A caste census is a comprehensive survey or data collection effort that aims to gather detailed information about the caste composition of a population. This typically involves:

1. Counting individuals belonging to different caste groups
2. Collecting socio-economic data related to caste categories
3. Assessing the representation of various castes in different sectors

The caste system is particularly relevant in India, where it has historically played a significant role in social stratification. A caste census can provide insights into:

• Population distribution across caste groups
• Economic status of different castes
• Educational levels and employment patterns
• Representation in government jobs and political positions

In India, the last comprehensive caste census was conducted in 1931 during British rule. Since then, calls for a new caste census have been made periodically, with proponents arguing it would help in formulating more targeted welfare policies and ensuring equitable representation.

3. Why the Caste Census?

Historically, British India’s censuses from 1881 to 1931 recorded all castes. Post-Independence, the 1951 census excluded caste enumeration, except for SCs and STs, which continued to be recorded in every census. In 1961, the government allowed states to conduct their own OBC surveys and create state-specific OBC lists, as there were no central reservations for OBCs at that time

A caste census is essential for several reasons:

• Social Necessity: Caste remains a fundamental social framework in India. Inter-caste marriages were just 5% in 2011-12. Caste surnames and markers are common, residential areas are segregated by caste, and caste influences the selection of election candidates and cabinet ministers.

• Legal Necessity: Effective implementation of constitutionally mandated social justice policies, including reservations in elections, education, and public employment, requires detailed caste data. Despite the Constitution using the term 'class,' Supreme Court rulings have established caste as a significant criterion for defining a backward class, necessitating comprehensive caste-wise data to uphold reservation policies.

• Administrative Necessity: Detailed caste data helps correct wrongful inclusions and exclusions within reserved categories, prevents dominant castes from monopolizing reserved benefits, and is essential for sub-categorizing castes and determining the creamy layer's income/wealth criteria.

• Moral Necessity: The lack of detailed caste data has allowed a small elite among upper castes and dominant OBCs to disproportionately control the nation's resources, income, and power

There are several arguments against conducting a caste census:

• Social Division: Some argue that a caste census would exacerbate social divisions, although India's social hierarchies have existed for nearly 3,000 years, predating census efforts. Since 1951, counting SCs and STs has not led to conflicts among these groups. Moreover, India’s census already includes data on religion, language, and region, which are equally, if not more, divisive than caste. Ignoring caste in the census will not eliminate casteism any more than excluding religion, language, and region data will eradicate communalism and regionalism.

• Administrative Challenge: Some claim that a caste census would be administratively complex. However, unlike the concept of race, which can be ambiguous but is still counted in many countries like the U.S., caste identification in India is relatively clear. The government has successfully enumerated 1,234 SC castes and 698 ST tribes. Therefore, counting the approximately 4,000 other castes, most of which are specific to certain states, should not pose an insurmountable challenge.

• Increased Reservation Demands: Critics suggest that a caste census could lead to more demands for reservations. However, detailed caste data could actually help manage these demands more effectively by providing a factual basis for discussions. This would enable policymakers to address reservation claims more objectively, such as those from Marathas, Patidars, and Jats. In contrast, governments often prefer vague data because it allows them to make arbitrary reservation decisions for electoral gain

• The Constitution allows reservations for OBCs in education (Article 15(4)) and public employment (Article 16(4)), similar to SCs and STs. Following the Mandal Commission's recommendations, OBCs also benefit from reservations in the Central government and its undertakings. The Supreme Court's ruling in the Indra Sawhney case (1992) emphasized that the OBC list, originally based on the 1931 Census, should be updated regularly.
• Unlike SCs and STs, OBCs do not have reserved electoral constituencies for MPs and MLAs. However, the 73rd and 74th Constitutional amendments (1993) introduced reservations for OBCs in panchayats and municipalities (Articles 243D(6) and 243T(6)). To implement this effectively, detailed caste and area-wise Census data of OBCs is necessary, which the government should have collected in the 2001 Census but did not.
• When states like Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Odisha, and Jharkhand attempted to implement OBC reservations in local elections, courts halted these efforts due to the lack of caste-wise OBC data. The judiciary demands this data to uphold reservations, while the executive has avoided collecting it.
• In contrast, the Supreme Court upheld the 10% reservation for economically weaker sections (EWS) among non-OBCs, SCs, and STs (mainly upper castes) in 2022 without empirical support. Given the EWS reservation, the Census should now include all castes, as it did until 1931.
• Though the Census is a Union subject, the Collection of Statistics Act, 2008, allows States and local bodies to collect relevant data. States like Karnataka (2015) and Bihar (2023) have conducted caste surveys, but Census data holds more authority and is less disputed. The government's reluctance to include caste in the Census is both legally indefensible and administratively imprudent

