• A river system consists of a river and all its tributaries. The Indus River system is made up of six rivers: Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej. Among these, the Indus and Sutlej are antecedent rivers, meaning they existed before the formation of the Himalayas and carved deep gorges as they flowed from the Tibet region. The remaining four rivers—Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Beas—originate in India.
• The Indus Basin stretches across four countries: China, India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan. In India, it covers the Union Territories of Ladakh and Jammu and Kashmir, as well as Chandigarh, and the states of Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan. The total drainage area of the basin is about 3,21,289 square kilometers, representing roughly 9.8% of India’s total geographical area.

• The Indus River originates from the trans-Himalayan range near Mansarovar Lake in Tibet, known as Singi Khamban or the Lion’s Mouth. Flowing west, it enters India at Demchok in Ladakh.
• Within India, the river runs for about 1,114 kilometers, flowing between the Ladakh and Karakoram ranges. Its main right bank tributaries include the Shyok (originating from Rimo Glacier), Shigar, and Gilgit, while the Zaskar and Hanle rivers are its left bank tributaries. The Indus River travels a total of 2,880 kilometers, eventually emptying into the Arabian Sea near Karachi, Pakistan. The Indus River Dolphin, listed as endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), primarily inhabits the Indus.
• The Jhelum River (252 km) begins at Verinag near the Pir Panjal in India, flowing through Wular Lake in Srinagar before entering Pakistan, where it merges with the Chenab near Jhang. The Chenab River, the Indus’s largest tributary, is 1,180 km long within India and originates from the confluence of the Chandra and Bhaga rivers at Tandi in Keylong, Himachal Pradesh.

• The Ravi River (95 km) starts from the Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh and joins the Chenab at Sarai Sidhu in Pakistan. The Beas River (354 km) originates from Beas Kund, located at 4,000 meters above sea level near Rohtang Pass. It flows through the Kullu Valley and joins the Sutlej near Harike in Punjab, India. The Harike Barrage, built in 1952, diverts water for the Indira Gandhi Canal system.
• The Sutlej River (676 km) is another antecedent river, originating from Rakas Tal (4,555 meters above sea level) near Mansarovar in Tibet. It enters India near Ropar. India has built several important dams to harness the waters of the eastern rivers, including the Ranjit Sagar Dam on the Ravi, the Bhakra Dam on the Sutlej, and the Pong and Pandoh Dams on the Beas. These projects, including the Beas-Sutlej Link, the Madhopur-Beas Link, and the Indira Gandhi Canal Project, allow India to utilize nearly 95% of the waters of these eastern rivers.

8. Way Forward

However, India’s projects on the western rivers have been a source of dispute with Pakistan. Significant projects on the western rivers, such as the Salal Dam, the Baglihar Hydropower Project, the Pakal Dul Project, and the Kiru Project, are located on the Chenab River, while the Tulbul Project is situated on the Jhelum River in Jammu and Kashmir. These projects have been at the center of objections from Pakistan over the year

CENSUS

1. Context

2. Key Points

• India had conducted the Census every 10 years since 1881, but in 2020, the decennial exercise for Census 2021 had to be postponed due to the pandemic.
• Though the government has not announced fresh dates for the Census, the groundwork is being laid and details are emerging about some of the features.
• It will be the first digital Census allowing citizens to "self-enumerate". The NPR (National Population Register) has been made compulsory for citizens who want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own rather than through government enumerators.
• For this, the Office of the Registrar General of India (RGI) has designed a "self-enumeration, Aadhaar or mobile number will be mandatorily collected.

3. Status of the Census exercise

• A January 2 notification extending the deadline for freezing administrative boundaries in States until June 30 has ruled out the exercise at least till September.
• As preparation and training take at least three months, the Census will have to be pushed to next year.
• Around 30 lakh government officials will be assigned as enumerators and each will have the task to collect the details of 650-800 people through both online and offline modes, covering an estimated population of 135 crore people.
• The Lok Sabha election is due in April-May 2024 and it is unlikely that the Census will be carried out before that since the same workforce will be dedicated to the elections.
• The completion of both phases of the Census will take at least 11 months, even if done at an accelerated pace from October 1.

