COLLEGIUM VS NJAC
1. Context
2. Collegium System
- The Collegium system is not rooted in the Constitution. Instead, it has evolved through judgments of the Supreme Court.
- Under the system, the Chief Justice of India along with four senior-most Supreme Court judges recommend appointments and transfers of judges.
- A High Court Collegium, meanwhile, is led by the incumbent Chief Justice and the two senior-most judges of that court.
- In this system, the government’s role is limited to getting an inquiry conducted by the Intelligence Bureau (IB) if a lawyer is to be elevated as a judge in a High Court or the Supreme Court.
- The government can also raise objections and seek clarifications regarding the Collegium’s choices, but, if the Collegium reiterates the same names, the government is bound, under Constitution Bench judgments, to appoint them to the post.
3. Evolution of Collegium System
- In the First Judges case, the court held that the consultation with the CJI should be "full and effective".
- The Second Judges Case introduced the collegium system in 1993, as they ordered the CJI to consult a collegium of his two senior judges in the apex court on judicial appointments, such a "collective opinion" of the collegium would have primacy over the government.
- The Third Judges case in 1998, expanded the judicial collegium to its present composition of the CJI and four of its senior-most judges.
4. Constitutional Provisions for Appointment of Judges
5. Procedure for replacement of Collegium System
- Replacing the Collegium system calls for a Constitutional Amendment Bill.
- It requires a majority of not less than two-thirds of MPs (Members of Parliament) present and voting in Lok Sabha as well as Rajya Sabha.
- It also needs the ratification of legislatures of not less than one-half of the states.
6. What are the concerns associated with the Collegium system?
- Constitutional Status: The Collegium is not prescribed in the Constitution. Article 124 mentions consultation, which the SC interpreted as ‘concurrence’ in Second Judges Case (1993). During the hearing against the NJAC, the then SC Bar President had argued that the Constituent Assembly had considered a proposal for making Judges’ appointment ‘in concurrence’ with the CJI but had eventually rejected it.
- Transparency: There is no official procedure for selection or any written manual for the functioning of the Collegium. The parameters considered for selection (or rejection) are not available in the public domain.
- Accountability: The selection of Judges by the Judges is considered undemocratic. Judges are not accountable to the people or any other organ of the State (Legislature or Executive). It can add an element of arbitrariness in functioning.
- Criticism by Judges: Many retired Judges have criticized the working of the Collegium, especially the lack of transparency. Several controversial appointments have been made despite objections by the member-Judges of the Collegium.
- No Checks: There are no checks on the process. Nor has there been any review regarding the effectiveness of the process. Critics of the system argue the phenomena of ‘Uncle Judges’ wherein near relatives, kith, and kin of sitting Judges are appointed to the higher judiciary leading to nepotism. Law Commission in its 230th Report (2012) recommended that that the Judges, whose kith and kin are practicing in a High Court, should not be appointed in the same High Court. The absence of transparency, accountability, and external checks creates space for subjectivity and individual bias in appointments. In some cases, the principle of seniority has been ignored.
- No Reforms: The Supreme Court did not amend the contentious provisions of the NJAC Act or added safeguards to the Act. Instead, it struck down the whole Act. The Supreme Court reverted to the old Collegium System. However, the Court did not take any steps to address the concerns associated with the Collegium System.
7. What is National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC)
- The Constitution (99th Amendment) Act, which established the NJAC and the NJAC Act, was passed by Parliament in 2014 to set up a commission for appointing judges,
replacing the Collegium system. - This would essentially increase the government’s role in the appointment of judges.
- The laws were repealed in October 2015 after the Supreme Court struck them down.
7.1 Composition of NJAC
- The Chief Justice of India as the ex officio Chairperson.
- Two senior-most Supreme Court Judges as ex officio members.
- The Union Minister of Law and Justice as ex officio members.
- Two eminent persons from civil society (one of whom would be nominated by a committee consisting of the CJI, Prime Minster, and the Leader of Opposition in the Lok Sabha, and the other would be nominated from the SC/ST/OBC/minority communities or women.
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For Prelims: Collegium system, National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC), Supreme court, High court, Intelligence Bureau (IB), First Judges case, Second Judges Case, Third Judges Case, Article 124(2), Article 217, Law Commission, and 99th Constitutional Amendment Act.
For Mains: 1. What are the two systems of the appointment of Judges that has triggered the fresh debate on the Judicial system in India? (250 Words).