• After extensive lobbying by OBC leaders, Parliament unanimously resolved in 2010, with support from both Congress and BJP, to include caste enumeration in the 2011 Census. The last such enumeration was in the 1931 Census, which recorded 4,147 castes in India, excluding the depressed classes/untouchables.
• However, the Socio-Economic and Caste Census (SECC) of 2011 was poorly designed and executed, resulting in an absurd figure of 4.6 million castes, and its results were never released.
• The failure of SECC-2011 can be attributed to its conduct outside the framework of the Census Act, 1948, which was not amended to include caste as a parameter. Instead, it was managed by the Union Ministries of Rural Development and Urban Development, which lacked experience in conducting sociological surveys.
• Additionally, the questionnaire was poorly designed with open-ended questions about caste, causing confusion among enumerators who struggled to differentiate between genuine castes, alternative names, larger caste groups, sub-castes, surnames, clan names, and gotras. In contrast, Bihar's 2023 Caste Survey provided a list of 214 specific caste names, with a 215th category labeled "Other Castes," resulting in more accurate data.
• Despite the 2010 unanimous Parliamentary resolution, the Central government announced in 2021 that it would not include caste enumeration in the next Census.
• It maintained this stance before the Supreme Court in response to a case filed by the Maharashtra government seeking the inclusion of OBCs in the 2021 Census. The Supreme Court's dismissal of Maharashtra's plea in December 2021 is contentious, given its own previous rulings

7. Way Forward

To address the failures of the SECC-2011, the Census Act of 1948 should be amended to mandate caste enumeration, removing the discretion from the Union executive. Caste should be included in the regular Census conducted by the Census Commissioner, with a few relevant questions added to the questionnaire. The government should also involve sociological and anthropological experts to create a draft list of castes specific to each state, publish this draft online for public feedback, and finalize it before distributing it to enumerators. The questionnaire should include questions about the respondent's sub-caste, caste, larger caste group, and caste surname. Using internet-enabled handheld devices preloaded with this information and limiting the enumerators' role to selecting the correct option will streamline the process and ensure accuracy.

States interested in caste enumeration should petition the Supreme Court to review its 2021 judgment. It is illogical to base OBC reservations on 1931 Census data and EWS reservations on no empirical data. The next Census must include caste enumeration

 

 

 

For Prelims: Socio-economic and caste census (SECC), Mandal Commission, Justice G Rohini's Commission, NITI Aayog, Article 341 and Article 342. For Mains: 1. General Studies II: Welfare schemes for vulnerable sections of the population by the Centre and States and the performance of these schemes; mechanisms, laws, institutions and Bodies constituted for the protection and betterment of these vulnerable sections

 

 

Source: The Hindu

 

 

DIRECTORATE OF ENFORCEMENT (ED)

 

1. Context

Warning the Enforcement Directorate that it was “crossing all limits” and “violating the federal structure”, the Supreme Court Thursday stayed proceedings in the agency’s money-laundering investigation into government-run liquor retailer Tamil Nadu State Marketing Corporation (TASMAC)

2. About the Directorate of Enforcement 

The Directorate of Enforcement (ED) is a law enforcement agency in India that operates under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance. It is responsible for enforcing economic laws and fighting financial crimes in the country. The primary objective of the Directorate of Enforcement is to enforce the provisions of two major laws:

• Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA): This law deals with foreign exchange and foreign trade in India. The ED ensures compliance with FEMA regulations and investigates violations related to foreign exchange transactions.

• Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA): The ED is also responsible for implementing the provisions of the PMLA, which focuses on preventing money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism. It investigates cases related to money laundering and takes appropriate action against those involved.

The Directorate of Enforcement plays a crucial role in maintaining the economic stability of the country by addressing financial offenses and ensuring compliance with relevant laws. It conducts investigations, searches, and seizures, and has the authority to attach and confiscate properties acquired through illegal means

3. Establishment and History

• The Directorate of Enforcement was established on 1st May 1956, as the "Enforcement Unit" within the Department of Economic Affairs.
• Its primary focus was on preventing and detecting violations of the Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1947.
• Over the years, the agency's role expanded, and in 1999, the Enforcement Directorate was established as a separate entity under the Ministry of Finance.
• The enactment of the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) in 2002 further broadened its jurisdiction, giving it the power to investigate cases related to money laundering.
• Since its establishment, the ED has played a crucial role in combating economic offences and ensuring compliance with economic laws in India.
• It has been involved in several high-profile cases, including those related to financial scams, money laundering by influential individuals, and cross-border financial crimes.
• The ED collaborates with various domestic and international agencies, including financial intelligence units, law enforcement agencies, and Interpol, to gather information, share intelligence, and effectively coordinate efforts to combat economic offences.

4. Functions and Roles of ED

4.1. Enforcing Economic Laws

• The primary function of the ED is to enforce two key economic laws in India: the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) and the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA).
• It ensures compliance with these laws and investigates money laundering, foreign exchange violations, and economic fraud cases.

