especially child mortality rates. Higher child mortality necessitates slightly higher fertility to ensure replacement.
  • When the TFR matches the RFR, the population neither grows nor declines due to births and deaths.
  • Reaching RFR suggests a population in the later stages of the demographic transition, characterized by declining birth and death rates.
  • Though the global average TFR is 2.3 (slightly above RFR), many developed countries have TFRs below RFR, leading to ageing populations.

Significance of RFR

  • Understanding RFR helps policymakers formulate effective policies in areas like education, healthcare, social security, and economic development.
  • TFR below RFR may require policies to encourage childbirth or attract immigration to address potential workforce shortages and support ageing populations. Conversely, a high TFR might necessitate investments in infrastructure and resources to sustain a growing population.
  • Analyzing TFR about RFR offers insights into potential population growth or decline, aiding in planning and resource allocation.

 

5. How is the Total Fertility Rate calculated?

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is calculated by considering the age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) of a population. 

  1. Age-specific fertility Rates (ASFRs) represent the average number of births per 1,000 women within a specific age group. Typically, ASFRs are calculated for five-year age groups ranging from 15-49 years, covering the typical childbearing years for women. Data for calculating ASFRs usually comes from population censuses or demographic surveys.
  2. Once you have the ASFRs for each age group, you need to sum them all up. This gives you the total number of births expected per 1,000 women across all fertile age groups.
  3. Since age groups may have different sizes, simply summing ASFRs wouldn't be entirely accurate. To account for this, the sum is multiplied by the average number of women in each age group. This ensures the TFR reflects the fertility rates across all age groups proportionally.
  4. Often, instead of using the actual number of women in each age group, a standard factor of "5" is used for convenience. This assumes that each age group has roughly the same number of women, which is a reasonable approximation for many populations.

Therefore, the TFR formula becomes: TFR = (Sum of ASFRs across all age groups) * 5

Example:

Imagine a hypothetical population with the following ASFRs:

  • 15-19 years: 30 births per 1,000 women
  • 20-24 years: 80 births per 1,000 women
  • 25-29 years: 120 births per 1,000 women
  • 30-34 years: 90 births per 1,000 women
  • 35-39 years: 50 births per 1,000 women
  • 40-44 years: 20 births per 1,000 women
  • 45-49 years: 10 births per 1,000 women

Using the formula:

  • TFR = (30 + 80 + 120 + 90 + 50 + 20 + 10) * 5
  • TFR = 400 * 5
  • TFR = 2000 births per 1,000 women

Therefore, in this example, the TFR is 2.0, indicating that on average, a woman in this population would have 2 children during her lifetime based on the current age-specific fertility rates.

 

6. The difference between birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

While both birth rate and Total Fertility Rate (TFR) measure fertility within a population, they have key differences that offer distinct insights:

Features Birth Rate Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Definition Number of births per 1,000 people in a year Average number of children per woman throughout her life
Focus Current fertility level Long-term fertility pattern
Data Requires population size and number of births Requires age-specific fertility rates
Calculation Simple division Summing and adjusting age-specific fertility rates
Advantages Easy to understand, tracks short-term trends Considers age structure, reflects future potential, informs policy
Limitations Ignores age structure, limited future insight, misleading in fluctuating populations
 

Requires complex data, less intuitive, may not perfectly predict future
 
 

7. About demographic dividend

A demographic dividend refers to the potential economic and social benefits that can arise when a large share of the population is in the working-age (typically 15-64 years) compared to the dependent populations (children and elderly). This shift in population structure is often caused by a decline in fertility rates without a corresponding decline in mortality rates, leading to a "bulge" in the working-age population.

Key Features

  • A larger working-age population translates to a larger pool of available labour, potentially boosting economic growth and productivity.
  • The ratio of dependents (children and elderly) to the working-age population decreases, leading to increased savings and investment as fewer resources are needed to support dependents.
  • The potential for increased investments in education and healthcare due to a smaller dependent population, leading to a more skilled and healthy workforce.

Conditions for a Dividend

  • A significant and sustained decline in fertility rates is crucial for the demographic dividend to occur.
  • The benefits of a demographic dividend can only be realized if the working-age population is adequately educated, skilled, and healthy.
  • Expanding job opportunities is essential to absorb the growing workforce and prevent unemployment.

Challenges and Considerations

  • The demographic dividend may not be evenly distributed across regions or social groups, potentially leading to inequalities.
  • Governments and businesses need to adapt policies and infrastructure to accommodate the changing population structure.
  • Ensuring social security and healthcare for the ageing population is crucial to sustain the benefits of the dividend.

