LA NINA
- La Niña, one phase of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), occurs when the Pacific Ocean between Indonesia and South America experiences cooler-than-normal temperatures. In contrast, El Niño marks the warming of this same region.
- Both phases have a profound effect on global atmospheric circulation and weather conditions.
- During La Niña years, India typically experiences normal or above-average monsoon rainfall, while Africa often faces droughts, and hurricane activity in the Atlantic intensifies.
- On the other hand, El Niño tends to bring extreme heat and droughts to India, while increasing rainfall in the southern United States.
- The current decade began with an unusual sequence of three consecutive La Niña events from 2020 to 2022, known as a Triple Dip La Niña, which was followed by an El Niño in 2023.
- Climate change could lead to more frequent and intense La Niña and El Niño events as warming sea and land temperatures destabilize the Pacific's balance.
- This may also lead to more severe La Niña occurrences, which are often associated with harsh winters in India
- The year 2024 stands out as La Niña has not developed as anticipated. Typically, La Niña forms during the monsoon or pre-monsoon seasons, and since 1950, it has only occurred twice between October and December.
- While global forecasts had predicted its emergence during this monsoon season, as of December, there is only a 57% chance of it forming in 2024. Even if it does develop, it is expected to remain weak, though it could still impact global weather patterns.
- The declaration of a La Niña or El Niño event relies on several indices. One key measure is the Oceanic Niño Index (ONI), which compares the three-month average sea surface temperatures in the East-Central Tropical Pacific with the 30-year average.
- If the difference is +0.5ºC or higher, it signifies El Niño, while a difference of –0.5ºC or lower indicates La Niña. At present, the value is approximately –0.3ºC.
- For an event to be officially classified as a full-fledged La Niña or El Niño, the ONI values must cross the respective thresholds for at least five consecutive months
- Southern Indian cities like Bengaluru and Hyderabad are experiencing an unusually cold winter this year, whereas northern India is seeing a delayed winter with above-average temperatures. Some reports attribute the colder conditions in the south to La Niña; however, current ONI values do not support this claim. If La Niña had already developed, northern India would likely be experiencing a colder-than-usual winter as well.
- A 35-year analysis of meteorological data conducted by researchers at the Council on Energy, Environment, and Water in New Delhi shows that while La Niña winters typically bring colder nights compared to El Niño, daytime temperatures tend to be higher.
- Key meteorological factors such as wind speed and the planetary boundary layer height (PBLH) — the lowest part of the atmosphere influenced by interactions between land and air — also change during ENSO phases, which can affect air quality.
- The study found that during La Niña winters, average wind speeds are higher throughout the day. Stronger winds help reduce air pollution by dispersing pollutants. Additionally, the researchers observed that PBLH tends to be slightly lower during La Niña winters.
- If La Niña develops, colder temperatures in northern India could lead to increased biomass burning for heating, exacerbating air pollution.
- However, while a lower PBLH might trap pollutants closer to the ground, stronger winds could help disperse them, potentially improving air quality
- Summers during El Niño years tend to be particularly severe, as seen in April this year when India experienced intense and record-breaking heat waves. If La Niña develops and persists into the summer of 2025, it could provide some relief from extreme heat.
- El Niño is also known to disrupt monsoons, with India recording below-average rainfall in at least half of all El Niño years since 1871. However, data since 1980 suggests some changing patterns.
- For instance, both northern and southern India have experienced reduced rainfall during stronger El Niño events, while central India has remained relatively unaffected.
- In contrast, La Niña supports stronger monsoons, as demonstrated by the “normal” to “above-normal” rainfall recorded in the La Niña years of 2020, 2021, and 2022. By comparison, the El Niño year of 2023 saw “below-normal” rainfall.
- Therefore, the formation of a La Niña now or in early 2025, persisting through the monsoon season, would be a positive development
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For Prelims: El Niño, La Niña, and ENSO
For Mains: GS I - World Geography
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CAPITAL EXPENDITURES (CapEx)
Capital expenditures can cover a wide range of items and projects, including:
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Property and Real Estate: Purchasing or renovating buildings, land, or other real estate properties for business use.
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Machinery and Equipment: Buying, upgrading, or maintaining machinery and equipment used in manufacturing, production, or other operational processes.
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Vehicles: Acquiring and maintaining vehicles for business purposes, such as delivery trucks or company cars.
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Technology and Software: Investing in computer hardware, software, and IT infrastructure to improve efficiency and productivity.
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Infrastructure: Building or upgrading infrastructure projects like roads, bridges, and utility systems that are essential for business operations.
