IPCC

1. Context

2. Synthesis Report

• The IPCC, an UN-backed scientific body whose periodic assessments of climate science form the basis of global climate action, is set to finalize what is known as the Synthesis Report, incorporating the findings of the five reports that it has released in the sixth assessment cycle since 2018.
• The Synthesis Report is supposed to be a relatively non-technical summary of the previous reports, aimed largely at policymakers around the world.
• It is meant to address a wide range of policy-relevant scientific questions related to climate change, but, like all IPCC reports, in a non-prescriptive manner. 
• This will bring an end to the Sixth Assessment Report, a collective work of thousands of scientists over a period of eight years, starting in February 2015.

3. Significance of the report

• The Synthesis Report is unlikely to reveal anything new. Climate science is fairly well established, and its impacts are already visible.
• As part of the sixth assessment cycle, the IPCC published three comprehensive reports- one on scientific evidence for climate change, the other on impacts and vulnerabilities, and the third exploring mitigation options available.
• Besides these, special reports on the feasibility of keeping global temperature rise within the 1.5-degree celsius limit, and the connections between land, ocean, and cryosphere, were also released.
• Together, these form the most comprehensive understanding of the earth's climate system, the changes it is undergoing, the repercussions of these changes, and the actions that should be taken to avoid the worst impacts.

4. The upcoming meetings

• The release of the synthesis report on March 20 would be immediately followed by a ministerial-level meeting in Copenhagen.
• This will discuss ways to implement the decisions taken at last year's climate meeting in Sharm el-sheikh, especially the one related to the creation of a new fund to help countries hit by climate-related disasters.
• This meeting is aimed at building the atmosphere for more ambitious agreements at this year's climate conference, scheduled in Dubai towards the end of the year.
• Later next week, the UN 2023 Water Conference will take place, with climate change as one of the most important agendas.
• Two G-20 meetings around the climate change theme are also scheduled towards the end of this month, one in Udaipur, Rajasthan, and the other in Gandhinagar, Gujrat.

5. About IPCC

• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the United Nations body for assessing the science related to climate change.
• IPCC was created in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the objective of the IPCC is to provide governments at all levels with scientific information that they can use to develop climate policies.
• IPCC reports are also a key input into international climate change negotiations. The IPCC is an organisation of governments that are members of the United Nations or WMO.
• The IPCC has currently 195 members. Thousands of people from all over the world contribute to the work of the IPCC.
• For the assessment reports, experts volunteer their time as IPCC authors to assess the thousands of scientific papers published each year to provide a comprehensive summary of what is known about the drivers of climate change, its impacts, and future risks, and how adaptation and mitigation can reduce those risks.
• An open and transparent review by experts and governments around the world is an essential part of the IPCC process, to ensure an objective and complete assessment and to reflect a diverse range of views and expertise.
• Through its assessments, the IPCC identifies the strength of scientific agreement in different areas and indicates where further research is needed. The IPCC does not conduct its own research.

6. Working Groups and Task Force of IPCC

• The IPCC is divided into three working Groups and a task force.
• Working group I deals with the physical science basis of climate change, working group II with Climate change impacts, adaptation, and vulnerability, and Working group III with the Mitigation of Climate Change.
• The main objective of the Taskforce on National greenhouse gas inventories is to develop and refine a methodology for the calculation and reporting of national greenhouse gas emissions and removals.
• Alongside the working Groups and the Taskforce, other Task Groups may be established by the panel for a set time period to consider a specific topic or question.
• One example is the decision at the 47th Session of the IPCC in Paris in March 2018 to establish a Task Group to improve gender balance and address gender-related issues within the IPCC.
• That Task Group completed its work and their work was fundamental to the Panel Adoption and Gender Policy and Implementation Plan.

7. Structure of IPCC

8. The Reports by IPCC

• In 1990, the First IPCC Assessment Report (FAR) underlined the importance of climate change as a challenge with global consequences and requiring international cooperation. It played a decisive role in the creation of the UNFCCC, the key international treaty to reduce global warming and cope with the consequences of climate change.
• The Second Assessment Report (SAR) 1995 provided important material for governments to draw from in the run-up to the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997.
• The Third Assessment Report (TAR) 2001 focused attention on the impacts of climate change and the need for adaptation.
• The Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) 2007 laid the groundwork for a post-Kyoto agreement, focusing on limiting warming to 2 degrees Celsius.
• The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) was finalized between 2013 and 2014. It provided scientific input into the Paris Agreement. 
• The IPCC is currently in its sixth Assessment cycle where it will prepare three special reports, a Methodology Report, and the Sixth Assessment Report.
• The First of these Special Reports, Global Warming of 1.5°C (SR15), was requested by world governments under the Paris Agreement.
• In May 2019, the IPCC finalised the 2019 Refinement an update to the 2006 IPCC Guidelines on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories.
• The Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL) will be finalized in August 2019 and the Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) will be finalized in September 2019.
• The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) is expected to be finalized in 2022 in time for the first global stocktake the following year.