Examples

  • Several East Asian countries, like China and South Korea, experienced significant economic growth due to their demographic dividends in the latter half of the 20th century.
  • India is currently experiencing a demographic transition with a declining fertility rate, creating the potential for a future dividend. However, realizing this potential requires investments in education, healthcare, and job creation.
 
8. The Way Forward
 
Understanding the TFR and its implications is crucial for India's future development. By analyzing population dynamics and formulating data-driven policies, the country can harness the potential of its demographic transition and achieve the Viksit Bharat goals sustainably and inclusively.
 
 
For Prelims: Viksit Bharat, Population control goal, Total Fertility Rate, Replacement Fertility Rate
 
For Mains: 
1. Critically analyze the significance of Total Fertility Rate (TFR) in understanding population dynamics and formulating development policies in India. Discuss the potential challenges and opportunities associated with India's projected demographic transition. (250 Words)
2. What are the potential security implications of India's changing population structure? How can these be addressed through proactive policy measures? (250 Words)
3. Imagine you are part of the committee formed by the Finance Minister to study India's population growth. What key recommendations would you propose, considering both demographic trends and the aspirations of a Vikasit Bharat? (250 Words)
 
 
Previous Year Questions
 
1. The total fertility rate is: (HPPSC GS 2018) (MPSC 2015)
 
A. The birth of women divided by the total female population
B. The number of births divided by the total population
C. The number of children a woman will likely bear in her lifetime
D. The births to women of a given age divided by the total number of women at that age
Answer: C
 
Mains
 
1. "Empowering women is the key to control the population growth.’’ Discuss. (UPSC 2019)
2. Critically examine the effect of globalization on the aged population in India. (UPSC 2013)
3. Discuss the main objectives of Population Education and point out the measures to achieve them in India in detail. (UPSC 2021)
4. Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC 2020)
 
 Source: The Indian Express
 

CLIMATE FINANCE

 
 

1. Context 

In a small but important victory in climate negotiations, developing countries led by India have managed to force a reopening of discussions on the obligations of developed nations to “provide” finance, and not just make efforts towards “mobilising” financial resources, for climate action.
 

2. What is Climate finance?

  • Climate finance entails substantial financial investments directed toward initiatives aimed at either mitigating or adapting to the impacts of climate change.
  • In the context of adaptation, it involves proactively addressing the anticipated adverse effects of climate change and implementing measures to prevent or minimize potential damage.
  • For instance, constructing infrastructure to safeguard coastal communities against rising sea levels is a tangible example of adaptation measures.
  • Conversely, in the realm of mitigation, the focus is on curbing the emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere, thereby lessening the severity of climate change impacts.
  • Mitigation efforts encompass strategies such as increasing the utilization of renewable energy sources, expanding forest cover, and other measures designed to reduce overall GHG emissions.
 

3. Why do Developing Nations Demand Climate Finance?

Developing nations demand climate finance for several reasons:

  • Developed nations have historically emitted far more greenhouse gases than developing nations. Since the Industrial Revolution, the Global North has emitted a disproportionate share of the greenhouse gases that are now causing climate change. While developing nations are now rapidly increasing their emissions, the historical responsibility for the problem lies primarily with developed countries.
  • Developing countries are disproportionately vulnerable to the negative impacts of climate change, such as extreme weather events, rising sea levels, and changes in agricultural productivity. They often lack the resources to adapt to these changes and build resilience.
  • Developing countries have limited financial resources to invest in clean energy technologies and other climate solutions. They need financial assistance from developed countries to bridge the gap and make these investments.
  • The principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR) is enshrined in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. This principle recognizes that all countries have a responsibility to address climate change, but that developed countries have a greater responsibility due to their historical emissions and greater financial capacity.
  • Many argue that developed countries have a moral obligation to help developing countries address climate change, as they are the ones who are most vulnerable to its impacts and have the least responsibility for causing the problem.

International Agreements

The demand for climate finance is backed by international agreements, including:

  • The 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) agreement established the principle of CBDR and required developed countries to provide financial assistance to developing countries.
  • 2009 Copenhagen Accord Developed countries committed to providing $100 billion per year by 2020 to developing countries.
  • The 2015 Paris Agreement reaffirmed the commitment to provide $100 billion per year by 2020 and extended it to 2025.
 

