2. About Left-wing Extremism

Left-wing extremism, often referred to simply as "left-wing extremism" or "left-wing terrorism," is a political ideology and movement characterised by radical leftist beliefs and methods that aim to bring about significant social, political, or economic change through violent or subversive means. Left-wing extremists typically advocate for the overthrow of existing societal structures, including capitalist systems, and the establishment of a more egalitarian or socialist society.

Some common characteristics of left-wing extremism include

• Left-wing extremists often oppose capitalist economic systems, viewing them as inherently oppressive and exploitative. They may advocate for the abolition of private property and the redistribution of wealth.
• Left-wing extremists frequently oppose imperialism, colonialism, and what they perceive as Western hegemony. They may support movements for national liberation and self-determination.
• Many left-wing extremists embrace revolutionary socialist ideologies, seeking to establish socialist or communist states through revolutionary means, such as armed struggle or mass uprisings.
• Left-wing extremists often engage in direct action tactics, such as bombings, assassinations, sabotage, and armed insurrections, to further their goals. These tactics are seen as necessary to challenge and disrupt existing power structures.
• Left-wing extremists may align themselves with marginalised or oppressed groups, such as ethnic minorities, indigenous peoples, LGBTQ+ communities, and workers, in their struggle against perceived oppression.

3. The difference between terrorism and Naxalism

4.  What is a Red corridor region?

• The term "Red Corridor" refers to a vast area in India that is affected by left-wing extremism, particularly Naxalism or Maoist insurgency. This region is characterized by the presence of various insurgent groups, including the Communist Party of India (Maoist) and other Naxalite factions, which seek to overthrow the Indian government through armed struggle and establish a communist state.
• The Red Corridor stretches across several states in central and eastern India, encompassing predominantly rural and forested areas. Some of the states included in the Red Corridor are Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Bihar, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and West Bengal.
• The term "Red" in "Red corridor" symbolizes the communist ideology embraced by these insurgent groups, while "corridor" refers to the interconnectedness of the affected regions, forming a corridor-like shape on the map. The presence of left-wing extremism in these areas has led to significant security challenges for the Indian government, including armed conflict, violence against civilians and security forces, and disruption of development initiatives.
• Efforts to address the issue of left-wing extremism in the Red Corridor have involved a combination of military operations, development programs, socio-economic initiatives, and political dialogues aimed at addressing the root causes of the insurgency and promoting peace and development in the affected regions. However, the situation remains complex, and the Red Corridor continues to be a focal point of counterinsurgency efforts in India.

5. Role of the District Reserve Guards (DRG) and Border Security Force (BSF)

The District Reserve Guards (DRG) and the Border Security Force (BSF) play crucial roles in addressing security challenges in India, particularly in regions affected by left-wing extremism and border security concerns, respectively.

District Reserve Guards (DRG)

• The DRG is a specialized force deployed in states affected by left-wing extremism, primarily in the Red Corridor regions of India.
• Their primary role is to conduct anti-insurgency operations, counter Naxalite/Maoist activities, and maintain law and order in the affected districts.
• DRG personnel are often recruited from local tribal communities and are trained in guerrilla warfare tactics, jungle warfare, and counterinsurgency operations to effectively combat left-wing extremist groups.
• They work in close coordination with state police forces, central paramilitary forces such as the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), and other specialized units to conduct targeted operations against insurgent groups and maintain security in the region.
• Additionally, DRG units often engage in community policing efforts, intelligence gathering, and development activities aimed at winning the trust and support of local communities and isolating the insurgents.

Border Security Force (BSF)

• The BSF is one of India's primary border guarding forces, tasked with safeguarding the country's borders with neighboring countries such as Pakistan and Bangladesh.
• The BSF plays a crucial role in maintaining border security, preventing illegal immigration, curbing cross-border smuggling, and countering various security threats, including terrorism and infiltration attempts.
• Along with its primary responsibilities of border security, the BSF is often called upon to assist in internal security operations, including counterinsurgency efforts in regions affected by left-wing extremism or other security challenges.
• The BSF conducts regular patrols, surveillance, and border fortification measures to deter and respond to any threats along India's borders.
• In addition to its security duties, the BSF is also involved in various humanitarian and community development activities in border areas to foster goodwill among local populations and strengthen border management efforts.

6. Strategies of the government to curb the LWE

The Indian government has employed various strategies to curb Left-Wing Extremism (LWE), particularly in regions affected by Naxalism or Maoist insurgency. These strategies typically involve a multifaceted approach that integrates security measures with development initiatives, socio-economic reforms, and political dialogues. Some of the key strategies employed by the government include:

Security Operations

• Conducting targeted anti-insurgency operations by deploying specialized forces such as the Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), District Reserve Guards (DRG), and state police units to combat Naxalite/Maoist activities.
• Enhancing intelligence gathering and sharing mechanisms to track and neutralize insurgent groups, disrupt their supply lines, and apprehend key leaders and operatives.
• Improving coordination among various security agencies, including state police forces, central paramilitary forces, and intelligence agencies, to conduct joint operations and intelligence-driven counterinsurgency efforts.