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Previous year Question
1. With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2021)
1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
2. In India, Judicial Review implies (UPSC 2017)
A. the power of the Judiciary to pronounce upon the constitutionality of laws and executive orders
B. the power of the Judiciary to question the wisdom of the laws enacted by the Legislatures
C. the power of the Judiciary to review all the legislative enactments before they are assented to by the President
D. the power of the Judiciary to review its own judgments given earlier in similar or different cases
Answer: A
3. Consider the following statements:
1. The motion to impeach a Judge of the Supreme Court of India cannot be rejected by the Speaker of the Lok Sabha as per the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968.
2. The Constitution of India defines and gives details of what constitutes 'incapacity and proved misbehavior' of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India
3. The details of the process of impeachment of the Judges of the Supreme Court of India are given in the Judges (Inquiry) Act, of 1968.
4. If the motion for the impeachment of a Judge is taken up for voting, the law requires the motion to be backed by each House of the Parliament and supported by a majority of the total membership of that House and by not less than two-thirds of total members of that House present and voting.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2
B. 3 only
C. 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 3 and 4
Answer: C
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IMD'S COLOUR CODED WEATHER ALERTS
Alerts are issued by the India Meteorological Department (IMD) based on the assessment of various weather parameters and the potential impact of upcoming weather events. The process generally involves the following steps:
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Weather Monitoring and Data Analysis: The IMD continuously monitors weather patterns using satellite imagery, radar data, and ground-based observations. Meteorologists analyze this data to predict the likelihood and severity of different weather events.
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Forecasting: Based on the analysis, weather models are run to forecast conditions such as rainfall, thunderstorms, snowfall, heatwaves, cold waves, etc. The forecasts are generated for different regions and time periods, typically ranging from a few hours to several days in advance.
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Risk Assessment: The IMD evaluates the potential impact of the predicted weather event on people, property, and infrastructure. This assessment considers factors like the intensity of the event, the affected area, and the vulnerability of the population.
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Color-Coded Alerts:
- Green Alert: No significant weather; no action is required.
- Yellow Alert: Be aware; indicates weather conditions that could escalate but are not expected to cause significant harm.
- Orange Alert: Be prepared; indicates potentially dangerous weather that could cause disruption and require precautions.
- Red Alert: Take action; indicates severe weather that is likely to cause significant damage and pose a high risk to life and property.
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Dissemination: Once the appropriate alert level is determined, the IMD issues the alert through various channels, including their official website, social media, mobile apps, television, radio, and coordination with local authorities.
- The primary purpose of these alerts is to safeguard the public. By providing early warnings of severe weather conditions, people can take necessary precautions, such as seeking shelter during a storm, avoiding travel during hazardous conditions, or preparing for extreme temperatures
- These alerts enable government agencies, local authorities, and disaster management teams to prepare for potential emergencies. This may include deploying resources, setting up shelters, issuing evacuation orders, or mobilizing rescue operations in anticipation of the event.
- Alerts help individuals and businesses make informed decisions. For example, farmers can protect their crops, fishermen can avoid going out to sea, and airlines can reschedule flights, all based on the severity of the alert
- By alerting businesses and industries to impending weather disruptions, these alerts help minimize economic losses. For instance, construction sites can secure equipment, supply chains can adjust logistics, and events can be rescheduled to avoid damage.
- Regularly issued alerts foster a culture of awareness and preparedness within communities. People become more attuned to weather patterns and more responsive to warnings, reducing the likelihood of injury or loss.
- In cases of environmental hazards like floods, landslides, or wildfires, these alerts play a crucial role in preventing further environmental degradation by prompting timely interventions.