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Research and Development (R&D): Allocating funds to develop new products, services, or technologies that will benefit the company in the long term.
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Acquisitions: Purchasing other companies or assets that are expected to contribute to the company's growth and profitability.
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Leasehold Improvements: Making improvements to leased properties or facilities to meet the company's specific needs.
Capital expenditures (CapEx) can be categorized into several types based on the nature of the investment and the assets being acquired or improved. Here are some common types of capital expenditures:
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Maintenance Capital Expenditures: These are expenditures made to maintain the existing physical assets in their current condition. They are necessary to keep assets operational and extend their useful life. Maintenance CapEx includes routine repairs, servicing, and replacement of worn-out parts. It helps prevent asset deterioration and ensures ongoing business operations.
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Expansion Capital Expenditures: Expansion CapEx involves investments made to increase the productive capacity of a business or to enter new markets. This can include building new facilities, purchasing additional machinery and equipment, and expanding existing operations. Expansion CapEx is typically aimed at growing the business and increasing revenue.
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Replacement Capital Expenditures: Replacement CapEx involves replacing existing assets with new ones of similar or improved functionality. This is done when the old assets become obsolete, inefficient, or unreliable. For example, replacing outdated computer servers or upgrading manufacturing equipment to improve efficiency.
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Strategic Capital Expenditures: These are investments made to achieve specific strategic objectives of the company. This can include investments in research and development (R&D) to develop new products or technologies, entering new markets, or acquiring another company to gain a competitive advantage.
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Compliance and Safety Capital Expenditures: Some CapEx is required to ensure that a business complies with safety regulations and industry standards. This can include investments in safety equipment, environmental compliance, or upgrades to meet changing regulatory requirements.
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Information Technology (IT) Capital Expenditures: Investments in IT infrastructure, software, and hardware fall into this category. It includes spending on servers, computer systems, software development, and data center facilities.
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Infrastructure Capital Expenditures: Governments and businesses may invest in infrastructure projects like building or repairing roads, bridges, airports, railways, and utility systems. These projects contribute to the overall development and functioning of a region or business.
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Research and Development (R&D) Capital Expenditures: Companies invest in R&D to develop new products, services, or technologies. R&D CapEx can include expenditures on laboratory facilities, equipment, and personnel involved in research and product development.
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Leasehold Improvements: These expenditures involve customizing and improving leased properties or facilities to meet a company's specific needs. They may include renovations, interior design, and installation of equipment for leased spaces.
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Marketing and Advertising Capital Expenditures: While marketing and advertising expenses are typically considered operating costs, certain marketing investments may be classified as CapEx if they have a long-term impact, such as building a brand or expanding market reach through the acquisition of assets like trademarks or copyrights.
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Capital spending can stimulate economic growth by increasing the productive capacity of an economy. When businesses invest in new machinery, technology, or infrastructure, they become more efficient and can produce more goods and services. This increased production can lead to higher economic output and GDP growth.
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Capital investments often require labor for construction, maintenance, and operation. This can lead to job creation, reducing unemployment rates and boosting consumer spending as more people have income to spend.
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Capital spending typically results in the adoption of advanced technology and improved processes. This enhances productivity, which is a key driver of long-term economic growth. Higher productivity means more can be produced with the same or fewer resources.
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Investments in research and development (R&D) and technology can foster innovation and increase a country's competitiveness on the global stage. This can attract foreign investment and strengthen an economy's position in international markets.
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Capital spending on infrastructure projects like roads, bridges, and utilities can enhance the overall business environment. Efficient infrastructure reduces transportation costs, facilitates trade, and attracts investment
| Subject | Capital Expenditure | Revenue Expenditure |
| Nature | CapEx represents investments in assets that are expected to provide economic benefits to a business over an extended period, typically more than one accounting period. These assets are used to generate revenue or provide long-term benefits to the company. Examples include the purchase of buildings, machinery, equipment, vehicles, and intangible assets like patents and trademarks. | Revenue expenditure, on the other hand, represents day-to-day operating expenses that are incurred to maintain the normal business operations and generate immediate revenue. These expenses are considered part of the regular cost of doing business. Examples include salaries and wages, rent, utilities, office supplies, and advertising expenses. |
| Timing | CapEx is incurred when a business acquires or improves a long-term asset. The benefits from the investment are expected to be realized over several accounting periods, and the asset's value is usually spread out through depreciation or amortization over its useful life. | Revenue expenditure is incurred for ongoing, day-to-day operations and is typically related to the current accounting period. These expenses are fully recognized in the income statement in the period they are incurred. |
| Accounting | CapEx is recorded on the balance sheet as an asset. It is then depreciated (for physical assets) or amortized (for intangible assets) over its estimated useful life. The cost is gradually expensed over time, matching the cost with the revenue generated from the asset. | Revenue expenditures are immediately expensed in the income statement in the period they occur. They reduce the company's net income for that period. |
| Profitability | CapEx does not directly impact the current period's profitability to the same extent as revenue expenditure. Instead, it affects profitability over several accounting periods as depreciation or amortization expenses are recognized. | Revenue expenditures directly impact the current period's profitability, as they are expensed immediately, reducing the net income for the period. |
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For Prelims: Economic and Social Development
For Mains: General Studies III: Government Budgeting and Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilization, of resources, growth, development and employment
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to the expenditure made by an organisation or a company, which of the following statements is/are correct ? (UPSC CSE 2022)