Development Initiatives

• Implementing development programs and infrastructure projects in Naxal-affected areas to address socio-economic grievances, reduce poverty, and improve living standards.
• Focusing on rural development, including the provision of basic amenities such as healthcare, education, electricity, and roads, to bridge the development deficit in marginalized communities.
• Promoting livelihood opportunities, skill development, and employment generation schemes to empower local populations and dissuade them from supporting or joining insurgent groups.

Socio-Economic Reforms

• Undertaking land reforms and addressing issues related to land ownership, land distribution, and land rights to address underlying socio-economic inequalities and grievances.
• Implementing social welfare schemes and affirmative action programs to uplift marginalized communities, including Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Scheduled Castes (SCs), who are often disproportionately affected by Naxalism.

Political Dialogues and Reconciliation

• Engaging in dialogue with moderate Naxalite factions and offering amnesty and rehabilitation opportunities to surrendering insurgents.
• Encouraging political participation and representation of marginalized communities in local governance structures to address their grievances through democratic means.
• Facilitating peace talks and negotiations between the government and insurgent groups to explore avenues for conflict resolution and long-term peace-building.

Capacity Building and Training

• Enhancing the capabilities of security forces through specialized training in counterinsurgency operations, jungle warfare, intelligence gathering, and community policing.
• Strengthening the institutional capacity of local administration, law enforcement agencies, and judiciary to effectively address security challenges and deliver justice.

7. Why do Naxals continue to hold out in Chhattisgarh?

The persistence of Naxalism in Chhattisgarh, despite efforts by the government to address the issue, can be attributed to a combination of socio-economic, political, and strategic factors

• Chhattisgarh, particularly its rural and tribal areas, continues to grapple with deep-rooted socio-economic inequalities, including landlessness, poverty, lack of access to basic amenities, and exploitation by landlords and local elites. These grievances provide fertile ground for Naxalite recruitment and support.
• Many areas affected by Naxalism in Chhattisgarh suffer from underdevelopment, with inadequate infrastructure, limited healthcare and education facilities, and poor connectivity. The lack of government presence and development initiatives in these remote regions contributes to a sense of alienation and discontent among local communities.
• Chhattisgarh is rich in natural resources, including minerals and forests, which have been subject to exploitation by government agencies and private corporations. Disputes over land acquisition, displacement of indigenous communities, and environmental degradation have fueled resentment and resistance, often exploited by Naxalite groups.
• Weak governance, corruption, and ineffective law enforcement exacerbate the challenges of addressing Naxalism in Chhattisgarh. In some cases, local politicians, officials, and law enforcement agencies may collude with Naxalite groups or exploit the situation for personal gain, undermining counter-insurgency efforts.
• The dense forests and rugged terrain of Chhattisgarh provide Naxalite groups with strategic advantages, including natural cover, logistical support, and sanctuary from security forces. These geographic features make it challenging for security forces to conduct operations and root out insurgents effectively.
• Despite the decline of communism globally, Naxalite groups in Chhattisgarh remain ideologically committed to their cause of overthrowing the state and establishing a communist society. This ideological fervor motivates them to continue their armed struggle, despite setbacks and government efforts to engage in dialogue and reconciliation.
• Naxalite groups in Chhattisgarh may receive external support, including ideological guidance, arms, and funding, from sympathetic entities or transnational networks sharing similar leftist ideologies. Such support can bolster their resilience and sustain their activities despite government crackdowns.

8. Who are the urban Naxals?

The term "urban Naxals" is often used in India to refer to individuals or groups who allegedly provide ideological, logistical, financial, or political support to Naxalite/Maoist insurgents operating in rural areas from urban centres. The concept of urban Naxals is controversial and has been the subject of intense debate in Indian society, politics, and media.

Some key points regarding urban Naxals

• Urban Naxals are accused of various activities, including spreading Maoist ideology, recruiting and radicalizing youth, providing funding and material support, facilitating communication and coordination between urban and rural Naxalite groups, and organizing protests, rallies, or campaigns to advance Naxalite objectives.
• Urban Naxals may have diverse backgrounds, including academics, intellectuals, activists, journalists, artists, students, and members of civil society organizations. Some individuals or groups associated with leftist or progressive ideologies have been labelled as urban Naxals by their critics.
• While some individuals accused of being urban Naxals may have genuine concerns about social justice, human rights, or environmental issues, others may have ideological sympathies with Naxalism or engage in activities perceived as supporting or sympathizing with Naxalite groups.
• The term "urban Naxals" has generated controversy, with critics arguing that it is used by authorities to stifle dissent, target activists, and suppress legitimate political opposition under the guise of combating extremism.
• Critics of the concept argue that labelling dissenting voices or activists as urban Naxals undermines democratic principles, freedom of expression, and civil liberties. They contend that it is a politically motivated tactic to discredit and delegitimize progressive movements or critics of the government.
• There have been instances in India where individuals or activists accused of being urban Naxals have been arrested, charged under anti-terrorism laws such as the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), and prosecuted by authorities. These cases have sparked concerns about due process, judicial independence, and human rights violations.
• The term "urban Naxals" has gained traction in public discourse and media narratives, with some sections of society viewing urban Naxals as a serious threat to national security and social stability. However, others criticize the concept as a tool to demonize dissent and suppress legitimate activism.