- Vulnerable groups, such as the elderly, children, and those with health conditions, are more susceptible to the impacts of extreme weather. Alerts allow caregivers and authorities to take proactive steps to protect these individuals
- IMD's alerts are also significant for international and regional cooperation, as weather events often transcend borders. Sharing information helps neighboring countries or regions prepare for the potential spread of weather impacts
- IMD provides short-term and long-term weather forecasts for different regions of India, helping people, businesses, and government agencies plan and prepare for various weather conditions
- IMD issues color-coded alerts (Green, Yellow, Orange, and Red) to inform the public and authorities about impending severe weather events such as cyclones, heatwaves, cold waves, heavy rainfall, and thunderstorms
- The department monitors the climate of India and conducts research on various climatic patterns and phenomena. It also tracks and analyzes data related to monsoons, droughts, and climate change
- IMD plays a vital role in tracking cyclones and issuing timely warnings to coastal regions, helping in the evacuation and disaster management processes
- IMD provides weather-related information and advisories to the agricultural sector, aiding farmers in making informed decisions about sowing, irrigation, and harvesting
- IMD offers meteorological services to the aviation industry, providing weather forecasts and warnings that are critical for flight safety and operations
- IMD collaborates with various international meteorological organizations and contributes to global weather and climate studies
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For Prelims: Indian and World Geography – Physical, Social, Economic geography of India and the World. For Mains: GS-I, Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclones. etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features (including water-bodies and ice-caps) and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes |
WORLD AIR QUALITY REPORT 2024
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New Delhi recorded an average annual PM2.5 concentration of 91.8 µg/m³, making it the most polluted capital city. It was followed by N’Djamena in Chad (91.6 µg/m³) and Dhaka (78 µg/m³).
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Between 2018 and 2024, New Delhi consistently ranked as the most polluted capital, except in 2022 when N’Djamena briefly surpassed it.
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PM2.5, a fine particulate matter that remains suspended in the air, poses serious health risks. It is linked to respiratory ailments and increases the likelihood of cardiovascular diseases.
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The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends an annual PM2.5 limit of 5 µg/m³, whereas India’s Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has set a significantly higher threshold of 40 µg/m³.
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The primary contributors to PM2.5 pollution include emissions from combustion engines, power plants, industrial processes, agricultural activities such as stubble burning, and the burning of wood and coal.
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A report by Swiss air quality technology company IQAir highlights that 13 of the world's 20 most polluted cities are in India, with Byrnihat recording the highest annual PM2.5 concentration at 128.2 µg/m³.
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Other highly polluted cities in India include Mullanpur (Punjab), Faridabad, Loni, Gurgaon, Ganganagar, Greater Noida, Bhiwadi, Muzaffarnagar, Hanumangarh, Noida, and various parts of Delhi, including Central Delhi.
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India ranks as the fifth most polluted country, with an average PM2.5 level of 50.6 µg/m³—ten times the WHO’s recommended limit. In 2023, it was the third most polluted nation.
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The findings are based on data from over 40,000 air quality monitoring stations spread across 8,954 locations in 138 countries, as analyzed by IQAir’s air quality experts.
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The 7th annual World Air Quality Report confirms that India is home to 13 of the 20 most polluted cities globally. Byrnihat, located on the Assam-Meghalaya border, ranked as the most polluted city in the world. IQAir's analysis utilized data from 40,000 monitoring stations worldwide.
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The report specifically assessed PM2.5 concentrations—one of the smallest yet most hazardous air pollutants. These fine particles, mainly originating from fossil fuel combustion, can contribute to respiratory illnesses, chronic kidney disease, cancer, strokes, and heart attacks.
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Airborne particulate matter is a complex mixture of solid and liquid substances that vary in size, composition, and chemical nature. Regulatory frameworks classify particles based on their size, with PM10 (10 microns or smaller) being inhalable and capable of causing health issues, while PM2.5 (2.5 microns or smaller) is even more harmful.
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Only seven nations—Australia, Bahamas, Barbados, Estonia, Grenada, Iceland, and New Zealand—met the WHO’s annual PM2.5 guideline. Oceania emerged as the least polluted region, with 57% of its cities adhering to WHO standards. This region includes Australia, French Polynesia, and New Zealand.
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No city in East Asia, Southeast Asia, or West Asia complied with WHO air quality guidelines.
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Additional key insights from the report include:
- Only 17% of cities worldwide met WHO’s air pollution standards.
- Out of 138 countries and regions, 126 (91.3%) exceeded the WHO’s recommended annual PM2.5 limit of 5 µg/m³.
- The seven most polluted cities were located in Central and South Asia.
- Los Angeles was the most polluted major city in the United States.
- The five most polluted countries, according to the report, were Chad (91.8 µg/m³), Bangladesh (78 µg/m³), Pakistan (73.7 µg/m³), Congo (58.2 µg/m³), and India (50.6 µg/m³).
PM2.5 (Particulate Matter 2.5) refers to fine airborne particles that are 2.5 microns or smaller in diameter—about 30 times smaller than the width of a human hair. Due to their tiny size, they can easily penetrate deep into the lungs and even enter the bloodstream, posing serious health risks.