4.2. Money Laundering Investigations

• The ED investigates cases involving money laundering, which is the process of concealing the origins of illegally obtained money to make it appear legitimate.
• It identifies and seizes properties and assets derived from illicit activities and prevents their further use.

4.3. Foreign Exchange Violations

•  The ED is responsible for investigating cases related to violations of foreign exchange laws and regulations.
• It monitors and controls foreign exchange transactions to maintain the stability of the Indian rupee and prevent illegal activities such as smuggling and illegal money transfers.

4.4 Financial Frauds

• The ED also investigates and takes action against financial frauds, including bank frauds, Ponzi schemes, and other fraudulent activities affecting the Indian financial system.
• It works closely with other law enforcement agencies, such as the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI), to tackle complex financial crimes.

5.  Challenges

5.1. The complexity of economic crimes.

• Economic crimes are often complex and involve a variety of financial transactions.
• This can make it difficult for the ED to trace the proceeds of crime and to build a case against the perpetrators.

5.2. The difficulty of tracing the proceeds of crime

• The proceeds of crime are often hidden in complex financial structures, making it difficult for the ED to track them down.
• The ED also faces challenges in obtaining information from foreign jurisdictions, where the proceeds of crime may have been transferred.

5.3. The lack of international cooperation

• Economic crime is often transnational, making it difficult for the ED to cooperate with foreign law enforcement agencies.
• This is due to differences in legal systems, as well as political and economic considerations.

5.4. Political interference

• The ED has been accused of being used as a political tool by the ruling party to target its opponents and critics.
• This has raised questions about the independence and impartiality of the ED.

5.5. Lack of transparency

• The ED has been criticized for its lack of transparency.
• The agency does not publish its annual reports, and it is difficult to obtain information about its investigations.
• This has made it difficult for the public to hold the ED accountable.

5.6. Human rights violations

•  The ED has been accused of violating the human rights of those it investigates.
• The agency has been accused of using coercive tactics, such as prolonged detention and interrogation, to extract confessions from suspects.

5.7. The limited resources

• The ED is a relatively small agency with limited resources.
• This can make it difficult for the ED to investigate complex economic crimes and prosecute the perpetrators.

6. Conclusion

• The Directorate of Enforcement in India plays a crucial role in enforcing economic laws, preventing money laundering, and combating financial crimes.
• With its specialized expertise, investigative capabilities, and coordination with domestic and international partners, the ED contributes to the integrity of the financial system, national security, and the country's overall socio-economic development.

For Prelims: Directorate of Enforcement, Financial Action Task Force, Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), Supreme Court, Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA) of 1947, Central Bureau of Investigation,  For Mains:  1. Discuss the establishment and evolution of the Directorate of Enforcement in India. Explain its key functions and roles in combating economic offences. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Which one of the following is not correct in respect of Directorate of Enforcement ? (CDS  2021) A. It is a specialized financial investigation agency under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance. B. It enforces the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999. C. It enforces the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002. D. It enforces the Prohibition of Benami Property Transaction Act, 1988.   Answer: D   2. The Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 become effective since which one of the following dates? (UKPSC RO/ARO 2012)   A. July 2002          B. August 2003        C. July 2004         D. July 2005   Answer: D   3. FEMA (Foreign Exchange Management Act) was finally implemented in the year (UPPSC  2013) A. 1991         B. 1997         C. 2000             D. 2007   Answer: C   4. The Foreign Exchange Regulation Act was replaced by the ______ in India. (SSC Steno 2020)  A. Foreign Exchange Currency Act B. Foreign Exchange Finances Act C. Foreign Exchange Funds Act D. Foreign Exchange Management Act   Answer: D   5. "Central Bureau of Intelligence and Investigation" is listed in the __________ list given in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution of India. (SSC CGL 2017)  A. Union             B. State             C. Global          D. Concurrent   Answer: A

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

JAL JEEVAN MISSION

 

 

1. Context

 

 A number of MPs on Thursday sought an investigation into the alleged irregularities in the implementation of the government’s flagship Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM)

 

2. Jal Jeevan Mission

 

• The Jal Jeevan Mission, launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi on August 15, 2019, was envisioned to ensure tap water access to approximately 16 crore rural households, with the goal of achieving universal coverage by 2024.

• However, in just over five years, only 75% of the target has been met. To cover the remaining 4 crore households, the government now plans to extend the mission’s deadline to December 31, 2028.

• The Ministry of Jal Shakti had sought Rs 2.79 lakh crore from the Centre to finish the project. But according to sources, the Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC)—headed by the Expenditure Secretary—reviewed the proposal on March 13 and recommended a revised funding of only Rs 1.51 lakh crore. The committee also slashed the total project cost by Rs 41,000 crore, approving an outlay of Rs 8.69 lakh crore instead of the Rs 9.10 lakh crore originally proposed.