1. Acquiring new technology is capital expenditure.
2. Debt financing is considered capital expenditure, while equity financing is considered revenue expenditure.
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer (A)
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NATIONAL MANUSCRIPTS MISSION (NMM)
- The National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM) was launched in February 2003 by the Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Government of India, with the objective of discovering and safeguarding India's extensive manuscript heritage.
- This initiative is unique in its scope and purpose, aiming to protect and revive the country's rich repository of manuscripts.
- With an estimated ten million manuscripts, India is believed to have the largest collection in the world, spanning diverse themes, materials, scripts, languages, artistic styles, and decorative elements.
- The mission is entrusted with the tasks of identifying, documenting, preserving, and providing access to these invaluable manuscripts. As manuscripts face increasing risks of deterioration, this nationwide effort serves as an essential and timely response to the challenge of protecting and reclaiming this intellectual and cultural legacy.
- As a comprehensive national initiative, the NMM focuses on both conservation and knowledge dissemination. Committed to its motto, "Conserving the past for the future," it has grown into a significant movement and is recognized as one of the most effective heritage preservation efforts in India
- For centuries, India's rich manuscript heritage has fascinated scholars and travelers from around the world. As early as the seventh century, the Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang carried numerous manuscripts back to China.
- Later, in the late eighteenth century, the Nawab of Awadh presented a beautifully illuminated manuscript of the Padshahnama to King George III of England, which is now regarded as one of the most exquisite works in the Royal Collection.
- When the English East India Company arrived in India, they recognized the subcontinent as a center of advanced intellectual and artistic achievements. Several Company officials developed a deep interest in India’s languages, philosophy, art, and architecture. The early editions of the Royal Asiatic Journal, published in the nineteenth century, reflect this growing fascination with India's cultural and scholarly traditions.
- During the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, a group of distinguished Orientalists systematically explored various aspects of Indian civilization.
- Among them were William Jones, the renowned philologist and founder of the Asiatic Society of Bengal; C. P. Brown, a scholar of Telugu; John Leyden, an expert in Eastern languages; Colin Mackenzie, the first Surveyor-General of India; Charles Wilkins, a Sanskrit scholar; H. H. Wilson, a translator of Sanskrit texts; and H. T. Colebrooke, a versatile Orientalist.
- These scholars took a keen interest in India’s vast collection of handwritten manuscripts, recorded on materials such as palm leaves, paper, cloth, and even gold and silver.
- Many of their personal manuscript collections are now housed in the India Office Library in Britain, as well as in various institutions across India
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Manuscript
A manuscript is a document that is written by hand or typed, as opposed to being printed. The word "manuscript" comes from the Latin words "manus" (hand) and "scriptum" (written).Manuscripts can be on a variety of topics, including literature, science, history, and religion.They can be written in any language.Manuscripts are important sources of information for scholars.They can provide insights into the history of a particular topic, the development of a particular language, or the culture of a particular time period Manuscripts can be found in libraries, archives, and museums all over the world. They can also be found in private collections
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For Prelims: Manuscript, Sangam Literature, Sahitya akademy
For Mains: GS I - Art & Culture
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Previous Year Questions
1.With reference to Indian History, Alexander Rea, A. H. Longhurst, Robert Sewell, James Burgess and Walter Elliot were associated with (2023) (a) archaeological excavations (b) establishment of English Press in Colonial India (c) establishment of Churches in Princely States (d) construction of railways in Colonial India Explanation: (a) 2. Who among the following Mughal Emperors shifted emphasis from illustrated manuscripts to album and individual portrait? (2019) (a) Humayun (b) Akbar (c) Jahangir (d) Shah Jahan |
SACRED GROOVES
- Sacred groves are forested areas protected and managed by local communities, deeply embedded in their cultural traditions and identities. These forests are safeguarded through customary laws and taboos, often prohibiting any form of resource extraction, except in limited cases such as collecting medicinal plants by designated custodians.