9. How does LWE impact the electoral process in India?

Left-Wing Extremism (LWE) in India can have significant impacts on the electoral process, particularly in regions affected by Naxalism or Maoist insurgency. Some of these impacts include:

Voter Intimidation and Violence

• In areas where Naxalite groups hold sway, they may resort to voter intimidation, coercion, or violence to influence election outcomes. This can include threats against voters, attacks on polling stations, and targeting of political candidates or party workers who are perceived as opposing the Naxalite agenda.
• Fear of reprisals from Naxalite groups can deter voters from exercising their franchise, leading to low voter turnout in affected areas. This undermines the democratic process and can affect the legitimacy of election results.

Disruption of Electoral Activities

• Naxalite groups often target election-related activities, such as campaigning, voter registration drives, and polling operations, to disrupt the electoral process and undermine the authority of the state. They may use violence or sabotage to disrupt election rallies, destroy election materials, or block access to polling stations.
• Security concerns in Naxal-affected areas may necessitate the deployment of large numbers of security forces to ensure the safety of voters, candidates, and election officials, which can disrupt normal life and create a tense atmosphere during elections.

Influence on Political Dynamics

• Naxalite groups may seek to influence the electoral process by supporting sympathetic candidates or parties, either overtly or covertly. They may provide material support, including funding, manpower, or logistical assistance, to candidates who align with their ideology or interests.
• The presence of Naxalite violence and intimidation can also affect political campaigning and party strategies, with political parties often adjusting their approaches and priorities in response to security concerns in Naxal-affected areas.

Challenges for Electoral Administration

• Organizing elections in Naxal-affected regions poses logistical and security challenges for electoral authorities. Ensuring the safety and security of voters, candidates, and election officials is a major concern, requiring extensive coordination with security forces and local administration.
• Election officials may face difficulties in conducting voter registration, voter education campaigns, and polling operations in remote or insecure areas, which can affect the overall conduct of elections and the accuracy of voter participation data.

BRAHMOS MISSILE

 

 

1. Context

 

The development of a new, compact air launched version of the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile, the BrahMos-NG (Next Generation), is at an advanced stage, while the range extension of the original BrahMos, much heavier than the air launched one, to 800 km is progressing well, defence sources said.

 

2. What are the BrahMos Missile?

 

• The BrahMos missile is a supersonic cruise missile jointly developed by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Russia's NPO Mashinostroyeniya. Its name is a portmanteau of the Brahmaputra and Moskva rivers.
• BrahMos is known for its speed and versatility. It is the fastest cruise missile in the world, capable of reaching speeds of up to Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound). This makes it extremely difficult for enemy defenses to intercept.
• The missile has both land-attack and anti-ship capabilities, meaning it can target both land-based targets and naval vessels. Its precision and range make it a potent weapon for both offensive and defensive purposes. It's deployed across various platforms including land, sea, and air.
• The BrahMos missile has become a significant asset in the Indian military's arsenal, providing a formidable deterrent and offensive capability. It's continuously being upgraded to enhance its capabilities and adapt it to different platforms and operational requirements

3. Evolution of Brahmos

• During the early 1980s, Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam spearheaded the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme, initiating the creation of various indigenous missiles such as Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, and Nag, each with diverse capabilities and operational ranges.
• In the early 1990s, India's strategic leadership recognized the necessity for cruise missiles—guided projectiles maintaining nearly constant speeds throughout their trajectories—to deliver sizable warheads with pinpoint accuracy over extensive distances.
• This requirement emerged prominently following the deployment of cruise missiles during the 1991 Gulf War.
• In 1998, an Inter-Governmental Agreement was formalized in Moscow between Dr. Kalam, then heading the DRDO, and N V Mikhailov, Russia's Deputy Defence Minister at the time.
• This agreement laid the foundation for BrahMos Aerospace, a collaborative venture between DRDO and the Russian space company NPO Mashinostroyenia (NPOM), with the Indian side holding 50.5% ownership and the Russians 49.5%. The venture derived its name from two rivers—Brahmaputra in India and Moskva in Russia.
• Subsequently, in 1999, the development of missiles commenced within the laboratories of DRDO and NPOM after BrahMos Aerospace secured funding from both governments. The first successful test launch occurred in 2001 from a specifically engineered land-based launcher

4.Significance of Brahmos

 