• Since the Jal Jeevan Mission is co-financed equally by the Centre and the states, this cut in Central funding could shift a greater financial burden onto state governments

Government Schemes related to Water   Among the various initiatives under the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Namami Gange Programme and river interlinking projects hold significant importance. Hence, it is essential for aspirants to not only be familiar with these schemes but also grasp the concept of river interlinking itself. In fact, a previous Prelims question was based on the Godavari-Krishna river interlinking, highlighting the relevance of such topics. As a result, gaining a clear understanding of the Ken-Betwa river linking project is also crucial for exam preparation

 

3. Namami Ganga Programme

 

• The Namami Gange Programme is a comprehensive river conservation initiative launched as a flagship mission by the Union Government in June 2014. It aims to achieve two primary goals: the reduction of pollution and the revival and preservation of the Ganga River, recognized as India’s national river.

• The programme is built on several core components, which include:

  • Development of sewage treatment infrastructure

  • Revitalization of riverfront areas

  • Cleaning of the river surface to remove floating waste

  • Promotion and protection of biodiversity

  • Expansion of afforestation along the river basin

  • Enhancing public engagement and awareness

  • Monitoring of industrial waste discharge

  • Transformation of villages along the Ganga into model Ganga Grams

 

4. Interlinking of rivers (Ken-betwa river)

 

 

• River interlinking refers to a large-scale water resource management approach where water is deliberately redirected from regions with excess availability to those facing water scarcity.

• This method typically involves connecting river basins using infrastructure such as canals, reservoirs, and pipelines. These inter-basin water transfer (IBWT) projects are designed to improve irrigation capacity, support flood management, and boost water availability in areas prone to drought.

• On December 25, 2024, Prime Minister Narendra Modi inaugurated the Ken-Betwa Link Project (KBLP) in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, marking the 100th birth anniversary of former PM Atal Bihari Vajpayee.

• The project’s primary goal is to irrigate the drought-prone Bundelkhand region by channeling excess water from the Ken River in Madhya Pradesh to the Betwa River in Uttar Pradesh. Both rivers eventually feed into the Yamuna River, and are classified as its right-bank tributaries.

• The Union Cabinet approved a budget of Rs 44,605 crore for the KBLP. It will be implemented in two phases:

  • Phase I includes the construction of the Daudhan Dam, a 221-km-long Ken-Betwa Link Canal, and associated infrastructure.

  • Phase II will involve the development of the Lower Orr Dam, the Bina Complex Project, and the Kotha Barrage.

• A section of the proposed infrastructure will pass through the Panna Tiger Reserve, raising environmental concerns due to the potential submergence of a part of this ecologically sensitive tiger habitat.

• Significantly, the KBLP is the first river interlinking project to be implemented under the National Perspective Plan, which was introduced in 1980. This larger plan includes 16 river links in the Peninsular region, and another 14 links proposed under the Himalayan component

 

Yamuna river   Yamuna is a tributary of River Ganga. It has four main tributaries in the Himalayan region: Rishi Ganga, Hanuman Ganga, Tons, and Giri. In the plains, the main tributaries are Hindon, Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken. Tons is the largest tributary of Yamuna. Other small tributaries of the Yamuna River include the Uttangan, Sengar and the Rind.

 

 

5. Constitution on Water

 

Right to Water as a Fundamental Right in India

The right to access clean and safe drinking water in India is considered part of the fundamental rights framework, particularly under Article 21 of the Constitution, which guarantees the Right to Life. This interpretation is derived from connected rights such as the right to food, right to health, and the right to a clean environment.

• In the landmark Narmada Bachao Andolan v. Union of India (2000) case, the Supreme Court emphasized that access to water is a basic human necessity, integral to the right to life. It also stated that the right to a healthy environment and sustainable development are essential components of human rights under Article 21.

• Similarly, in the State of Karnataka v. State of Andhra Pradesh (2000) case, the Court reiterated that the right to water is part and parcel of the right to life, thus making it a fundamental right

 

Directive Principles Related to Water and Environment

• Article 39(b) under the Directive Principles of State Policy directs the State to ensure that material resources, including water, are equitably distributed to promote the common good.

• Article 48A calls upon the State to actively work towards the protection and enhancement of the environment, including forests and wildlife, which indirectly contributes to water conservation

Environmental Duties of Citizens

• Article 51A(g), which falls under Fundamental Duties, obligates every citizen to safeguard and improve the natural environment, specifically mentioning rivers, lakes, forests, and wildlife. It also encourages compassion for living beings

Legal Provisions for Water Dispute Resolution

• Article 262 empowers Parliament to enact laws for resolving inter-State river water disputes. According to:

  • Clause (1): Parliament can legislate for the adjudication of conflicts over the use, distribution, or control of inter-State river waters.

  • Clause (2): Parliament may restrict judicial intervention, including that of the Supreme Court, in such matters.