- Their conservation is closely tied to spiritual beliefs, with reverence for the deities and spirits associated with the groves playing a crucial role in their protection.
- India is home to an estimated 1–10 lakh sacred groves, the largest number globally. They are known by different regional names, such as ‘devara kadu’ in Karnataka, ‘devban’ in Himachal Pradesh, ‘kavu’ and ‘sarpa kavu’ in Kerala, ‘sarna’ in the Chota Nagpur Plateau, ‘devbani’ in Chhattisgarh, ‘jahera’ or ‘thakuramma’ in Odisha, ‘devgudi’ among the Muria, Madia, and Gond tribes of Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh, and ‘ki law lyngdoh’, ‘ki law kyntang’ or ‘ki law niam’ in Meghalaya. In Gujarat, they are referred to as ‘sabarkantha,’ ‘dahod,’ or ‘banaskantha,’ among others.
- These sacred spaces are often linked to temples, shrines, monasteries, and burial sites. Besides being centers of religious and cultural significance, they serve as repositories of medicinal plants and act as biodiversity hotspots. Many sacred groves also support perennial water sources, fostering the growth of unique and endemic plant and animal species.
- Rich in myths and legends, sacred groves are integral to the oral traditions of local communities, passed down through generations as part of their cultural heritage.
- Their conservation efforts have contributed to ecological stability by mitigating the effects of natural disasters such as floods, landslides, and droughts, while also preventing soil erosion. Additionally, anthropological studies highlight the positive impact of sacred groves on the mental and physical well-being of the communities that protect them
- The 2002 amendment to the Wildlife Protection Act (WLPA) introduced a new category of Protected Areas called ‘community reserves,’ alongside ‘national parks’ and ‘sanctuaries.’
- Community reserves are designated on privately or communally owned land where local communities voluntarily commit to conserving habitats, safeguarding wildlife, and preserving traditional conservation practices.
- Under this framework, communities or individual landowners are responsible for preventing offenses outlined in the WLPA. They must assist authorities in apprehending violators, report any wild animal deaths, and take measures to control or extinguish fires.
- Offenses within a community reserve include damaging boundary markers, disturbing wildlife, improper disposal of waste, igniting or permitting fires, and using harmful chemicals that could threaten biodiversity.
- Additionally, any changes in land use within a community reserve require approval from both the reserve’s management committee and the State government. The Chief Wildlife Warden, under whose jurisdiction the reserve falls, has overarching authority over its management and conservation plan.
- The Supreme Court has also mandated that State governments establish a ‘Community Reserve Management Committee’ to oversee the conservation and protection of wildlife and habitats.
- This committee must comprise at least five members nominated by the gram panchayat (or the gram sabha in its absence), along with a representative from the Forest or Wildlife Department.
- If the reserve is located on private land, the committee will include the landowner, a representative from the Forest or Wildlife Department, and a member from the relevant Panchayat or tribal community.
- The chairperson elected to lead the committee will serve as the ‘Honorary Wildlife Warden’ of the reserve.
- Furthermore, the Supreme Court has advised the Union Environment Ministry to conduct a nationwide survey of sacred groves and formulate a policy for their governance and conservation
- Had sacred groves been included under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), they would have been classified as ‘community forest resources.’ The FRA defines these resources as traditional common forest lands within a village’s customary boundaries, encompassing reserved forests, protected forests, and even protected areas like sanctuaries and national parks, provided the community has historically accessed them.
- In such a scenario, gram sabhas would have held statutory authority over the protection, regeneration, conservation, and management of these forest resources, including their wildlife, flora, and biodiversity. They would also have been responsible for preventing any activities that could damage their ecological or cultural heritage.
- To fulfill this role, gram sabhas would have been required to establish Community Forest Resource Management Committees to create and implement conservation plans, subject to the sabha’s approval. State governments, in turn, would have been obligated to provide necessary support for these initiatives.
- Currently, sacred groves located within forested areas are considered a part of community forest resources and thus fall under the jurisdiction of gram sabhas rather than the Forest or Wildlife Department. Sacred groves situated outside forest lands may also come under the FRA’s governance if they are officially designated as ‘forest land.’