4. Holding up the Census

• One reason which is holding up the exercise is the amendments proposed to the Registration of Births and Deaths Act, of 1969.
• The government wants to have a centralised register of births and deaths that can be used to update the population register, electoral register, Aadhaar, ration card, passport and driving license databases.
• The centrally stored data will be updated in real-time without a human interface leading to addition and deletion from electoral rolls when an individual turns 18 and after an individual's death respectively.
• A Bill to link the births and deaths registered with the population register and others are expected to be tabled in the next session of Parliament.

5.  NPR

• The NPR, unlike the Census, is a comprehensive identity database of every "usual resident" in the country and the data proposed to be collected at the family level can be shared with States and other government departments.
• Though Census also collects similar information, the Census Act of 1948 bars sharing any individual's data with the State or Centre and only aggregate data at the administrative level can be released.
• According to Citizenship Rules 2003 under the Citizenship Act, 1955, NPR is the first step towards a compilation of the National Register of Indian Citizens (NRIC/NRC).
• Assam is the only State where an NRC has been compiled based on the directions of the Supreme Court, with the final draft of Assam's NRC excluding 19 lakhs of the 3.29 crores applicants.
•  Assam Government has rejected the NRC in its current form and demanded re-verification of 30 per cent of names included in the NRC in areas bordering Bangladesh and 10 per cent in the remaining State.
• In 2020, the NPR was opposed by several State governments such as West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan, Odisha, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Punjab and Chhattisgarh and Civil Society Organisations due to its link with the proposed NRC as it might leave many people stateless for want of legacy documents.
• There are apprehensions that the Citizenship Amendment Act 9 (CAA), 2019 allows citizenship based on religion to six undocumented religious communities from Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh who entered India on or before December 31, 2014, will benefit non-Muslims excluded from the proposed citizens' register, while excluded.
• Muslims will have to prove their citizenship. The government has denied that the CAA and NRC are linked and there are currently any plans to compile a countrywide NRC.

5.1. The current status of NPR

• The NPR was first collected in 2010 when the Congres government was in power at the Centre.
• It was updated in 2015 and already has details of 119 crore residents.
• In March 2020, the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) amended the Census Rules framed in 1990 to capture and store the Census data in an electronic form and enabled self-enumeration by respondents.
• The NPR is scheduled to be updated with the first phase of Census 2021.
• For this phase (house listing and household phase), 31 questions have been notified, while for the population enumeration, the second and main phase 28 questions have been finalised but are yet to be notified.
• The NPR is expected to collect details on 21 parameters of all family members, up from 14 questions in 2010 and 2015.
• The Sub-heads include passport number, relationship to head of the family, whether divorced/ widowed or separated, mother tongue if non-worker, cultivator, labourer, government employee, daily wage earner among others.
• The form also has a column on Aadhar, mobile phone, Voter ID and driver's licence.
• Though the government has claimed that the NPR form has not been finalised yet, the sample form is part of the Census of India 2021 Handbook for Principal/District Census Officers and Charge Officers in 2021.
• The NPR has retained contentious questions such as "mother tongue, place of birth of father and mother and last place of residence", possible indicators to determine inclusion in the Citizenship register.
• The questions were opposed by the State governments of West Bengal, Kerala, Rajasthan and Odisha in 2020.
• The final set of questions of both the phases and NPR was asked during a pre-test exercise in 2019 in 76 districts in 36 States and Union Territories covering a population of more than 26 lakhs.

6. Expected expenditure for Census

• The initial draft was prepared by the office of the Registrar General of India and circulated to key Ministries and the Prime Minister's Office called for the conduct of Census 2021 at a cost of ₹9, 275 crores and not the NPR.
• The draft Expenditure Finance Committee (EFC) not was then revised and a financial provision of ₹4, 442.15 crores for updating the NPR was added on the directions of the MHA "subsequently".
• The proposal was cleared on August 16, 2019, and it received the  Union Cabinet's nod on December 24, 2019.
• It was decided that the enumerator engaged for Census would also collect details for NPR.
• The Covid-19 pandemic struck in March 2020 and since then both exercises are on hold.
• Now, the NPR has been made compulsory if citizens want to exercise the right to fill out the Census form on their own.
• The deleted Handbook said that it is "mandatory for every usual resident of India to register in the NPR".
• Census is also mandatory and giving false information is a punishable offence.