Sources of PM2.5:
- Vehicle emissions (cars, trucks, buses)
- Industrial processes (factories, power plants)
- Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
- Agricultural activities (stubble burning, fertilizers)
- Construction and road dust
- Wood and biomass burning (household cooking, heating)
- Natural sources (wildfires, volcanic eruptions, dust storms)
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National Clean Air Programme (NCAP): Launched in January 2019, NCAP is a comprehensive initiative aimed at reducing particulate matter (PM) pollution by 20-30% by 2024, compared to 2017 levels. It covers 102 non-attainment cities (cities that consistently exceed national air quality standards).
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Graded Response Action Plan (GRAP): Implemented in the National Capital Region (NCR), GRAP is a set of emergency measures that are activated based on the severity of air pollution. It includes actions like banning diesel generators, increasing public transport, and stopping construction activities during high pollution episodes.
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Bharat Stage VI (BS-VI) Emission Standards: India leapfrogged from BS-IV to BS-VI emission standards in April 2020. These stricter norms significantly reduce the permissible levels of pollutants like NOx, PM, and CO from vehicles.
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Promotion of Electric Vehicles (EVs): The government has introduced various incentives and policies to promote the adoption of electric vehicles, including the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme, which provides subsidies for EV purchases and infrastructure development.
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Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY): This scheme aims to reduce indoor air pollution by providing free LPG connections to women from below-poverty-line households, encouraging the use of cleaner cooking fuels instead of biomass.
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Air Quality Index (AQI) Monitoring and Public Awareness: The government has established a network of air quality monitoring stations across the country and provides real-time AQI data to the public. This helps in raising awareness and enabling citizens to take precautionary measures.
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Ban on Stubble Burning: To address the issue of crop residue burning, which significantly contributes to air pollution in northern India, the government has promoted alternative methods like the use of Happy Seeders and other machinery for residue management, along with financial incentives for farmers.
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Industrial Emission Standards: The government has set stringent emission standards for industries and power plants, mandating the use of technologies like electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) and flue gas desulfurization (FGD) to reduce emissions
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For Prelims: Air Pollution, Air Quality Index, PM 2.5, PM 10, BS-VI Vehicles, Graded Response Action Plan, National Capital Region, Nitrogen Dioxide, Ozone, Carbon,
For Mains:
1. With the onset of worsening air quality in Mumbai, discuss the importance of the AQI as a critical resource for both the government and the public. How can the AQI assist in addressing air pollution-related challenges in the upcoming winter months? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? (UPSC 2016)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 2, 3 and 4 only C. 1, 4 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer: B 2. Which of the following are the reasons/factors for exposure to benzene pollution? (UPSC 2020)
Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2 and 3 only B. 2 and 4 only C. 1, 3 and 4 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 Answer: A 3. What is the ‘Greenhouse Gas Protocol’? (UPSC 2016) (a) It is an international accounting tool for government and business leaders to understand, quantify and manage greenhouse gas emissions (b) It is an initiative of the United Nations to offer financial incentives to developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to adopt eco-friendly technologies. (c) It is an inter-governmental agreement ratified by all the member countries of the United Nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to specified levels by the year 2022 (d) It is one of the multilateral REDD+ initiatives hosted by the World Bank Answer: A 4. Photochemical smog is a resultant of the reaction among (UPSC 2013) (a) NO2, O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight (b) CO, O2 and peroxyacetyl nitrate in the presence of sunlight (c) CO, CO2 and NO2 at low temperature (d) high concentration of NO2 O3 and CO in the evening
Answer: A
5. Acid rain is caused by the pollution of the environment (UPSC 2013, 2022) (a) Carbon Dioxide and Nitrogen (b) Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide (c) Ozone and Carbon Dioxide (d) Nitrous Oxide and Sulphur Dioxide Answer: D
6. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is a standard criterion for (UPSC 2017) (a) Measuring oxygen level in blood (b) Computing oxygen levels in forest ecosystems (c) Pollution assay in aquatic ecosystem (d) Assessing oxygen levels in high-altitude regions Answer: C 7. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change recently published the draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, in 2020. Which of the following statements is correct about EIA? (Punjab Civil Service 2020)
1. It predicts the effect of a proposed industrial/infrastructural project on the environment.
2. It prevents the proposed activity/project from being approved without proper oversight or taking adverse consequences into account.
3. It compares various alternatives for a project and seeks to identify the one which represents the best combination of economic and environmental costs and benefits.