• The BrahMos missile is equipped with a solid propellant booster engine, comprising two stages. Initially, the first stage accelerates the missile to supersonic speeds, after which it detaches. Subsequently, the liquid ramjet, constituting the second stage, propels the missile to nearly three times the speed of sound during its cruise phase.
• Notably, the missile exhibits a minimal radar signature, enhancing its stealth capabilities, and can follow various trajectories.
• As a "fire and forget" weapon, it can maintain a cruising altitude of 15 km and descend to as low as 10 meters to effectively strike its target.
• Classified as "standoff range weapons," cruise missiles like BrahMos are launched from a distance substantial enough to evade defensive countermeasures, a feature common among the arsenals of major militaries worldwide.
• Compared to subsonic cruise missiles, BrahMos boasts three times the speed, 2.5 times the flight range, and extended operational capabilities. With export versions available, BrahMos serves as a crucial asset in defense diplomacy initiatives.
• In 2022, an air-launched variant of BrahMos underwent testing from a frontline SU-30MKI aircraft, while an advanced sea-to-sea variant was also tested from the INS Visakhapatnam during the same year.
• However, BrahMos was embroiled in controversy in 2022 when Pakistan alleged that an unarmed Indian missile had inadvertently landed within its territory on March 9, 2022. The Ministry of Defence attributed the incident to a technical malfunction resulting in accidental firing.
• Though the government initiated a high-level inquiry, the specific missile involved was not officially disclosed. Nonetheless, experts inferred from its trajectory that it bore the hallmarks of BrahMos

5. Types of  BrahMos

• The BrahMos missile system is strategically deployed across various fronts, encompassing land-based formations along border regions, BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft stationed in both the Northern and Southern theaters, and ships and submarines fitted with BrahMos capabilities in naval operations. This integrated setup constitutes a formidable triad, adept at addressing evolving demands in multidimensional warfare scenarios.
• To adapt to dynamic warfare requirements, ongoing efforts are focused on upgrading the BrahMos system, with emphasis on enhancing range, maneuverability, and accuracy.
• Current development initiatives include testing versions with extended ranges of up to 350 km, surpassing the original's 290 km limit. Furthermore, plans are underway for versions with even greater ranges, potentially reaching up to 800 km, and featuring hypersonic speeds. Concurrently, endeavors are directed towards reducing the size and radar signature of existing iterations while augmenting their overall capabilities.
• Across all three branches of the Armed Forces, BrahMos variants are subject to regular testing, including those presently in development.
• Land-Based: The land-based BrahMos setup comprises mobile autonomous launchers, typically housing four to six launchers, each armed with three missiles capable of near-simultaneous firing.
• These batteries are strategically deployed along India's land borders in various theaters. Upgraded versions of the land attack variant, capable of cruising at 2.8 Mach, boast precision striking capabilities with ranges of up to 400 km.
• Advanced iterations with enhanced range and speeds of up to 5 Mach are reportedly in the developmental pipeline. Notably, the ground systems of BrahMos are lauded for their streamlined design and minimal componentry.
• Ship-Based: Since 2005, the Navy has been inducting BrahMos missiles on its frontline warships, enhancing their ability to engage sea-based targets beyond the radar horizon. The naval variant has demonstrated efficacy in both sea-to-sea and sea-to-land engagements.
• These missiles can be deployed individually or in salvos of up to eight, with staggered firing intervals. This capability enables them to effectively target groups of frigates equipped with modern missile defense systems.
• Air-Launched: The successful flight testing of BrahMos from a Sukhoi-30MKI against a sea-based target in the Bay of Bengal on November 22, 2017, marked a significant milestone. Subsequent tests have validated its effectiveness.
• The BrahMos-equipped Sukhoi-30 aircraft, boasting a range of 1,500 km without mid-air refueling, serve as a pivotal strategic deterrent along both land borders and the strategically vital Indian Ocean Region. The Indian Air Force is actively integrating BrahMos with 40 Sukhoi-30 fighter jets across various airbases.
• Submarine-Launched: This variant can be launched from depths of approximately 50 meters below the water surface. The missile, stored in a canister, is vertically launched from the pressure hull of the submarine, employing distinct configurations for underwater and surface flights. Successful testing of this version was first conducted in March 2013 from a submerged platform off the coast of Visakhapatnam

6. Brahmos Missile Series

 

The BrahMos missile series is a family of supersonic cruise missiles developed jointly by India and Russia. Named after the Brahmaputra River in India and the Moskva River in Russia, the BrahMos series is renowned for its speed, precision, and versatility.

Here are some key variants within the BrahMos missile series:

• BrahMos Block-I: The initial variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring a range of approximately 290 km. It is capable of striking both land-based and naval targets with high accuracy.

• BrahMos Block-II: An upgraded version with enhanced capabilities, including improved range and accuracy. It incorporates advanced technologies to further enhance its effectiveness in various operational scenarios.

• BrahMos Block-III: This variant features additional upgrades aimed at improving its range, maneuverability, and stealth capabilities. It is designed to overcome evolving threats and maintain its position as a potent deterrent.

• BrahMos-A: The air-launched variant of the BrahMos missile, integrated onto Sukhoi Su-30MKI fighter aircraft of the Indian Air Force. It significantly extends the reach of the missile, allowing for precision strikes against ground and naval targets.

• BrahMos-N: The naval variant of the BrahMos missile, deployed on Indian Navy warships. It provides a formidable anti-ship and land-attack capability, enhancing the offensive capabilities of naval fleets.