- Ultimately, placing sacred groves under the category of community reserves managed by the Forest Department could create conflicts with local customs and the FRA’s approach. The FRA respects traditional governance systems by recognizing community forest resources, aligning with customary conservation practices rather than imposing external administrative control
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For Prelims: World life Protection Act, Climate Change, human-Animal Conflict, Article 48 A, Article 51 A
For Mains:
1. Critically examine the effectiveness of the Wildlife Protection Act (WPA), 1972, in addressing the increasing cases of human-animal conflict in India. (250 Words)
2. Discuss the potential economic benefits of ecotourism and sustainable wildlife management practices in India. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. If a particular plant species is placed under Schedule VI of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, what is the implication? (UPSC 2020) (a) A licence is required to cultivate that plant. Answer: A |
GOVERNOR'S ASSENT TO STATE LAWS
2. Conflict Over Governors' Assent to Bills
- In the ongoing conflict between states governed by opposition parties and their Governors appointed by the President on the Centre's advice, a recent development has emerged.
- Over the past year, several states, including Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Punjab, have taken legal recourse by approaching the Supreme Court regarding Governors withholding assent to Bills for extended periods.
- This situation underscores a larger issue concerning the balance of powers and the functioning of state legislatures within India's federal structure.
3. Governor's Role in Lawmaking
- Article 200 of the Constitution delineates the role of the Governor in the legislative process. After a Bill has been passed by the state legislature, it must be presented to the Governor. Subsequently, the Governor holds three options: to give assent to the Bill, withhold assent, or reserve the Bill for consideration by the President.
- In cases where assent is withheld, Article 200 allows the Governor to return the Bill to the legislature, accompanied by a message requesting reconsideration of the Bill or specific provisions. If the Bill is passed again by the legislature, with or without amendments, and presented to the Governor for assent, the Governor is obligated to grant assent.
- However, the absence of a stipulated timeline in the article has led to ambiguity and disputes. Governors have frequently withheld assent to Bills for prolonged periods, leaving them and the state legislature in a state of uncertainty. This lack of clarity has prompted states to seek intervention from the Supreme Court to resolve the issue.
4. President's Role in the Legislative Process
- Article 201 of the Constitution outlines the role of the President in the legislative process, particularly when a Bill is sent for consideration after being passed by a state legislature.
- If a Bill is sent to the President for consideration, the President can choose to either give assent or withhold assent, as specified in Article 201.
- In cases where assent is withheld, the President requests the Governor to return the Bill to the state legislature for reconsideration.
- The state government then has a period of six months to reconsider the Bill; failing to do so results in the Bill lapsing.
- If the Bill is reconsidered and passed once again by the state legislature, it must be sent back to the President for assessment.
- Unlike the Governor, the President is not obliged to give assent when reviewing the reconsidered Bill.
- This scenario represents the only instance where state governments do not have the final say in their own lawmaking process, as the decision ultimately rests with the President.
5. Issues Raised by the Kerala Government
The Kerala government has raised significant concerns regarding the actions of Governor Khan and President Murmu, terming them as "manifestly arbitrary" actions that violate fundamental rights and constitutional provisions.
- The petition filed by the Kerala government argues that the actions of Governor Khan and President Murmu are "manifestly arbitrary," indicating unreasonable and irrational decision-making. This characterization points to a violation of the right to equality, as such actions lack justification and fairness.
- The Kerala government's petition asserts that the decision to keep Bills pending without making a prompt decision violates Article 200 of the Constitution. The provision mandates that the Governor should decide on Bills "as soon as possible" after presentation. By not adhering to this requirement, the Governor's actions are seen as undermining the functioning of the state legislature and rendering it ineffective.
- The petition further argues that the prolonged withholding of assent by the Governor has subverted the functioning of the state legislature, rendering it ineffective and serving no practical purpose. This challenges the essence of legislative processes and the role of the Governor in the lawmaking procedure.
- Regarding President Murmu's decision to withhold assent to four Bills without providing reasons, the Kerala government contends that this action violates Article 201 of the Constitution. Article 201 stipulates that the President should return a Bill with recommended amendments if the assent is withheld, emphasizing the need for transparency and reasons for such decisions.
6. Governors' Actions and State Governments' Responses
Several states have encountered challenges related to Governors' actions in withholding assent to Bills and other matters, leading to disputes and legal interventions.
- Tamil Nadu's Experience: In November last year, the Supreme Court expressed concern over Tamil Nadu Governor R N Ravi withholding assent to 10 Bills enacted by the state legislature, some pending since January 2020. This action was criticized for its prolonged nature and lack of reasons provided. Additionally, disputes between Tamil Nadu's DMK government and Governor Ravi have been ongoing, including disagreements over ministerial appointments.