9. Nobel Prize for IPCC

Previous year Question

For Prelims & Mains

UNITED STATES AGENCY OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (USAID)

 

 

1. Context

 

January 20 Executive Order titled “Reevaluating and Realigning United States Foreign Aid”) to end foreign aid and all but disband the US Agency for International Development (USAID).

 

2.  United States Agency of International Development (USAID)

 

• The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is recognized as the primary international humanitarian and development agency of the U.S. government, as described by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).
• The agency delivers assistance to other nations primarily by financing non-governmental organizations (NGOs), foreign governments, international institutions, and other U.S. agencies. This funding is often directed toward specific programs aimed at reducing poverty, improving access to education and healthcare, and addressing other critical needs.
• In the fiscal year 2023, USAID managed over $43 billion in funds and extended assistance to approximately 130 countries. The top 10 recipients of USAID-managed funds during this period, listed in descending order of funding, were: Ukraine, Ethiopia, Jordan, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia, Yemen, Afghanistan, Nigeria, South Sudan, and Syria.
• According to CRS, USAID employed more than 10,000 individuals in FY2023, with about two-thirds of its workforce stationed overseas. This figure does not include the thousands of "institutional support contractors" who play a crucial role in implementing the agency’s programs. USAID operates through more than 60 missions worldwide, ensuring its presence and impact across the globe

 

3. History of USAID

 

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) was established on November 3, 1961, under President John F. Kennedy’s administration. Its creation marked a significant step in U.S. foreign policy, consolidating various foreign assistance programs under a single agency to streamline and enhance the effectiveness of American development and humanitarian efforts worldwide.

Origins and Early Years:

• Post-World War II Context: After World War II, the U.S. launched several aid programs, such as the Marshall Plan (1948), to rebuild war-torn Europe and counter the spread of communism. These efforts laid the groundwork for a more structured approach to international development.

• Point Four Program: In 1949, President Harry S. Truman introduced the Point Four Program, which focused on providing technical assistance to developing countries. This initiative emphasized sharing American expertise in agriculture, health, and industry to promote economic growth and stability.

• Cold War Era: During the Cold War, U.S. foreign aid became a strategic tool to counter Soviet influence. Programs like the Mutual Security Act (1951) and the Development Loan Fund (1957) were established to support allies and foster development in emerging nations.

Establishment of USAID:

• In 1961, President Kennedy signed the Foreign Assistance Act, which reorganized U.S. foreign aid programs and led to the creation of USAID. The agency was tasked with managing economic assistance and humanitarian programs, focusing on long-term development rather than short-term relief.

• USAID absorbed the functions of earlier organizations, such as the International Cooperation Administration (ICA) and the Development Loan Fund, to create a unified approach to foreign aid.

Evolution and Expansion:

• 1960s-1970s: USAID focused on infrastructure development, agriculture, and education in developing countries. Programs like the Green Revolution helped increase agricultural productivity in nations such as India and Pakistan.

• 1980s: The agency shifted its focus to address global challenges such as population growth, environmental degradation, and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. It also played a key role in supporting democratic transitions in Latin America and Eastern Europe.

• 1990s: After the Cold War, USAID’s mission expanded to include promoting democracy, governance, and market-oriented reforms. It also provided humanitarian assistance during crises, such as the Rwandan genocide and the Balkan conflicts.

• 2000s: USAID became a critical player in post-9/11 efforts, particularly in Afghanistan and Iraq, where it supported reconstruction, governance, and counterterrorism initiatives. It also intensified its focus on global health, particularly through programs like the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR).

• 2010s-Present: USAID has increasingly emphasized innovation, partnerships with the private sector, and sustainable development. It has also addressed emerging challenges such as climate change, food security, and global pandemics like COVID-19

 

4.Roles and Functions of USAID

 

The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) advances U.S. foreign policy and global development through:

• Economic Development: Reduces poverty, boosts agriculture, and promotes trade and investment.

• Democracy & Governance: Strengthens institutions, fights corruption, and supports civil society.