4. As per the new notification, Coal and non-Coal mineral prospecting and solar photovoltaic projects do not need prior environmental clearance.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. Only 1 and 2
B. Only 2, 3 and 4
C. Only 1, 2 and 3
D. Only 1, 2 and 4
Answer: D
8. Headquarters of the World Meteorological Organization is located in (NDA 2017)
A. Washington B. Geneva C. Moscow D. London
Answer: B
9. With reference to the 'Global Climate Change Alliance', which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2017)
1. It is an initiative of the European Union.
2. It provides technical and financial support to targeted developing countries to integrate climate change into their development policies and budgets.
3. It is coordinated by World Resources Institute (WRI) and World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD)
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
10. The IPCC is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change. IPCC stands for: (RRB NTPC CBT 2 2022)
A. Intergovernmental Provision on Climate Change
B. International Panel on Climate Change
C. International Provision on Climate Change
D. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Answer: D
11. Comprehension (SSC CHSL 2020)
Direction: In the following passage some words have been deleted. Fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Select the most appropriate option for each blank.
Forest fire always (1) ______ by one of two reasons-naturally caused or human-caused. Natural fire is generally (2) ______ by lightning, with a very small percentage (3) ______ by spontaneous combustion of dry fuel such as sawdust and leaves. (4) ______, human-caused fire can happen (5) ______ any number of reasons.
Select the most appropriate option for blank No. 1.
A. takes up B. happens C. causes D. creates
Answer: B
12. Which of the following statements best describes the term 'Social Cost of Carbon'? It is a measure, in monetary value, of the (UPSC 2020)
A. long-term damage done by a tonne of CO2 emission in a given year.
B. requirement of fossil fuels for a country to provide goods and services to its citizens, based on the burning of those fuels.
C. efforts put in by a climate refugee to adapt to live in a new place.
D. contribution of an individual person to the carbon footprint on the planet Earth.
Answer: A
13. The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs (UPSC 2012)
A. the water vapour of the air and retains its heat
B. the ultraviolet part of the solar radiation
C. all the solar radiations
D. the infrared part of the solar radiation
Answer: D
14. As per the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommendation of a balanced diet, to avoid unhealthy weight gain, total fat should NOT exceed _______ of total energy intake. (UPSSSC Mandi Inspector 2019)
A. 20% B. 30% C. 10% D. 40%
Answer: B
15. What is the role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the water purification systems? (UPSC 2012)
1. It inactivates/kills the harmful microorganisms in water.
2. It removes all the undesirable odours from the water.
3. It quickens the sedimentation of solid particles, removes turbidity and improves the clarity of water.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
16. Which of the following ultraviolet rays is more dangerous? (UPTET 2017)
A. UV-A B. UV-B C. UV-C D. None of the above
Answer: C
17. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)
1. Agricultural soils release nitrogen oxides into environment.
2. Cattle release ammonia into environment.
3. Poultry industry releases reactive nitrogen compounds into environment.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 3 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 2 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
18. Which of the following is a VOC? (MP Vyapam 2022)
A. Toulene B. Water C. Carbon dioxide D. Carbon monoxide
Answer: A
19. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are of great concern because (UGC NET Environmental Science 2020)
A. Once such compounds are in the vapour state, they are difficult to control in the environment.
B. Most of them are ozone depleting substances
C. They contribute to a general increase in reactive hydrocarbons in the atmosphere.
D. They are less soluble in water.
Answer: C
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SOUTHWEST MONSOON
- The southwest monsoon is a seasonal weather pattern that brings significant rainfall to large parts of South Asia, particularly India, between June and September
- The southwest monsoon typically begins in early June and lasts until late September. It starts with the arrival of the monsoon winds in the southern part of India, usually marked by the onset over the state of Kerala
- The southwest monsoon brings about 70-90% of India’s annual rainfall. The distribution of rainfall varies, with some regions receiving heavy rains, while others may experience scanty showers.
- The Western Ghats, the northeastern states, and the Himalayan foothills typically receive very heavy rainfall.
- The monsoon is critical for the Kharif crop season in India, which includes crops like rice, maize, pulses, and cotton. Adequate and timely monsoon rains are essential for a good harvest
- The monsoon starts retreating from northwestern India in early September and completely withdraws from the Indian subcontinent by mid-October. This phase is also known as the retreating or northeast monsoon
Mechanism:
- High-Pressure Area: During the summer, intense heating of the landmass in the Indian subcontinent creates a low-pressure area over northern India and the Tibetan Plateau.