- Telangana's Grievance: Similarly, the Telangana government approached the Supreme Court in March 2023 due to former Governor Tamilisai Soundarajan's refusal to give assent to 10 Bills passed by the legislative assembly. Although Soundarajan eventually gave her assent, the delay and disputes highlighted tensions between the state government and the Governor's office.
- Legal Perspectives and Court Interventions: The issue of elected governments being subject to Governors' decisions, particularly in opposition-led states like Telangana. Despite legal arguments and requests for court directions, the Supreme Court refrained from passing detailed orders, emphasizing the constitutional intent behind timely decision-making as per Article 200.
- Political Dynamics and Future Implications: It's notable that Soundarajan, previously involved in assent disputes, is now a BJP candidate for the Lok Sabha elections. This political context adds complexity to the relationship between state governments and Governors, highlighting the ongoing challenges and potential implications for governance and constitutional principles.
7. Governor's Authority in Withholding Assent to Bills
- In November 2023, the Supreme Court deliberated on the issue of whether a Governor could withhold assent to Bills passed by the state legislature if they believed the session where the Bills were passed was convened illegally.
- This matter arose from Punjab, where Governor Banwarilal Purohit refused to give assent to four Bills passed by the Punjab Assembly, citing legal advice indicating a breach of law and procedure in their passage. Despite this, the Bills were not returned to the Assembly for reconsideration.
- The Supreme Court ruled that Governors do not possess the authority to obstruct the regular process of lawmaking by state legislatures.
- It clarified that the phrase "as soon as possible" in Article 200 implies that Governors cannot indefinitely delay action on Bills without any justification.
- The court emphasized that if a Governor chooses to withhold assent, they must adhere to the procedure outlined in the first proviso of Article 200, which involves returning the Bill to the state legislature for reconsideration.
- While the court outlined the responsibilities of Governors in the lawmaking process, it refrained from specifying a definitive timeline for Governors to make decisions on Bills.
- This omission has prompted the Kerala government to approach the Supreme Court seeking clarification on the issue.
8. The Way Forward
Addressing the challenges related to the Governor's assent requires a multi-dimensional approach that balances constitutional mandates, legal clarity, political responsibility, and public participation. Collaborative efforts among stakeholders and judicious use of constitutional mechanisms are key to ensuring robust and accountable governance in the legislative domain.
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For Prelims: Governor, Center-state relations, Article 200 For Mains:
1. In the context of recent disputes, examine the relationship between Governors appointed by the Centre and state governments led by opposition parties. How can this relationship be strengthened to ensure smooth functioning of the federal structure? (250 Words)
2. Explain the roles of the Governor and the President in the legislative process as outlined in the Constitution of India, focusing on their powers related to assenting to Bills passed by state legislatures. (250 Words)
3. Discuss Ethical Considerations and Constitutional Provisions Regarding Governor Running for Elections. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With reference to the Legislative Assembly of a State in India, consider the following statements: ( UPSC 2019)
1. The Governor makes a customary address to Members of the House at the commencement of the first session of the year.
2. When a State Legislature does not have a rule on a particular matter, it follows the Lok Sabha rule on that matter.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
2. Consider the following statements: ( UPSC 2018) 1. No criminal proceedings shall be instituted against the Governor of a State in any court during his term of office.
2. The emoluments and allowances of the Governor of a State shall not be diminished during his term of office.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 3.Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State? (2014)
1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule
Appointing the Ministers
2. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India
3. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government
Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2 only B. 1 and 3 only C. 2, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3 and 4
4. Which one of the following suggested that the Governor should be an eminent person from outside the State and should be a detached figure without intense political links or should not have taken part in politics in the recent past? (UPSC CSE 2019)
A.First Administrative Reforms Commission (1966)
B.Rajamannar Committee (1969)
C.Sarkaria Commission (1983)
D.National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2000)
Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-B, 4-C
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BELT AND ROAD INITIATIVE (BRI)
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New Eurasian Land Bridge:
- Connects Western China to Western Europe.
- Passes through Kazakhstan, Russia, Belarus, Poland, and Germany.
- Key cities: Urumqi (China), Almaty (Kazakhstan), Moscow (Russia), and Duisburg (Germany).
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China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor:
- Connects Northern China to Eastern Russia.
- Passes through Mongolia.
- Key cities: Beijing (China), Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia), and Moscow (Russia).
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China-Central Asia-West Asia Economic Corridor:
- Connects Western China to Turkey and the Mediterranean.