  This article served as the constitutional basis for the enactment of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, aimed at resolving such disputes

 

Constitutional Powers over Water – State and Union Roles

• Entry 17 of the State List (List II), Seventh Schedule grants states the authority to legislate on water-related issues like irrigation, canals, drainage, and water supply, subject to the Union’s jurisdiction under Entry 56 of List I.

• Entry 56 of the Union List (List I), Seventh Schedule allows the central government to regulate and develop inter-State rivers and river valleys when declared to be in the public interest by Parliament

 

 

For Prelims: Jal jeevan Mission, Directive Principles of State Policy   For Mains: GS II - Government Schemes on Water

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE

 

1. Context

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) could cost the global economy $100 trillion by 2050 if urgent action isn’t taken, warns the first global animal health report by WOAH

2. What is Anti Microbial Resistance?

Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites change over time and no longer respond to medicine making infections harder to treat and increasing the risk of disease spread severe illness, and death.

3. Emergence and spread of AMR

• AMR occurs naturally over time, usually through genetic changes.
• Antimicrobial-resistant organisms are found in people, animals, food, plants, and the environment (in water, soil, and air).
• They can spread from person to person or between people and animals, including from food of animal origin.
• The main drivers of antimicrobial resistance include the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials, lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) for both humans and animals, and poor infection and disease prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms. Poor access to quality, affordable medicines, vaccines, and diagnostics, lack of awareness and knowledge, and lack of enforcement of legislation.

4. Factors causing AMR in India

Inappropriate consumption of board-spectrum (last resort) antibiotics is high because of changing prescription practices in the healthcare system due to the non-availability of a narrow spectrum of antibiotics.

Inappropriate antibiotics use among the general public like self-medication to avoid the financial burden.

A large proportion of sewage is disposed of untreated into receiving water bodies, leading to gross contamination of rivers with antibiotic residues, and antibiotic-resistant organisms.

 

5. Reasons for the recent increase in the use of antibiotics in India

• The high disease burden
• The rising income
• The easy and cheap availability of these medicines to the public.
• The uncontrolled sales of antibiotics
• Poor Public health infrastructure
• Lack of awareness regarding the misuse of antibiotics.

6. Government Initiatives that help to curb Antimicrobial Resistance In India

The Union Health Minister of India in the International Conference on Anti-Microbial Resistance stated that the first step in addressing the problem of AMR is to avoid the need for antibiotics at all in the first place. Improved water, vaccination, and sanitation may control inappropriate antibiotic use indirectly. The main government policies that help in this process are:

• Through the Swacch Bharat Program, the government has taken active steps to improve hygiene and sanitation and reduce the environmental spread of pathogens.
• Vaccination is an equally important public health measure, and through Mission Indradhaniush, India has set itself an ambitious goal of increasing routine immunization coverage to 90% within just a few years.

6.1 Red Line Campaign

The Union health ministry's Anti-Microbial Resistance awareness campaign urges people not to use medicines marked with a red vertical line, including antibiotics, without a doctor's prescription.

These medicines are called the 'Medicines with the Red Line.

To check the irrational use of antibiotics, the 'red line' will help the users to differentiate them from the drugs.

This campaign is aimed at discouraging unnecessary prescription and the counter sale of antibiotics causing drug resistance for several critical diseases including TB, malaria, urinary tract infection, and even HIV. 

7. WHO's Global plan on Anti-Microbial Resistance?

• To improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education, and training.
• To Strengthen the knowledge and evidence base through surveillance and research.
• To reduce the incidence of infection through effective sanitation, hygiene, and infection prevention measures.
• To Optimize the use of antimicrobial medicines in human and animal health.
• To develop the economic case for sustainable investment that takes account of the needs of all countries and to increase investment in new medicines, diagnostic tools, vaccines, and other interventions.

8. Global efforts

8.1 Global Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance (GAP): Globally, countries committed to the framework set out in the Global Action Plan1 (GAP) 2015 on AMR during the 2015 World Health Assembly and committed to the development and implementation of multisectoral national action plans.

8.2 Tripartite Joint Secretariat on Antimicrobial Resistance: Tripartite joint secretariat (FAO, OIE, and WHO) has been established and is hosted by WHO to drive multi-stakeholder engagement in AMR.

8.3 World Antimicrobial Awareness Week (WAAW): WAAW was previously called World Antibiotic Awareness Week. From 2020, it will be called world Anti-Microbial Awareness Week. It is a global campaign that aims to raise awareness of antimicrobial resistance worldwide.

8.4 Global Antimicrobial Resistance and use surveillance system (GLASS): WHO launched it in 2015 to continue filling knowledge gaps and to inform strategies at all levels. GLASS has been conceived to progressively incorporate data from surveillance of AMR in humans, surveillance of the use of Antimicrobial medicines, and AMR in the food chain and the environment.

 

For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), UN Environment Programme, the World Health Organization (WHO), World Organisation for Animal Health, Mission Indradhaniush, Red Line Campaign. For Mains: 1.Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is considered one of the most significant challenges the world faces today. Discuss.