- Low-Pressure Area: The Indian Ocean remains relatively cooler, creating a high-pressure area.
- Wind Movement: Air moves from the high-pressure area over the ocean to the low-pressure area over the land, carrying moisture from the ocean and resulting in rainfall.
- Easterly and westerly winds refer to the direction from which the winds originate
- Easterly winds are winds that blow from the east towards the west
- Easterly winds can affect weather patterns, including the development of tropical storms and cyclones. For instance, easterly waves in the tropics can lead to the formation of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
Characteristics:
- Trade Winds: One of the most well-known examples of easterly winds are the trade winds. These winds blow from the east towards the west in the tropics, from the subtropical high-pressure areas toward the equatorial low-pressure areas.
- Tropical Regions: In the tropical regions, particularly between 30 degrees north and south of the equator, easterly winds are prevalent. These are crucial for the weather patterns and climatic conditions in these regions.
- Monsoon Winds: During certain seasons, such as the northeast monsoon in India, easterly winds play a significant role. These winds bring dry air from the land towards the ocean during the winter months.
- Westerly winds are winds that blow from the west towards the east
- Westerly winds play a significant role in the weather of temperate regions, influencing the climate and the movement of storm systems.
- They are also responsible for carrying warm and moist air from the oceans inland, affecting precipitation patterns in coastal and inland regions.
- The westerlies can affect transoceanic travel and weather prediction due to their influence on the movement of high and low-pressure systems
Characteristics:
- Prevailing Westerlies: These winds are predominant in the mid-latitudes (between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator). They blow from the subtropical high-pressure belts towards the poles.
- Jet Streams: High-altitude westerly winds known as jet streams are important in influencing weather patterns and the movement of weather systems across the globe. They are fast flowing and occur in the upper levels of the atmosphere.
- Polar Front: In the mid-latitudes, the westerlies interact with polar easterlies near the polar front, leading to the development of extratropical cyclones and storms
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Monsoons in India occur due to seasonal changes in wind patterns and temperature differences between land and sea.
Here's a concise explanation of the process:
- Differential heating: During summer, the Indian landmass heats up more quickly than the surrounding Indian Ocean.
- Low pressure system: The heated land creates a low-pressure area over the Indian subcontinent.
- Wind direction shift: This low pressure draws in moisture-laden winds from the cooler Indian Ocean towards the land.
- Orographic lift: As these winds encounter geographical features like the Western Ghats or the Himalayas, they are forced to rise.
- Condensation and precipitation: The rising air cools, causing water vapor to condense and form clouds, leading to heavy rainfall.
- Duration: This pattern typically lasts from June to September, bringing the majority of India's annual rainfall.
- The primary driver is the temperature difference between the land and the surrounding sea. During summer, the land heats up faster than the ocean, creating a low-pressure area over the land and a high-pressure area over the ocean. This pressure difference leads to the movement of moist air from the ocean to the land
- Warm sea surface temperatures are crucial as they increase the evaporation rate, contributing to the formation of moist air masses that drive the monsoon rains.
- The monsoon winds, which are part of the larger atmospheric circulation, shift according to the seasonal temperature differences. The southwest monsoon, for instance, is driven by the southwest winds that carry moisture from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent.
- The geographical features, such as mountain ranges, play a significant role. For example, the Western Ghats in India force moist air to rise, cool, and condense, leading to heavy rainfall on the windward side
- The movement and strength of the high-pressure systems over the oceans and low-pressure systems over the land influence the intensity and timing of the monsoon.
- Phenomena such as El Niño and La Niña can affect the strength and timing of the monsoon. For example, El Niño can lead to weaker monsoons due to altered wind patterns and sea surface temperatures
- El Niño is generally associated with a weaker Indian monsoon. The warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niño tends to disrupt the normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to reduced rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.
- The onset of the monsoon can be delayed, and the overall intensity of the rainfall during the monsoon season might be lower than usual
- El Niño often brings drier conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, leading to droughts and reduced rainfall
- Eastern and southern Africa may experience drier conditions as well
- La Niña, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, is typically associated with a stronger Indian monsoon. It often leads to increased rainfall over the Indian subcontinent
- The enhanced monsoon can lead to heavier rains and potentially more frequent and intense flooding
- La Niña tends to bring wetter conditions to Southeast Asia and northern Australia, potentially causing heavy rains and flooding
- La Niña can lead to wetter conditions in parts of northern South America
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For Prelims: Indian and World Geography
For Mains: GS-I, GS-III: Important Geophysical phenomena and environment
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Previous Year Questions
1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2012)
1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.