- Passes through Central Asian countries such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Iran.
- Key cities: Xi’an (China), Almaty (Kazakhstan), Tehran (Iran), and Istanbul (Turkey).
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China-Indochina Peninsula Economic Corridor:
- Connects Southern China to Southeast Asian countries.
- Passes through Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, and Myanmar.
- Key cities: Nanning (China), Hanoi (Vietnam), Bangkok (Thailand), and Yangon (Myanmar).
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China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC):
- Connects Western China to Pakistan.
- Stretches from Kashgar (China) to Gwadar Port (Pakistan).
- Key cities: Kashgar (China) and Gwadar (Pakistan).
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Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIM):
- Connects Southern China to India via Myanmar and Bangladesh.
- Key cities: Kunming (China), Mandalay (Myanmar), Dhaka (Bangladesh), and Kolkata (India)
- One of India's primary concerns is the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), a flagship project of the BRI. CPEC passes through the Gilgit-Baltistan region in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, which India claims as part of its territory. India views this as a violation of its sovereignty and territorial integrity
- India perceives the BRI as an attempt by China to expand its strategic influence and economic dominance across Asia and beyond. The development of infrastructure, ports, and other facilities in India's neighboring countries, such as Sri Lanka, Maldives, and Nepal, is viewed with suspicion, as it may enhance China's military and strategic footprint in the region
- India is cautious about the economic implications of the BRI. There are concerns that participating countries may fall into a "debt trap" due to heavy borrowing from China for infrastructure projects, leading to long-term economic dependency on China. This could create economic instability in the region, which would indirectly affect India
- India has criticized the BRI for its lack of transparency, inclusive consultation, and adherence to international norms and standards. There are apprehensions about the governance, environmental impact, and financial sustainability of BRI projects
- India has chosen not to participate in the BRI. It did not attend the Belt and Road Forum, the key international summit organized by China to promote the initiative
- India has been actively involved in promoting alternative regional connectivity and development initiatives. Notable examples include the Asia-Africa Growth Corridor (AAGC) in collaboration with Japan, and the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) with Russia, Iran, and other countries to improve trade links between India, Central Asia, and Europe
- India has been working to strengthen its bilateral and multilateral ties with neighboring countries and other regional players. This includes enhancing infrastructure and trade connectivity, providing development assistance, and engaging in diplomatic efforts to counterbalance China's influence
- India has been deepening its strategic partnerships with countries like the United States, Japan, and Australia. These partnerships aim to ensure a free, open, and inclusive Indo-Pacific region, often seen as a counter to China's growing assertiveness under the BRI framework
- Many participating countries have accumulated significant debt due to BRI projects. Critics argue that the loans provided by China are often on terms that are not sustainable for these countries, potentially leading to a "debt trap" where nations are unable to repay their loans, thus increasing their dependency on China.
- Examples include Sri Lanka, where the inability to service debt led to China taking control of the strategic Hambantota Port on a 99-year lease
- There are concerns about the economic feasibility of some BRI projects. Critics argue that many of these projects may not generate enough economic returns to justify the massive investments, leading to underutilized infrastructure and financial burdens on the host countries.
- Some BRI projects, like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), pass through disputed territories, raising issues of sovereignty and territorial integrity. For example, CPEC runs through the Gilgit-Baltistan region in Pakistan-occupied Kashmir, which India claims as its own
- The BRI is seen as a tool for China to expand its geopolitical influence. By building infrastructure and providing loans, China increases its strategic foothold in various regions, which can shift the balance of power and create dependencies that favour Chinese interests
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For Prelims: Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)
For Mains: China-Pakistan Economic Corridor and its implications on India
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Previous Year Questions
1.Belt and Road Initiative’ is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of (2016)
(a) African Union Answer: (d) 1.The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same. (2018) 2. “China is using its economic relations and positive trade surplus as tools to develop potential military power status in Asia”. In the light of this statement, discuss its impact on India as her neighbour. (2017) |
CHANDRAYAAN-3
1. Context
- Chandrayaan-3 is the third lunar mission of the ISRO. It follows the Chandrayaan-1 and Chandrayaan-2 missions.
- The primary objective of Chandrayaan-3 is to achieve a successful landing on the Moon's surface, rectifying the setback faced by its predecessor, Chandrayaan-2, in 2019.
- The Chandrayaan-3 mission aims to demonstrate India's capability to soft-land a lander and rover on the lunar surface.
- By executing a precise landing, ISRO intends to showcase the technological advancements and expertise of the Indian space program.