STAMPEDE

 

 

1. Context

 

Goa Chief Minister Pramod Sawant said a magisterial inquiry has been ordered into the stampede that took place around 2.45 am during the annual jatra (festival) at Lairai Devi temple in Shirgao village

 

2. What is a stampede?

 

A stampede is a sudden rush or flight of a group of animals or people, usually caused by panic or fear. In the context of animals, it often refers to a herd of large mammals like cattle, horses, or elephants running together in the same direction. For humans, it describes a chaotic situation where a crowd moves rapidly and uncontrollably, often resulting in injuries or fatalities due to trampling or crushing.

Stampedes can be triggered by various factors, such as:

• Sudden loud noises
• Perceived threats
• Natural disasters
• Overcrowding in confined spaces
• Mass panic

Stampedes are particularly dangerous in crowded events or enclosed spaces, as people may be unable to escape the rushing crowd. 

3. What causes stampedes?

Stampedes can be caused by several factors:

• Fear or panic: A perceived threat, real or imagined, can trigger a fight-or-flight response in a crowd.
• Overcrowding: When too many people are in a confined space, even small movements can create a domino effect.
• Poor crowd management: Inadequate planning or control of large gatherings can lead to chaotic situations.
• Sudden loud noises: Unexpected sounds like explosions or gunshots can startle a crowd into fleeing.
• Physical pressure: In dense crowds, people at the back pushing forward can create dangerous force on those in front.
• Limited exits: When escape routes are few or narrow, people may rush to leave, creating bottlenecks.
• Misinformation or rumors: False alarms or spreading of incorrect information can cause panic.
• Environmental factors: Extreme weather, fire, or structural collapses can prompt rapid evacuation attempts.
• Mob mentality: People tend to follow the actions of others in a crowd, amplifying panic.
• Cultural or religious events: Large gatherings for festivals or pilgrimages can sometimes lead to stampedes if not managed properly

 

4. Major stampede cases in India

 

India has unfortunately experienced several major stampedes. Here are some notable cases:

• Kumbh Mela stampede (2013): At least 36 people died at the Allahabad railway station during the Kumbh Mela festival.
• Ratangarh temple stampede (2013): Over 100 people died near a temple in Madhya Pradesh when rumors of a bridge collapse sparked panic.
• Sabarimala temple stampede (2011): 106 pilgrims died in Kerala during the Makara Jyothi festival.
• Pratapgarh temple stampede (2010): About 63 people died at a temple in Uttar Pradesh during a free food distribution event.
• Naina Devi temple stampede (2008): At least 162 people died in Himachal Pradesh when heavy rains caused panic among pilgrims.
• Mandher Devi temple stampede (2005): 291 people died in Maharashtra during a religious festival.
• Nashik Kumbh Mela stampede (2003): 39 people died during the holy bath ritual in Maharashtra.
• Nagpur stampede (1994): 114 people died on a narrow bridge during a religious procession

5.Way Forward

Most stampede casualties are caused by traumatic asphyxia — there is partial or complete cessation of respiration due to external compression of the thorax and/or upper abdomen. Other possible reasons for stampede-related deaths include myocardial infarction (heart attack, caused by decreased or complete cessation of blood flow to a portion of the heart), direct crushing injury to internal organs, head injuries, and neck compression

 

 

 

For Prelims: Current events of national importance For Mains: GS-II, GS-III: Government policies and interventions, Disaster Management

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

KUKI INSURGENCY

 

 

1.Context

 

 A statewide shutdown and mass gatherings marked the second anniversary of the ethnic clashes between the Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities of Manipur on Saturday. Shutdowns, observed in both the Meitei-majority Imphal Valley and the Kuki-Zo-dominated hill districts, brought life to a grinding halt across the state.

 

2.About Kuki Insurgency

Naga movement is the country’s longest-running insurgency, underground Kuki groups, too, have fought the Indian government for an ‘independent Kuki homeland’, spread across Manipur

The Kuki insurgency gained momentum after ethnic clashes with the Nagas of Manipur in the early 1990s, with the Kuki arming themselves against Naga aggression

While the two tribes have shared a hostile relationship since colonial times, things came to a head in the 1990s when the Naga-Kuki clashes took place

Land that the Kukis claim to be their “homeland” in the Manipur hills overlaps with the imagined Naga homeland of Greater Nagaland or Nagalim

As many as 115 Kuki men, women and children were believed to have been killed by the NSCN-IM in Tengnoupal in 1993

 

3.Who are Kukis

The Kukis are an ethnic group including multiple tribes originally inhabiting the North-Eastern states of India such as Manipur, Mizoram and Assam; parts of Burma (now Myanmar), and Sylhet district and Chittagong hill tracts of Bangladesh.