• BrahMos-ER: The extended-range variant of the BrahMos missile, currently under development, aimed at achieving ranges beyond the existing capabilities. It will further enhance the strategic reach of the BrahMos series, allowing for precision strikes at longer distances.

• BrahMos-NG: A next-generation variant of the BrahMos missile, featuring reduced size and weight while maintaining high performance. It is designed for compatibility with a wider range of platforms, including aircraft, submarines, and surface vessels

7.Way Forward

 

BrahMos missile series represents a significant technological achievement in the field of missile development, providing India with a potent and versatile deterrent against various threats. Its continuous evolution and upgrades ensure that it remains at the forefront of modern warfare capabilities

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE Prelims 2023) Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their flights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 1 only 2 only Both 1 and 2 Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: (d)

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

MARINE HEATWAVES

 

 

 

1. Context

 

In 2023-2024, the world suffered a devastating coral bleaching event during which 84% of the world’s reefs spanning 83 countries and territories were affected. Scientists have since linked the event to ocean warming and marine heatwaves — extended periods of high sea surface temperature than usual.

 

 

2. About marine heat waves

A marine heat wave is an extreme weather event. It occurs when the surface
temperature of a particular region of the sea rises to 3 or 4 degrees Celsius above the
average temperature for at least five days. MHWs can last for weeks, months or
even years. 

 

The impact of marine heat waves on ocean life

• Marine heatwaves (MHWs) have significant and often devastating impacts on ocean life. Despite seemingly minor temperature increases of 3 or 4 degrees Celsius, these events can have catastrophic consequences for marine ecosystems.
• For example, along the Western Australian coast in the summers of 2010 and 2011, MHWs resulted in devastating fish kills, where large numbers of fish and aquatic animals died suddenly and unexpectedly within a short period and were confined to specific areas.
• Moreover, studies have shown that MHWs can lead to the destruction of kelp forests, which play a crucial role in marine ecosystems by providing habitat and food for many marine animals. The increased water temperatures associated with MHWs are detrimental to kelp, which typically thrive in cooler waters.
• Another significant impact of MHWs is coral bleaching, as seen in the tropical Atlantic and Caribbean in 2005.
• During this event, high ocean temperatures caused more than 80 per cent of surveyed corals to bleach, with over 40 per cent ultimately dying.
• Coral bleaching occurs when corals expel the algae living in their tissues, turning them completely white. This phenomenon severely stresses corals, reducing their reproductive capacity and increasing their vulnerability to fatal diseases.
• Since many marine animals rely on coral reefs for survival, damage to corals threatens their existence as well.
• MHWs also contribute to the growth of invasive alien species, which can disrupt marine food webs.
• Additionally, these events force species to alter their behaviour in ways that increase their risk of harm.
• For instance, MHWs have been linked to incidents of whale entanglements in fishing gear, further highlighting the far-reaching consequences of these heatwaves on marine wildlife.

 

 

3. How do Marine Heat Waves Impact Humans?

• Marine heatwaves (MHWs) not only affect marine life but also have significant impacts on humans.
• As ocean temperatures rise during MHWs, storms such as hurricanes and tropical cyclones can become more intense.
• Warmer temperatures lead to increased evaporation and heat transfer from the oceans to the air.
• Consequently, storms travelling across warm oceans gather more water vapour and heat, resulting in stronger winds, heavier rainfall, and more flooding when these storms make landfall.
• This heightened intensity of storms can lead to devastating consequences for human communities in affected areas.
• Furthermore, coral reefs, which are adversely affected by MHWs, are not only essential for marine wildlife but also for human populations.
• According to NOAA, approximately half a billion people rely on reefs for food, income, and protection. When MHWs destroy coral reefs, these human populations are also significantly impacted, facing disruptions to their food sources, livelihoods, and coastal protection.
• The socio-economic impacts of MHWs extend to coastal communities as well. For instance, an MHW over the northwest Atlantic Ocean in 2012 caused marine species accustomed to warmer waters to migrate northward and alter their migration patterns earlier than usual.
• This shift affected fisheries targeting these species in the United States, resulting in economic losses and disruptions to local communities.
• As global temperatures continue to rise, MHWs are projected to become more frequent, intense, and prolonged, exacerbating their adverse effects on both marine ecosystems and human societies.

 