4. How much climate finance is needed?

  • As of 2021, the UNFCCC standing committee's analysis suggests that developing countries require a minimum of $5.8 trillion by 2030 to fulfil the objectives outlined in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
  • These contributions serve as a framework for their initiatives to both reduce national emissions and adapt to the impacts of climate change.
  • This translates to an annual need of around $600 billion, a figure significantly below the commitments made by developed nations.
  • Complicating matters further, a report from the London School of Economics notes that the lack of available data, tools, and capacity in several countries may result in underestimations of these financial needs.
  • Additionally, the UNFCCC estimate does not encompass the substantial expenses incurred by governments to address the impacts of extreme weather events like floods, droughts, and wildfires attributed to climate change.
  • These costs are now being considered separately under the funding mechanism for loss and damage, announced by countries at COP27 in 2022 and officially launched during COP28. However, the scale and replenishment cycle of this mechanism remains unclear.
  • In a report from 2022, Nicholas Stern, a prominent climate economist, estimated that an annual investment of approximately $2 trillion will be necessary by 2030 to assist developing countries in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions and coping with the consequences of climate breakdown.


5. How Much Climate Finance Reaches Developing Nations?

Different organizations provide contrasting figures on the amount of climate finance reaching developing countries.

  • The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), largely composed of wealthy nations, reported $83.3 billion provided in 2020.
  • Oxfam challenges the data, accusing developed countries of inflating their contributions by as much as 225%. Their estimate places the real value of climate finance provided in 2020 at $21-24.5 billion.
  • Developed countries are criticized for offering much of the funding as non-concessional loans, adding to debt burdens in developing nations.
  • A study by CARE International revealed that 52% of climate finance between 2011-2020 was diverted from existing development budgets, including critical areas like health, education, and women's rights.

Concerns and implications

  • The discrepancy in reported figures raises questions about transparency and accountability in climate finance.
  • The prevalence of non-concessional loans increases debt burdens and limits the effectiveness of climate finance in developing countries.
  • Diverting funds from essential development priorities can exacerbate existing challenges in developing nations.

 

6. The Way Forward

The question of how much climate finance reaches developing countries remains contested. Deeper scrutiny and transparency are needed to ensure effective resource allocation and support meaningful climate action in vulnerable nations while safeguarding their development priorities.

 

For Prelims: COP28, Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Climate Finance, Climate Change, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change,  Nationally Determined Contributions, COP27, Copenhagen Accord, Paris Agreement 
For Mains: 
1. Discuss the impact of climate change on developing economies. How can climate finance be effectively utilized to promote sustainable development in these economies? (250 Words)
 
 

Previous Year Questions
 
1. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.
2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.
3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility for global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries cope with climate change.
 
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 and 3 only
B.  2 only
C.  2 and 3 only
D.  1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
 
2. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of ( UPSC 2016)
A. pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East
B. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change
C. capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
D. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals

Answer: B

3. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has announced which country to host the 28th Conference of the Parties (COP28) in 2023? (SSC CGL  2023) 

A. UAE         B. US          C. UK         D. Russia

Answer: A

 

4. Consider the following statements with reference to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): (RBI Grade B 2022)
1. OECD is an official Permanent observer to the United Nations and is referred to as a think-tank or as a monitoring group.
2. India is not a member of OECD.
3. OECD is funded by its member countries.
Which of the statement given above is/ are correct? 

A. 1 only       B. 1 and 2 only      C. 2 and 3 only        D. 1, 2 and 3          E. 2 only

Answer: D

5. Which of the following statements regarding 'Green Climate Fund' is/are correct? (UPSC 2015)
1. It is intended to assist the developing countries in adaptation and mitigation practices to counter climate change.
2. It is founded under the aegis of UNEP, OECS, Asian Development Bank and World Bank.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.

A. 1 only       B. 2 only         C. Both 1 and 2         D. Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: A

6. The 27th annual UN meeting on climate, COP27 (Conference of Parties) took place from 6th to 18th November, in which of the following country?  (SSC GD Constable 2023)

A. France       B. Brazil        C. Indonesia       D. Egypt

Answer: D

7. According to the Copenhagen Accord, what percentage of India has promised to reduce carbon emissions by the year 2020 as compared to 2005? (UP Police SI 2017) 

A. 20-25 percent  B. 10-15 percent         C. 30-35 percent       D. 5-10 percent

Answers: 1-B, 2-B, 3-A, 4-D, 5-A, 6-D, 7-A

Mains

1. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (upsc 2021)
 
Source: The Indian Express
 
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