While Kuki is not a term coined by the ethnic group itself, the tribes associated with it came to be generically called Kuki under colonial rule

In Manipur, the various Kuki tribes, living mainly in the hills, currently make up 30% of the total 28.5 lakh population of the State.

The rest of the population of Manipur is made up mainly of two other ethnic groups: the Meiteis or non-tribal, Vaishnavite Hindus who live in the valley region of Manipur, and the Naga tribes, historically at loggerheads with the Kukis, also living in the hilly areas of the State

Of the 60 seats in the Manipur Assembly, 40 are held by Meiteis and the rest 20 seats are held by Kukis and Nagas

The people of Manipur are grouped into three main ethnic communities – Meiteis those inhabiting the valley and 29 major tribes in the hills dividing into two main ethno-denominations, namely Nagas and Kuki-Chins

 

4.What is Suspension of Operations Pact

There are nearly 30 Kuki insurgent groups in Manipur, of which 25 are under tripartite Suspension of Operations (SoO) with the Government of India and the state

As many as 17 are under the umbrella group Kuki National Organisation (KNO), and eight are under the United People’s Front (UPF)

The SoO pact was signed on August 22, 2008, with the primary objective of initiating political dialogue

Talks are ongoing under AB Mathur, former special secretary of the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), as the interlocutor

The Kuki outfits who were initially demanding a separate Kuki state have come down to a ‘Kukiland territorial council’, which would have financial and administrative powers independent of the Manipur Assembly and government

5. Terms of the Pact

While the period of the Suspension of Operation agreement is one year, it is extendable according to the progress of its implementation

To oversee the effective implementation of the SoO pact, a committee called the Joint Monitoring Group (JMG), with representatives from all the signatories, has been formed

The important terms under the pact are that security forces, including state and central forces, are not to launch any operations, nor can the underground groups

The signatories of UPF and KNO shall abide by the Constitution of India, the laws of the land and the territorial integrity of Manipur

They are prohibited from committing all kinds of atrocities, extortion, among others

The militant cadres are to be confined in designated camps identified by the Government

Arms are deposited in a safe room under a double-locking system. The groups are given arms only to guard their camps and protect their leaders

As a rehabilitation package, the UG(Underground) cadres living in the designated camps are given a monthly stipend of Rs 5000

Financial assistance is also being provided to maintain the designated camps

6.Conclusion

The SoO has been extended by the Government almost every year since 2008, with Kuki outfits threatening to breach the agreement by taking up arms again and boycotting the Government.

In 2012, the groups held a nearly eight month long blockade of highways around their area, costing the Government a couple of crores in losses each day.

 

 

Source: indianexpress

INDIA JUSTICE REPORT 2025

 

 

1. Context

 

Last month, the fourth edition of the India Justice Report (IJR) 2025 was published, which tracks each state’s structural and financial capability to deliver justice. It was first published in 2019 with the support of Tata Trusts. The 2025 edition was undertaken in partnership with DAKSH, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, Common Cause, Centre for Social Justice, Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy, and TISS-Prayas

 

 

2. India Justice Report

 

• The India Justice Report is a comprehensive study that evaluates the capacity and performance of key pillars of the country’s justice system — namely the police, judiciary, prisons, and legal aid.
• First released in 2019 and published by Tata Trusts in collaboration with several civil society partners such as the Centre for Social Justice, Common Cause, and CHRI, the report aims to provide data-driven insights into how effectively states are delivering justice to their citizens.
• The report ranks Indian states based on publicly available government data, using a range of indicators that assess not only the presence of infrastructure and personnel but also factors such as diversity, workload, budget allocation, training, and the accessibility of justice services.
• For example, it looks at vacancies in police forces and courts, the representation of women and marginalised communities, and the availability of legal aid services. It also highlights budgetary allocations and their actual utilisation within each sector.
• One of the major contributions of the India Justice Report is its state-wise ranking, which encourages competition and accountability among states. Larger states and smaller states are ranked separately to ensure a fair comparison. The aim is not only to show where states stand but also to promote improvements through evidence-based policymaking.
• The findings of the report often reveal persistent gaps in the justice system. For instance, many states struggle with high vacancy rates in police and judicial positions, which leads to delayed investigations and prolonged case pendency in courts.
• It also underscores the underutilisation of funds in the justice sector and highlights how access to justice remains uneven, especially for vulnerable populations.
• By providing a detailed and data-backed snapshot of the justice system, the India Justice Report plays a crucial role in pushing for reforms, enhancing transparency, and encouraging collaborative efforts among government bodies, civil society, and the general public to build a more equitable and efficient justice delivery mechanism in India