4. Global warming affecting marine heat waves and oceans

• Global warming, driven by the increase in greenhouse gas emissions, is profoundly affecting marine heatwaves (MHWs) and the overall health of oceans. Studies, including one published in the journal Nature in 2018 titled 'Marine heatwaves under global warming,' reveal alarming trends.
• Over recent decades, MHWs have become longer-lasting, more frequent, and more intense due to soaring global temperatures. Between 1982 and 2016, the study found a doubling in the number of MHW days, with projections indicating a further increase by a significant factor under various warming scenarios.
• Crucially, the study attributes 87 per cent of MHWs to human-induced warming, emphasizing the direct link between anthropogenic activities and the intensification of marine heatwaves. This intensification is exacerbated by the oceans' role in absorbing approximately 90 per cent of the additional heat generated by greenhouse gas emissions since the Industrial Revolution.
• As a result, global mean sea surface temperatures have risen by nearly 0.9 degrees Celsius since 1850, with a notable increase of around 0.6 degrees Celsius over the last four decades alone.
• With global air temperatures on the rise, ocean temperatures are also increasing, leading to the escalation of MHWs. Compounding this issue, the onset of El Nino conditions, characterized by abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, is further exacerbating heat extremes.
• Scientists warn that El Nino events are likely to intensify extreme heat events and could potentially break temperature records in various regions worldwide.
• The unprecedented impact of concurrent phenomena such as soaring global air and ocean temperatures, increased MHWs, and record-low Antarctic sea ice levels. The uncertainties regarding the future consequences of these trends, emphasise the urgent need for proactive measures to mitigate the escalating risks posed by climate change on marine ecosystems and human societies.

 

5. The Way Forward

 

Marine heatwaves are a serious threat to both marine ecosystems and human societies. Understanding the causes and consequences of MHWs is crucial for taking proactive measures to address climate change and protect our oceans and ourselves.

 

 

For Prelims: Marine Heatwaves, Coral Reefs, El Nino, Climate Change,  For Mains:  1. Explain the relationship between global warming and the increasing frequency and intensity of  Marine heat waves (MHWs). Assess the potential socio-economic and ecological repercussions of this phenomenon in the Arctic region. (250 words) 2.  Discuss the ethical implications of human activities contributing to Marine heat waves (MHWs) and the disproportionate impact they have on vulnerable coastal communities. (250 words) 3.  Imagine you are heading a national task force responsible for developing a comprehensive strategy to address Marine heat waves (MHWs). Outline your key priorities and action plan, taking into account scientific evidence, public participation, and sustainable solutions. (250 words)

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022) 1. High clouds primarily reflect solar radiation and cool the surface of the Earth. 2. Low clouds have a high absorption of infrared radiation emanating from the Earth's surface and thus cause a warming effect. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only          B. 2 only           C. Both 1 and 2            D. Neither 1 nor 2     2. What are the possible limitations of India in mitigating global warming at present and in the immediate future? (UPSC 2010) 1. Appropriate alternate technologies are not sufficiently available. 2. India cannot invest huge funds in research and development. 3. Many developed countries have already set up their polluting industries in India. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only            B. 2 only              C. 1 and 3 only                  D. 1, 2 and 3   Answers: 1-D, 2-A

 

 Source: The Indian Express

 

GREENHOUSE GASES(GHGs)

 

 

1. Context

 

Everybody has their favorite way of travelling. Usually, the choice of the mode of transport is driven by convenience, comfort, and cost. But things are changing around the world for a completely different reason. There is growing interest in what experts call a “modal shift” — moving people and goods from roads and flights to railways — that could have a big impact on the environment, traffic, and even the economy

 

2.What are greenhouse gases?

 

Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming. These gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases (such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride).

These gases allow sunlight to enter the Earth's atmosphere freely. Once absorbed, the Earth's surface emits infrared radiation, but instead of allowing this radiation to escape back into space, greenhouse gases trap and re-radiate some of it back towards the Earth's surface. This process warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect.

Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, amplifying the greenhouse effect and contributing to global climate change

Here are the major greenhouse gases:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most abundant greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. It is released when fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burned
• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted from agriculture, waste decomposition, and fossil fuel production. It is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, but it breaks down in the atmosphere more quickly
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, industrial processes, and burning fossil fuels. It is a long-lived greenhouse gas that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries
• Fluorinated gases These are man-made chemicals used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and fire extinguishers. They are very potent greenhouse gases, but they are emitted in much smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
• Water vapor (H2O): The most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Water vapor plays an important role in the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities do not significantly affect the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere

3. What is the Greenhouse gas effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun. This process is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder, and life as we know it would not exist.

Here's how the greenhouse effect works:

• Solar radiation: Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and passes through it, warming the Earth's surface.

• Absorption and re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy and then emits it as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of this infrared radiation.

• Re-emission: The absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface. This trapped heat warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface, similar to how a greenhouse traps heat.

• Balance: The greenhouse effect helps maintain the Earth's temperature in a range suitable for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect or global warming

 

4. What are hydrofluorocarbons?

 

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a class of synthetic greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, aerosol propellants, and other industrial applications. They are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
• HFCs were developed as alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were phased out due to their significant ozone-depleting potential. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs do not contain chlorine atoms, so they do not contribute to ozone depletion.
• However, they are potent greenhouse gases, with high global warming potentials (GWPs), meaning they trap heat in the atmosphere at a much higher rate than carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Due to their role in contributing to climate change, efforts have been made internationally to regulate and phase out the use of HFCs. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, adopted in 2016, aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
• Many countries are transitioning to alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials, such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide. These efforts are essential for mitigating climate change by reducing the emissions of potent greenhouse gases like HFC

5. What are the adverse effects?

 

The greenhouse gas effect, when intensified beyond natural levels due to human activities, leads to a range of adverse effects on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.