2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only
B. 2 Only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor
Answer (C)
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RAJYA SABHA ELECTIONS
The Rajya Sabha, or the Council of States, is the upper house of India's Parliament. It is a permanent body and is not subject to dissolution. Members of the Rajya Sabha are not directly elected by the people; they are either nominated by the President of India or elected by the members of the State Legislative Assemblies. The procedure for nomination and election in the Rajya Sabha is as follows:
- The President of India can nominate up to 12 members to the Rajya Sabha who have special knowledge or practical experience in literature, science, art, or social service. These nominations are made on the advice of the Prime Minister.
- The remaining members of the Rajya Sabha are elected by the members of the State Legislative Assemblies. Each state is allocated a certain number of seats in the Rajya Sabha based on its population. The members of the Legislative Assembly vote to elect representatives to fill these seats.
- If a vacancy arises in the Rajya Sabha due to resignation, death, or disqualification of a member, it is filled through a by-election or a nomination, depending on the circumstances.
- Members of the Rajya Sabha serve a term of six years, and one-third of the members retire every two years. This ensures that the Rajya Sabha is a permanent body and that it is not dissolved at the same time as the Lok Sabha, or the lower house of Parliament.
- To be eligible for membership in the Rajya Sabha, a person must be a citizen of India, at least 30 years old, and possess other qualifications as prescribed by Parliament. Members of the Rajya Sabha are not subject to any territorial representation.
- A person can be disqualified from being a member of the Rajya Sabha if they hold an office of profit under the Government of India or any state government if they are of unsound mind, if they are an undischarged insolvent, or if they are disqualified by any law made by Parliament.
- Members of the Rajya Sabha enjoy certain privileges and immunities, such as freedom of speech and debate, immunity from civil and criminal proceedings for anything said or done in the course of their duties, and the right to participate in the proceedings of the House.
- The Rajya Sabha plays a crucial role in the legislative process by reviewing and amending bills passed by the Lok Sabha, initiating legislation, and scrutinizing the work of the government. It also has the power to impeach the President of India and to remove judges of the Supreme Court and the High Courts.
- The Rajya Sabha is composed of 245 members, of which 233 are elected by the members of the State Legislative Assemblies and 12 are nominated by the President of India.
The eligibility, qualifications, and disqualifications of members of the Rajya Sabha as outlined in the Indian Constitution
Eligibility Criteria (Article 84)
- Citizenship: A person must be a citizen of India to be eligible for membership in the Rajya Sabha.
- Age: The minimum age required for a person to become a member of the Rajya Sabha is 30 years.
- Other Qualifications: The person must possess other qualifications as prescribed by Parliament. While the Constitution does not specify these qualifications, they may include factors such as educational background, professional experience, or contributions to public service.
Qualifications (Article 84)
The Constitution of India doesn't explicitly list qualifications for membership in the Rajya Sabha. It leaves this matter to be determined by Parliament. Consequently, the Parliament has enacted the Representation of the People Act, 1951, which lays down the qualifications for membership in both the Rajya Sabha and the Lok Sabha.
According to the Representation of the People Act, 1951, a person is qualified to be chosen as a member of the Rajya Sabha if they:
- Are registered as an elector for any parliamentary constituency.
- Are at least 30 years of age.
- Possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed on that behalf by or under any law made by Parliament.
Disqualifications (Article 102)
Article 102 of the Indian Constitution lays down the grounds for disqualification of a member of either House of Parliament, which includes the Rajya Sabha. A person shall be disqualified for being chosen as and for being a member of the Rajya Sabha if they:
- Hold an office of profit under the Government of India or any State Government other than an office declared by Parliament by law not to disqualify its holder.
- Are of unsound mind and have been so declared by a competent court.
- Are an undischarged insolvent.
- Have voluntarily acquired the citizenship of a foreign state or have voluntarily acquired such citizenship by means unknown to the law of India.
- Are disqualified by or under any law made by Parliament.
These provisions ensure that members of the Rajya Sabha are qualified individuals who are dedicated to serving the interests of the nation and its people, and they prevent conflicts of interest or undue influence in the legislative process.