 

3. India Justice report 2025

 

The India Justice Report underscores several ongoing challenges within India’s justice system across key domains:

• Policing remains urban-centric, with a notable reduction in the number of rural police stations between 2017 and 2023. The police-to-population ratio continues to lag at 155 officers per 100,000 people, well below the sanctioned level of 197. This shortfall often results in delayed investigations and weakened public safety. Bihar serves as a striking example, with only 81 police officers per lakh population.
• In terms of the judiciary, the report reveals a sharp 20% increase in pending cases, which have now crossed the five-crore mark. Court infrastructure struggles to keep up, with shortages in courtroom availability and significant vacancies in both high courts (33%) and district courts (21%).
• District court judges are handling an average caseload of 2,200 cases each, and while the case clearance rate stands at 94%, the overall pace of justice delivery remains slow, eroding public trust in the system.
• Prisons continue to suffer from severe overcrowding, with some facilities operating at more than 400% of their capacity. On average, prisons are at 131% occupancy. A staggering 76% of inmates are undertrials — individuals not yet convicted — and among them, one in four has been incarcerated for one to three years awaiting trial.
• The average daily expenditure per prisoner is just ₹121, reflecting insufficient investment in prison infrastructure, inmate welfare, and reform initiatives, all of which fall short of the standards envisioned under the 2023 Model Prisons & Correctional Services Act. The report also references the findings of the Amitava Roy Committee on prison reforms.
• Regarding legal aid, the report points to issues such as underutilisation of available funds, inefficient staffing patterns, and a decline in community-level legal support services, including village legal services clinics — with only one clinic available for every 163 villages. The legal aid system currently comprises over 41,000 lawyers and 43,000 paralegal volunteers.
• In the area of forensics, the justice system grapples with deep structural limitations, including chronic underinvestment, obsolete equipment, and a shortage of trained personnel. Furthermore, state human rights commissions are often hampered by unfilled senior posts and weak mechanisms for addressing complaints effectively.
• Despite these concerns, the report also highlights several positive developments. The proportion of women judges in the district judiciary has risen to 38%. Additionally, 83% of police stations across India are now equipped with at least one CCTV camera.
• There has also been an encouraging trend of increased government spending to strengthen the foundational capacity of the justice system

 

In the overall ranking of large and mid-sized states under the 2025 edition of the report, Karnataka retained the top position, followed by Andhra Pradesh, which improved significantly from fifth place in 2022 to second. Telangana held steady at third place, while Kerala moved up to fourth. In contrast, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal remained at the bottom of the rankings, at 17th and 18th positions respectively, showing little change from the previous report.

 

 

4. Rule of Law Index 2024

 

• The India Justice Report 2025 features India’s performance across various global justice and governance indices, including the Rule of Law Index 2024, published by the World Justice Project (WJP). In this index, India was placed 79th out of 142 nations.
• The index evaluates countries using eight core dimensions: checks on government authority, levels of corruption, transparency in governance, protection of fundamental rights, public safety and order, enforcement of regulations, as well as the efficiency of both civil and criminal justice systems.
• With regard to criminal justice, India stood at 89th position. The WJP highlights that a robust criminal justice system is central to upholding the rule of law, as it serves as the standard method for addressing legal grievances and prosecuting offenses against society.
• In the civil justice category, India ranked 111th. This component of the index assesses whether civil justice systems are not only accessible and cost-effective, but also impartial, free from corruption or undue political interference. It further examines the fairness, availability, and functionality of mechanisms such as alternative dispute resolution

 

 

For Prelims: Human Rights, judiciary   For Mains: GS II - Indian Judiciary

 

Source: Indianexpress