 

Some of these effects include:

• The primary consequence of intensified greenhouse gas effect is global warming. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to a rise in average global temperatures
• Global warming alters weather patterns and climatic conditions worldwide, leading to changes such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, droughts, and floods. These changes can disrupt ecosystems, agriculture, and water supplies, leading to ecological imbalances and economic losses
• Warmer temperatures cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. This phenomenon threatens coastal communities, low-lying islands, and habitats, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion
•  Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide dissolving into oceans, resulting in ocean acidification. This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species
• Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face extinction. The rapid pace of climate change often outpaces the ability of many species to adapt, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation
• Climate change exacerbates health risks, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, increased prevalence of infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity due to changing agricultural conditions
• Climate change can lead to displacement of populations due to extreme weather events, loss of livelihoods in sectors such as agriculture and fishing, and increased conflicts over resources like water and arable land. These disruptions can strain social systems and economies, particularly in vulnerable regions

6.What is Montreal Protocol?

 

The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement aimed at protecting the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It was negotiated in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. The protocol is regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties.

Key points about the Montreal Protocol include:

• Objective: The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, which are substances that contain chlorine and bromine atoms and are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

• Ozone Layer: The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules (O3). This layer plays a crucial role in absorbing and filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.

• Ozone-Depleting Substances: The Montreal Protocol targets several categories of ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among others. These substances were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire extinguishers, and other industrial applications.

• Phasing Out: The protocol established a timetable for phasing out the production and consumption of ODS, with developed countries committing to earlier phase-out schedules and developing countries given more time to comply. Amendments to the protocol tightened regulations and accelerated the phase-out schedules over time.

• Success: The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as successful in achieving its objectives. By reducing the production and consumption of ODS, the protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Scientific assessments have confirmed a decrease in the atmospheric concentrations of ODS and a healing of the ozone layer.

• International Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol exemplifies successful international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. It has been ratified by almost every country in the world, demonstrating a shared commitment to protecting the ozone layer and mitigating climate change (as many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases)

7.Way Forward

 

Since 2020, the US has banned the import of HCFC 22 for any purpose other than in a process which results in its transformation or destruction. The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act, passed by Congress in December 2020, authorised the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to phase down the production and consumption of numerous forms of HFCs

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022) (A) Methane (B) Sulphur dioxide (C) Surface Ozone (D) Nitrogen dioxide (E) Carbon dioxide Choose the correct answer from the options given below : 1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only 2.(A), (C), (E) only 3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only 4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only Answer (2)

Source: Indianexpress

 

NUCLEAR ENERGY

 

 

1. Context

 At 95, he was fit and active enough to be re-inducted as member of Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) earlier this year.

 

2. What is Nuclear Energy?

Nuclear energy is a form of energy that is generated from the nucleus of an atom. It is released through two main processes: nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.

1. Nuclear Fission: Nuclear fission is the process by which the nucleus of a heavy atom, such as uranium-235 or plutonium-239, is split into two or more smaller nuclei, along with the release of a significant amount of energy. This process can be controlled and sustained in a nuclear reactor. In a nuclear power plant, the heat produced by nuclear fission is used to generate steam, which, in turn, drives turbines connected to generators. These generators produce electricity, which is then distributed for various purposes.

2. Nuclear Fusion: Nuclear fusion is the process of combining the nuclei of light atoms, such as isotopes of hydrogen (e.g., deuterium and tritium), to form a heavier nucleus, along with the release of energy. Fusion is the process that powers the sun and other stars. It has the potential to provide a nearly limitless and cleaner source of energy compared to fission. However, achieving controlled nuclear fusion on Earth has proven to be technologically challenging and has not yet been realized for widespread energy production.

3. Why do we need nuclear energy?

Nuclear energy serves several important purposes and is considered valuable for various reasons, which include:

1. Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Nuclear power plants produce electricity with very low greenhouse gas emissions. This makes nuclear energy an attractive option for countries aiming to reduce their carbon footprint and combat climate change. It provides a source of electricity that is relatively clean and doesn't release significant amounts of carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

2. Reliable Baseload Power: Nuclear energy provides a consistent and reliable source of electricity, known as baseload power. Unlike some renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, which are intermittent and weather-dependent, nuclear power can operate continuously and meet the minimum electricity demand, ensuring grid stability.

3. Energy Security: Nuclear energy can contribute to energy security by diversifying a nation's energy sources. This reduces the reliance on fossil fuels, which can be subject to price volatility and supply disruptions due to geopolitical conflicts.

4. High Energy Density: Nuclear fission, the process used in nuclear power plants, has a high energy density, meaning that a small amount of nuclear fuel can produce a large amount of energy. This is particularly important in scenarios where space and resource constraints are factors.

5. Long Fuel Supply: Uranium, the primary fuel used in nuclear reactors, is relatively abundant and can provide a stable and long-term source of energy. Additionally, there is ongoing research into advanced nuclear technologies, such as breeder reactors, which can extend the use of nuclear fuel resources.