4. Article 80 of the Constitution of India
Article 80 of the Constitution of India pertains to the composition of the Council of States, commonly known as the Rajya Sabha, which is the upper house of the Indian Parliament.
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Composition of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha): Article 80 specifies that the Rajya Sabha shall consist of not more than 250 members, of whom:
- Not more than 238 members shall be representatives of the States and of the Union territories.
- Not more than 12 members shall be nominated by the President of India.
- Representation of States and Union territories: The members representing the States and Union territories in the Rajya Sabha are elected by the elected members of the Legislative Assembly of the State or Union territory, as per the system of proportional representation using the single transferable vote.
- Allocation of Seats: The allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha to each State and Union territory is determined by the Parliament through laws made by it.
- Nomination by the President: The President of India has the power to nominate members to the Rajya Sabha, including persons having special knowledge or practical experience in literature, science, art, and social service. These nominated members are appointed by the provisions made by Parliament.
- Representation of Union territories: The representation of Union territories in the Rajya Sabha is provided to ensure their participation in the legislative process, despite not having a Legislative Assembly of their own.
- Term of Office: The term of office for members of the Rajya Sabha is six years. However, one-third of the members retire every two years, ensuring continuity in the functioning of the House.
5. Special Powers of Rajya Sabha (Article 249 and Article 312)
Article 249 and Article 312 of the Indian Constitution confer special powers upon the Rajya Sabha, the upper house of the Parliament of India, in certain circumstances. These articles provide for the Rajya Sabha to play a significant role in the legislative process, especially concerning the creation of new All India Services and the enactment of laws on matters in the State List.
- Article 249: This article empowers the Rajya Sabha to legislate on matters enumerated in the State List (List II of the Seventh Schedule) of the Constitution. The Rajya Sabha can do so if it is in the national interest and if the Lok Sabha has passed a resolution to that effect by a two-thirds majority. The resolution must declare that it is necessary or expedient in the national interest that Parliament should make laws on the specified matter.
- Article 312: This article provides for the creation of new All India Services (AIS) by Parliament if it is deemed necessary. The Rajya Sabha plays a crucial role in this process. If the Rajya Sabha passes a resolution by a two-thirds majority declaring that it is necessary or expedient in the national interest to create a new AIS, then Parliament can create such a service. The resolution must be supported by not less than two-thirds of the members present and voting.
6. The Way Forward
India can ensure that Rajya Sabha elections are conducted with integrity, transparency, and inclusivity, thereby fortifying the foundation of its democratic institutions and advancing the nation's progress towards equitable and effective governance.
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For Prelims: Rajya Sabha, Parliament, Article 249, Article 312, Special Provisions, Article 84, Article 102 For Mains:
1. Explain the procedure of nomination and election in the Rajya Sabha. How are the members of the Rajya Sabha chosen, and what are the criteria for their eligibility? (250 Words)
2. Critically evaluate the role of the Rajya Sabha in the Indian parliamentary system. Identify any challenges faced by the house and suggest potential reforms. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. Consider the following statements:
The Parliamentary Committee on Public Accounts (UPSC 2013)
1. consists of not more than 25 members of the Lok Sabha.
2. scrutinizes appropriation and finance accounts of the Government.
3. examines the report of the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
2. With reference to the Parliament of India, which of the following Parliamentary Committees scrutinizes and reports to the House whether the powers to make regulations, rules, sub-rules, by-laws, etc., conferred by the Constitution or delegated by the Parliament are being properly exercised by the Executive within the scope of such delegation? (UPSC 2018)
A. Committee on Government Assurances
B. Committee on Subordinate Legislation
C. Rules Committee
D. Business Advisory Committee
3. According to the Representation of the People Act, 1951, in the event of a person being elected to both houses of Parliament, he has to notify within ______ days in which house he intends to function. (Delhi Police Constable 2020)
A. 22 B. 10 C. 20 D. 15
4. Regarding Money bill, Which of the following statements is not correct? (UPSC 2018) A. A bill shall be deemed to be a money bill if it contains only provisions relating to imposition, abolition, remission, alteration or regulation of any tax
B. A Money bill has provisions for the custody of the Consolidated Fund of India or the Contingency Fund of India
C. A Money Bill is concerned with the appropriation of money out of the Contingency Fund of India
D. A Money Bill deals with the regulation of borrowing of money or giving of any guarantee by the Government of India
Answer: 1-B, 2-B, 3-B, 4-C |
Source: The Indian Express