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Which of the following are the reasons for the occurrence of multi-drug resistance in microbial pathogens in India? ( UPSC CSE 2019) Genetic predisposition of some people Taking incorrect doses of antibiotics to cure diseases Using antibiotics in livestock farming Multiple chronic diseases in some people Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 Answer: (b)

 Source: Down to Earth

 

 

KALA AZAR

 

 

1. Context

 

Eliminating kala-azar: 6 African countries sign agreement to ramp up efforts, cross-border programmes 

 

2.What is Kala Azar or Black fever?

 

• Kala-azar, also known as visceral leishmaniasis or black fever, is a potentially deadly parasitic disease caused by protozoa of the Leishmania genus.
• The main species responsible for the disease are Leishmania donovani and Leishmania infantum. The disease is transmitted to humans through the bites of infected female sandflies, primarily of the genus Phlebotomus in the Old World and Lutzomyia in the New World.
• Kala-azar affects the internal organs, such as the liver, spleen, and bone marrow, leading to symptoms such as prolonged fever, weight loss, enlargement of the spleen and liver, and anemia.
• The name "kala-azar" translates to "black fever" in Hindi and refers to the darkening of the skin that can occur in some cases.
• The disease is endemic in certain regions of Africa, Asia, and South America, where conditions are favorable for the survival of the sandfly vector.
• Kala-azar can be a serious public health concern, especially in impoverished areas with limited access to healthcare. Treatment typically involves antimonial drugs, but drug resistance has been a concern in some regions.
• Efforts to control and eliminate kala-azar involve vector control measures, early diagnosis, and treatment of cases, as well as research into new treatment options and vaccines

3. Statistics

 

• In 2020, over 90% of newly reported cases to the World Health Organization (WHO) were concentrated in ten countries: Brazil, China, Ethiopia, Eritrea, India, Kenya, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Yemen.
• Notably, Bangladesh achieved the distinction of being the first country globally to be officially recognized by the WHO for successfully eliminating kala-azar as a public health concern in October 2023. India is now tasked with maintaining its progress in the coming three years to attain WHO certification.
• As of October this year, India documented 530 cases and four fatalities attributed to the infection, representing a decline from 891 cases and three deaths in 2022. The figures for 2021 indicated 1,357 cases and eight deaths.
• Additionally, there were 286 reported instances of post-kala azar dermal leishmaniasis (PKDL) by October 2023. The complete cure of this skin condition is imperative, as it can serve as a reservoir for the parasite

4. Kala-Azar Symptoms

 

Kala-azar, or visceral leishmaniasis, can exhibit a range of symptoms, and the severity of the disease can vary. Common symptoms include:

• Prolonged Fever: Persistent and irregular bouts of fever that may last for weeks or months.

• Weight Loss: Unexplained and significant weight loss.

• Enlarged Spleen (Splenohepatomegaly): The spleen often becomes enlarged, leading to abdominal discomfort.

• Enlarged Liver: Hepatomegaly, or enlargement of the liver, can also occur.

• Anemia: Reduced red blood cell count, leading to fatigue, weakness, and pallor.

• Jaundice: Yellowing of the skin and eyes due to liver involvement.

• Swollen Lymph Nodes: Lymph nodes may become enlarged.

• Discoloration of the Skin: In some cases, the skin may darken, leading to the term "kala-azar" or black fever.

 

5.What is the kala-azar elimination program?

 

The Kala-Azar Elimination Program, also known as the Visceral Leishmaniasis Elimination Program, is a public health initiative aimed at controlling and ultimately eliminating kala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis) as a public health problem in affected regions. The program involves a comprehensive set of strategies and interventions to reduce the incidence of the disease, prevent its transmission, and improve healthcare infrastructure for effective diagnosis and treatment.

 

Key components of the program include:

 

• Targeting the sandfly vectors that transmit the Leishmania parasites is a crucial aspect of the elimination program. This may involve the use of insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying, and environmental management to reduce sandfly breeding sites
• Timely diagnosis and treatment of kala-azar cases are essential to prevent the spread of the disease. Access to accurate diagnostic tools and effective antiparasitic drugs is a priority
• Implementing surveillance systems to monitor the prevalence of kala-azar, track new cases, and assess the effectiveness of control measures is integral to the elimination program.
• Strengthening the capacity of healthcare systems, including training healthcare workers, improving laboratory facilities, and enhancing overall infrastructure, is vital for successful implementation.
• Involving communities in awareness campaigns, education, and active participation in control measures can enhance the program's effectiveness. Community engagement fosters cooperation, early reporting of cases, and adherence to preventive measures.
• Ongoing research into new treatment options, diagnostic tools, and potential vaccines is important for advancing the understanding of the disease and improving control strategies.
• Kala-azar often transcends national borders, so collaboration between neighboring countries is crucial to effectively address the movement of the disease and implement coordinated control measures

6. What is the National Vector Borne Diseases Control Program?

 

National Vector Borne Disease Control Program (NVBDCP) is a comprehensive public health initiative in India that focuses on the prevention and control of vector-borne diseases. The program is implemented by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. While the specific details of programs may evolve, as of my last update, the NVBDCP primarily addresses diseases such as malaria, dengue, chikungunya, lymphatic filariasis, and kala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis).