• Global Health: Combats diseases (e.g., HIV/AIDS, malaria), improves maternal/child health, and strengthens healthcare systems.

• Humanitarian Assistance: Provides disaster relief, supports refugees, and aids crisis recovery.

• Education & Workforce Development: Expands access to education, offers skills training, and promotes higher education partnerships.

 

5. India and USAID

 

 

India and USAID have a long-standing partnership focused on development and humanitarian efforts, though the nature of their collaboration has evolved over time. Initially, USAID played a significant role in India’s development during the mid-20th century, particularly in areas like agriculture, health, and education. However, as India’s economy grew and it became a rising global power, the relationship shifted from traditional aid to more collaborative and strategic partnerships.

Key Areas of Collaboration:

• Agriculture and Food Security:

  • USAID supported India’s Green Revolution in the 1960s, helping to increase agricultural productivity and reduce food shortages.

  • Ongoing programs focus on sustainable farming, climate-resilient crops, and improving supply chains.

• Health:

  • USAID has contributed to India’s efforts in combating infectious diseases like HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria.

  • It has also supported maternal and child health programs, immunization campaigns, and strengthening healthcare systems.

• Clean Energy and Climate Change:

  • USAID collaborates with India on renewable energy projects, energy efficiency, and climate resilience initiatives.

  • Programs aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable development.

• Education and Skill Development:

  • USAID has supported initiatives to improve access to quality education, particularly for girls and marginalized communities.

  • It also promotes vocational training and workforce development to enhance employability

 

6. Recent Controversy

 

• The debate surrounding USAID’s role in India highlights the growing polarization in public discourse, which risks eroding national confidence and international reputation. Both the BJP and Congress have engaged in a political tussle, using USAID-funded projects and foreign affiliations as tools to target each other.
• However, much of this rhetoric is driven by misinformation and misinterpretation, often influenced by narratives from the Trump administration, which regarded international aid as an unnecessary burden on American resources.
• While the U.S. may have its own reasons for reassessing aid priorities, it is unfortunate that India’s leading political parties are adopting these arguments without deeper analysis.
• USAID has a longstanding history of supporting developmental projects in India, many of which have been carried out in collaboration with the Indian government.
• However, due to the lack of transparent and verified data on the scope and impact of these initiatives, discussions around them tend to be uninformed and biased.
• In an interconnected world, where nations compete for investment, technology, and skilled talent across borders, using foreign connections as a political weapon may serve short-term propaganda goals but ultimately harms India’s domestic political landscape and weakens its ambitions of becoming a global power

 

7. Way Forward

 

USAID’s roles and functions are integral to U.S. efforts to promote global stability, economic growth, and human welfare. By addressing critical issues such as poverty, health, education, and climate change, USAID not only improves lives worldwide but also advances U.S. national security and diplomatic interests. Its work reflects a commitment to fostering sustainable development and building a more prosperous, equitable, and resilient world

 

For Prelims: Non-Government Organisation (NGO), USAID   For Mains: GS II - International organisation

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

 

 

1. Context

India’s real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew 6.2% in the October to December 2024 period, the third quarter of the fiscal year, picking up pace from the 5.6% growth recorded in the previous quarter, according to data released by the National Statistics Office (NSO)

 

2. Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Gross domestic product (GDP) is the total monetary or market value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country's borders in a specific time period. It is often used as a measure of a country's economic health

GDP provides insight into the overall economic health of a nation and is often used for comparing the economic output of different countries.

There are three primary ways to calculate GDP:

1. Production Approach (GDP by Production): This approach calculates GDP by adding up the value-added at each stage of production. It involves summing up the value of all final goods and services produced in an economy.

2. Income Approach (GDP by Income): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the incomes earned in an economy, including wages, rents, interests, and profits. The idea is that all the income generated in an economy must ultimately be spent on purchasing goods and services.

3. Expenditure Approach (GDP by Expenditure): This approach calculates GDP by summing up all the expenditures made on final goods and services. It includes consumption by households, investments by businesses, government spending, and net exports (exports minus imports).

3. Measuring GDP

GDP can be measured in three different ways:

1. Nominal GDP: This is the raw GDP figure without adjusting for inflation. It reflects the total value of goods and services produced at current prices.

2. Real GDP: Real GDP adjusts the nominal GDP for inflation, allowing for a more accurate comparison of economic performance over time. It represents the value of goods and services produced using constant prices from a specific base year.

3. GDP per capita: This is the GDP divided by the population of a country. It provides a per-person measure of economic output and can be useful for comparing the relative economic well-being of different countries.