6. Reduced Air Pollution: In addition to lower greenhouse gas emissions, nuclear power plants do not produce the air pollutants associated with fossil fuel combustion, such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter, which can have adverse health effects and contribute to air pollution.
7. High Energy Independence: Nations with nuclear power capabilities can reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels. This enhances energy independence and can have economic and geopolitical benefits.

4.Types of Water reactor

Water reactors are a common type of nuclear reactor that use water as a coolant and/or moderator. There are several types of water reactors, including pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and boiling water reactors (BWRs). Here's an overview of these two main types:

1. Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs):

   • Pressurized Water Reactors (PWRs) are the most prevalent type of commercial nuclear reactors in the world.
   • PWRs use ordinary water (light water) as both a coolant and a moderator. The water is kept at high pressure to prevent it from boiling.
   • The reactor core contains fuel rods, typically enriched uranium, and control rods to regulate the nuclear reaction.
   • The heat generated in the reactor core is transferred to a secondary loop of water (usually at lower pressure) through a heat exchanger. This secondary loop is used to produce steam to drive turbines and generate electricity.
   • PWRs are known for their safety features, as the high pressure in the primary coolant loop helps prevent the release of radioactive materials.

2. Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs):

   • Boiling Water Reactors (BWRs) also use water as a coolant and moderator, but they allow the water in the reactor core to boil.
   • The fuel rods are located in the reactor core, and as the nuclear fission reactions occur, they generate heat, causing the water in direct contact with the fuel rods to boil and produce steam.
   • The steam from the reactor core is directly used to drive turbines and generate electricity without the need for a separate heat exchanger.
   • BWRs are simpler in design but have different safety features compared to PWRs.

 

 5. Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor vs Light Water Reactor vs Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor

	Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)	Light Water Reactor (LWR)	Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)
Coolant and Moderator	Uses heavy water (deuterium oxide, D2O) as both the coolant and moderator. Heavy water moderates the neutrons and helps sustain the nuclear chain reaction	Uses ordinary light water (H2O) as both the coolant and moderator. The light water absorbs some neutrons, which affects the reactivity of the reactor	Uses a liquid metal coolant (sodium or lead) and typically does not use a separate moderator. The fast neutrons produced in the reactor core drive the breeding of fissile material.
Fuel	Typically uses natural uranium or slightly enriched uranium as fuel. It relies on heavy water to sustain the chain reaction	Uses enriched uranium (typically U-235) or mixed oxide (MOX) fuel, which contains both uranium and plutonium. Light water reactors require enriched fuel to compensate for neutron absorption by the coolant	Uses plutonium or enriched uranium as fuel. The reactor is designed to create more fissile material (usually plutonium-239) than it consumes
Neutron Spectrum	Has a thermal neutron spectrum, where neutrons have lower energy and are moderated by heavy water	Also has a thermal neutron spectrum, where neutrons are moderated by light water	Operates with a fast neutron spectrum, meaning that neutrons have higher energy and are not significantly moderated. This allows for efficient breeding of fissile material
Efficiency	Relatively low thermal efficiency due to the neutron-absorbing properties of heavy water	Moderate thermal efficiency. Most commercial nuclear power plants worldwide are LWRs	High potential for efficiency as it can produce more fissile material than it consumes, making it a potential source of sustainable nuclear fuel.
Development and Use	Used in some countries like Canada and India for power generation	The most common reactor type for commercial power generation worldwide	Developed as a prototype for future breeder reactor technology. Few operational FBRs exist

 

 

6. Nuclear power plants in India?

The following are nuclear power plants in India:

1. Tarapur Atomic Power Station (TAPS):

   • Located in Tarapur, Maharashtra.
   • Features two boiling water reactors (BWRs) and two pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs).

2. Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (KAPS):

   • Located in Kakrapar, Gujarat.
   • Consists of two pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs).

3. Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (RAPS):

   • Located in Rawatbhata, Rajasthan.
   • Comprises several units, including both pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) and pressurized heavy water reactors with enriched uranium (PHWRs-PU).

4. Madras Atomic Power Station (MAPS):

   • Located in Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu.
   • Features two pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs) and a Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR).

5. Narora Atomic Power Station (NAPS):

   • Located in Narora, Uttar Pradesh.
   • Houses two pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs).

6. Kaiga Generating Station (KGS):

   • Located in Kaiga, Karnataka.
   • Operates with pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs).

7. Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant:

   • Located in Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu.
   • Currently, it has two VVER-1000 pressurized water reactors (PWRs) in operation, and additional units were under construction.

8. Gorakhpur Haryana Anu Vidyut Pariyojana (GHAVP):

   • Located in Fatehabad, Haryana.
   • Houses two pressurized heavy water reactors (PHWRs).

 

7. Way forward

The role of nuclear energy in a country's energy mix is often a subject of debate, and it depends on a combination of factors, including national energy policy, safety measures, public opinion, and the availability of alternative energy sources

 

 

For Prelims:  Current events of national and international importance and General Science For Mains:  General Studies III: Science and Technology- developments and their applications and effects in everyday life

Source: indianexpress