Key components and activities of the National Vector Borne Disease Control Program include:

• The program involves the surveillance and monitoring of vector-borne diseases to track their prevalence, identify high-risk areas, and assess the effectiveness of control measures.
•  Implementation of strategies to control the vectors responsible for transmitting diseases. This includes measures such as insecticide-treated bed nets, indoor residual spraying, larval control, and environmental management.
• Conducting awareness campaigns and health education programs to inform communities about preventive measures, early symptoms, and the importance of seeking medical care.
• Supporting research initiatives to improve the understanding of vector-borne diseases, develop innovative control methods, and enhance the overall effectiveness of disease prevention and control strategies.

7.What are the vector borne diseases in India?

 

India faces several vector-borne diseases, where the transmission of these diseases occurs through the bites of infected vectors such as mosquitoes, ticks, and sandflies. Some of the significant vector-borne diseases in India include:

• Malaria: Transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes, malaria is a parasitic infection caused by Plasmodium parasites. It remains a major public health concern in various parts of India.

• Dengue Fever: A viral infection transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, particularly Aedes aegypti. Dengue fever has periodic outbreaks in different regions of India.

• Chikungunya: Caused by the chikungunya virus and transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes, this disease leads to fever and severe joint pain. Outbreaks occur intermittently in India.

• Lymphatic Filariasis: Commonly known as elephantiasis, this disease is caused by filarial worms and transmitted by Culex mosquitoes. The National Filaria Control Program aims to eliminate this disease in India.

• Kala-azar (Visceral Leishmaniasis): Caused by the Leishmania parasite and transmitted by sandflies, kala-azar affects internal organs. The National Kala Azar Elimination Program works towards controlling and eliminating this disease.

• Japanese Encephalitis (JE): A viral infection transmitted by Culex mosquitoes, JE can lead to inflammation of the brain. Vaccination campaigns are conducted in endemic regions to prevent outbreaks.

• Zika Virus: Although not as widespread, the Zika virus can be transmitted by Aedes mosquitoes. Cases of Zika have been reported in some parts of India.

• Rickettsial Infections: Diseases like scrub typhus and spotted fever are caused by bacteria transmitted through the bites of infected mites and ticks

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

GREENHOUSE GASES(GHGs)

 

 

1. Context

 

India sets first-ever GHG emission intensity targets under its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme . 282 industrial units across 4 sectors get reduction goals for 2025–27 — modest compared to PAT scheme

 

2.What are greenhouse gases?

 

Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and contributing to global warming. These gases include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ozone (O3), and fluorinated gases (such as hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, sulfur hexafluoride, and nitrogen trifluoride).

These gases allow sunlight to enter the Earth's atmosphere freely. Once absorbed, the Earth's surface emits infrared radiation, but instead of allowing this radiation to escape back into space, greenhouse gases trap and re-radiate some of it back towards the Earth's surface. This process warms the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect.

Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, amplifying the greenhouse effect and contributing to global climate change

Here are the major greenhouse gases:

• Carbon dioxide (CO2): The most abundant greenhouse gas emitted through human activities. It is released when fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas are burned
• Methane (CH4): Methane is emitted from agriculture, waste decomposition, and fossil fuel production. It is a more potent greenhouse gas than CO2, but it breaks down in the atmosphere more quickly
• Nitrous oxide (N2O): Nitrous oxide is emitted from agriculture, industrial processes, and burning fossil fuels. It is a long-lived greenhouse gas that can stay in the atmosphere for centuries
• Fluorinated gases These are man-made chemicals used in refrigerants, air conditioners, and fire extinguishers. They are very potent greenhouse gases, but they are emitted in much smaller quantities than other greenhouse gases
• Water vapor (H2O): The most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Water vapor plays an important role in the natural greenhouse effect, but human activities do not significantly affect the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere

3. What is the Greenhouse gas effect?

The greenhouse effect is a natural process that occurs when certain gases in the Earth's atmosphere trap heat from the sun. This process is essential for maintaining the Earth's temperature within a range suitable for life. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be much colder, and life as we know it would not exist.

Here's how the greenhouse effect works:

• Solar radiation: Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere and passes through it, warming the Earth's surface.

• Absorption and re-radiation: The Earth's surface absorbs some of this solar energy and then emits it as infrared radiation (heat). Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapor (H2O), and others, absorb some of this infrared radiation.

• Re-emission: The absorbed energy is re-radiated in all directions, including back toward the Earth's surface. This trapped heat warms the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface, similar to how a greenhouse traps heat.