- The mission will contribute to expanding our understanding of the Moon, its geological features, and its evolution.
- To ensure the success of Chandrayaan-3, ISRO has incorporated improvements and modifications based on the lessons learned from Chandrayaan-2.
- These include enhancements in the design and functioning of the lander and rover, as well as improvements in navigation and landing systems.
- Rigorous testing and evaluations have been conducted to address the shortcomings identified during the previous mission.
- It can be expected that they will be similar to those carried by Chandrayaan-2, aiming to study lunar topography, mineralogy, surface composition, and the Moon's environment.
- These instruments will gather valuable data to further our knowledge of the Moon and contribute to scientific research.
3. Chandrayaan-2 Mission and its Objectives and Discoveries
- The Chandrayaan-2 mission, launched on July 22, 2019, had a multifaceted objective.
- While the most discussed goal was to demonstrate the ability to soft-land a lander and rover on the unexplored south pole of the Moon, it also aimed to expand lunar scientific knowledge through various studies.
- These studies included detailed investigations of topography, seismography, mineral identification and distribution, surface chemical composition, topsoil thermo-physical characteristics and the lunar atmosphere composition.
4. Chandrayaan 2 Orbiter
- Despite the challenges faced by the Vikram lunar lander, which crash-landed on the Moon's surface on September 6, 2019, the Mission's orbiter remained fully operational.
- The orbiter gathered a wealth of new information about the Moon and its environment, significantly contributing to our understanding of the lunar surface, sub-surface and exosphere.
- The data collected by the orbiter added valuable insights into the exploration of permanently shadowed regions and the study of craters and boulders beneath the regolith.
5. Reasons for Failure of the Vikram Lander
- The landing attempt of the Chandrayaan-2 Mission's Vikram lander encountered a setback when ISRO lost contact shortly before the scheduled touchdown on September 7.
- The lander was decelerating but failed to slow down to the required safe landing speed of 2 meters per second.
- Designed to absorb an impact even at 5 meters per second, Vikram hit the Moon's surface at a much higher speed, resulting in damage to itself and its instruments.
- The crash landing of the Vikram lander prevented the successful demonstration of soft landing technology in space.
- However, ISRO identified and rectified the small error responsible for the failure, paving the way for the upcoming Chandrayaan-3 mission to showcase this technology without any glitches.
- Furthermore, the crash landing also resulted in missed opportunities for gathering additional data about the lunar terrain, composition and mineralogy.
6. The Way Forward
- The lander Vikram and rover Pragyaan was equipped with instruments to conduct surface observations, which, combined with the orbiter's support, could have provided diverse sets of data contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the Moon.
- With Chandrayaan-3 on the horizon, ISRO aims to overcome previous challenges, achieve a successful soft landing on the Moon, and advance scientific exploration by collecting valuable information about our celestial neighbour.
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For Prelims: Vikram lander, Chandrayaan-3, Chandrayaan-2, Moon, ISRO, lunar mission, celestial body,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the primary objective of Chandrayaan-3 and its significance in India's space exploration efforts. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. In the context of space technology, what is "Bhuvan", recently in the news? (UPSC 2010)
A. A mini satellite, launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India
B. The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayan-II
C. A geoportal of ISRO with 3 D imaging capabilities of India
D. A space telescope developed by India
Answer: C 2. What will be India's second moon mission by ISRO? (Maharashtra Talathi 2019) A. Chandrayaan 1 B. Chandrayaan 1.A C. Chandrayaan 2 D. Chandrayaan 3 Answer: C 3. Chandrayaan - 2 was launched from which of the following states by ISRO? (DSSSB LDC 2019) A. Maharashtra B. Rajasthan C. Kerala D. Andhra Pradesh Answer: D 4. The phases of the moon as we see from the Earth are due to changing relative positions of the sun, the earth and the moon. Which of the following statements is true? (CTET 2022)
A. on a full moon day, the earth comes between the sun and the moon
B. on a new moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun
C. on a full moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun
D. on a new moon day, the earth is between the sun and the moon.
E. on a new moon day, the sun is between the moon and the earth
1. A, B 2. B, C 3. C, D 4. A, E Answer: 1 5. ISRO is related to: (SSC JE EE 2020) A. space research B. agricultural research C. seed research D. marine research Answer: A 6. “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to (UPSC 2020) A. Voyager-2 B. New Horizons C. LISA Pathfinder D. Evolved LISA Answer: D
1. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions, both in terms of technology and logistics? Explain critically (UPSC GS3, 2017)
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Source: The Indian Express