• Balance: The greenhouse effect helps maintain the Earth's temperature in a range suitable for life. However, human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, have significantly increased the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, leading to enhanced greenhouse effect or global warming

 

4. What are hydrofluorocarbons?

 

• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are a class of synthetic greenhouse gases commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, aerosol propellants, and other industrial applications. They are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
• HFCs were developed as alternatives to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), which were phased out due to their significant ozone-depleting potential. Unlike CFCs and HCFCs, HFCs do not contain chlorine atoms, so they do not contribute to ozone depletion.
• However, they are potent greenhouse gases, with high global warming potentials (GWPs), meaning they trap heat in the atmosphere at a much higher rate than carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Due to their role in contributing to climate change, efforts have been made internationally to regulate and phase out the use of HFCs. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol, adopted in 2016, aims to gradually reduce the production and consumption of HFCs globally.
• Many countries are transitioning to alternative refrigerants with lower global warming potentials, such as hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs) and natural refrigerants like ammonia and carbon dioxide. These efforts are essential for mitigating climate change by reducing the emissions of potent greenhouse gases like HFC

5. What are the adverse effects?

 

The greenhouse gas effect, when intensified beyond natural levels due to human activities, leads to a range of adverse effects on the environment, ecosystems, and human societies.

 

Some of these effects include:

• The primary consequence of intensified greenhouse gas effect is global warming. Increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere trap more heat, leading to a rise in average global temperatures
• Global warming alters weather patterns and climatic conditions worldwide, leading to changes such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, storms, droughts, and floods. These changes can disrupt ecosystems, agriculture, and water supplies, leading to ecological imbalances and economic losses
• Warmer temperatures cause polar ice caps and glaciers to melt, contributing to rising sea levels. This phenomenon threatens coastal communities, low-lying islands, and habitats, increasing the risk of flooding and erosion
•  Increased atmospheric CO2 levels lead to higher levels of carbon dioxide dissolving into oceans, resulting in ocean acidification. This harms marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, mollusks, and certain plankton species
• Climate change disrupts ecosystems and habitats, forcing species to migrate, adapt, or face extinction. The rapid pace of climate change often outpaces the ability of many species to adapt, leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation
• Climate change exacerbates health risks, including heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from poor air quality, increased prevalence of infectious diseases, and food and water insecurity due to changing agricultural conditions
• Climate change can lead to displacement of populations due to extreme weather events, loss of livelihoods in sectors such as agriculture and fishing, and increased conflicts over resources like water and arable land. These disruptions can strain social systems and economies, particularly in vulnerable regions

6.What is Montreal Protocol?

 

The Montreal Protocol is an international environmental agreement aimed at protecting the Earth's ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). It was negotiated in 1987 and entered into force in 1989. The protocol is regarded as one of the most successful international environmental treaties.

Key points about the Montreal Protocol include:

• Objective: The primary goal of the Montreal Protocol is to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, which are substances that contain chlorine and bromine atoms and are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere.

• Ozone Layer: The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone molecules (O3). This layer plays a crucial role in absorbing and filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun, protecting life on Earth from its harmful effects.

• Ozone-Depleting Substances: The Montreal Protocol targets several categories of ODS, including chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform, among others. These substances were commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, foam blowing agents, fire extinguishers, and other industrial applications.

• Phasing Out: The protocol established a timetable for phasing out the production and consumption of ODS, with developed countries committing to earlier phase-out schedules and developing countries given more time to comply. Amendments to the protocol tightened regulations and accelerated the phase-out schedules over time.

• Success: The Montreal Protocol is widely regarded as successful in achieving its objectives. By reducing the production and consumption of ODS, the protocol has led to a gradual recovery of the ozone layer. Scientific assessments have confirmed a decrease in the atmospheric concentrations of ODS and a healing of the ozone layer.

• International Cooperation: The Montreal Protocol exemplifies successful international cooperation in addressing global environmental challenges. It has been ratified by almost every country in the world, demonstrating a shared commitment to protecting the ozone layer and mitigating climate change (as many ODS are also potent greenhouse gases)

7.Way Forward

 

Since 2020, the US has banned the import of HCFC 22 for any purpose other than in a process which results in its transformation or destruction. The American Innovation and Manufacturing (AIM) Act, passed by Congress in December 2020, authorised the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to phase down the production and consumption of numerous forms of HFCs

 

 

For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Global warming is attributed to the presence of the following gases in the atmosphere : (UGC NET 2022) (A) Methane (B) Sulphur dioxide (C) Surface Ozone (D) Nitrogen dioxide (E) Carbon dioxide Choose the correct answer from the options given below : 1.(A), (B), (C), (E) only 2.(A), (C), (E) only 3.(A), (C), (D), (E) only 4.(A), (B), (D), (E) only Answer (2)

Source: Indianexpress