The GDP growth rate is the percentage change in the GDP from one year to the next. A positive GDP growth rate indicates that the economy is growing, while a negative GDP growth rate indicates that the economy is shrinking

The GDP is a useful measure of economic health, but it has some limitations. For example, it does not take into account the distribution of income in an economy. It also does not take into account the quality of goods and services produced.

Despite its limitations, the GDP is a widely used measure of economic health. It is used by economists, policymakers, and businesses to track the performance of an economy and to make decisions about economic policy

4. Gross Value Added (GVA)

 

Gross Value Added (GVA) is a closely related concept to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and is used to measure the economic value generated by various economic activities within a country. GVA represents the value of goods and services produced in an economy minus the value of inputs (such as raw materials and intermediate goods) used in production. It's a way to measure the contribution of each individual sector or industry to the overall economy.

GVA can be calculated using the production approach, similar to one of the methods used to calculate GDP. The formula for calculating GVA is as follows:

GVA = Output Value - Intermediate Consumption

Where:

• Output Value: The total value of goods and services produced by an industry or sector.
• Intermediate Consumption: The value of inputs used in the production process, including raw materials, energy, and other intermediate goods.

5. GDP vs GNP

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and Gross National Product (GNP) are both important economic indicators used to measure the size and health of an economy, but they focus on slightly different aspects of economic activity and include different factors. Here are the key differences between GDP and GNP:

1. Definition and Scope:

   • GDP: GDP measures the total value of all goods and services produced within a country's borders, regardless of whether the production is done by domestic or foreign entities. It only considers economic activities that take place within the country.
   • GNP: GNP measures the total value of all goods and services produced by a country's residents, whether they are located within the country's borders or abroad. It takes into account the production of residents, both domestically and internationally.

2. Foreign Income and Payments:

   • GDP: GDP does not consider the income earned by residents of a country from their economic activities abroad, nor does it account for payments made to foreigners working within the country.
   • GNP: GNP includes the income earned by a country's residents from their investments and activities abroad, minus the income earned by foreign residents from their investments within the country.

3. Net Factor Income from Abroad:

   • GDP: GDP does not account for net factor income from abroad, which is the difference between income earned by domestic residents abroad and income earned by foreign residents domestically.
   • GNP: GNP includes net factor income from abroad as part of its calculation.

4. Foreign Direct Investment:

   • GDP: GDP does not directly consider foreign direct investment (FDI) flowing into or out of a country.
   • GNP: GNP considers the impact of FDI on the income of a country's residents, both from investments made within the country and from investments made by residents abroad.

5. Measurement Approach:

   • GDP: GDP can be calculated using three different approaches: production, income, and expenditure approaches.
   • GNP: GNP is primarily calculated using the income approach, as it focuses on the income earned by residents from their economic activities.

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: GDP, GVA, FDI, GNP For Mains: 1.Discuss the recent trends and challenges in India's GDP growth 2.Examine the role of the service sector in India's GDP growth 3.Compare and contrast the growth trajectories of India's GDP and GNP

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1.With reference to Indian economy, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. The rate of growth of Real Gross Domestic Product has steadily increased in the last decade. 2. The Gross Domestic Product at market prices (in rupees) has steadily increased in the last decade. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (b) 2.A decrease in tax to GDP ratio of a country indicates which of the following? (UPSC CSE, 2015) 1. Slowing economic growth rate 2. Less equitable distribution of national income Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (a) Previous year UPSC Mains Question Covering similar theme: Define potential GDP and explain its determinants. What are the factors that have been inhibiting India from realizing its potential GDP? (UPSC CSE GS3, 2020) Explain the difference between computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC CSE GS3, 2021)

 

Source: indianexpress

 

OBESITY

 

 

1. Context

 

A recent Lancet study has highlighted that India had the second largest population of adults with overweight and obesity after China. The Lancet study examined the historical trends of the global, regional, and national prevalence of adult overweight and obesity from 1990 to 2021 and forecast the future trajectories to 2050

 

2. What is Obesity?

 

Obesity is a medical condition characterized by excessive body fat that increases the risk of health problems. It is typically measured using the Body Mass Index (BMI), where a BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese

 

Causes of Obesity:

• Unhealthy Diet – High-calorie, processed foods with excess sugar and fats.
• Lack of Physical Activity – Sedentary lifestyle with minimal exercise.
• Genetics – Family history and inherited traits can influence body weight.
• Medical Conditions & Medications – Hormonal imbalances (e.g., hypothyroidism, PCOS) and certain drugs (e.g., steroids, antidepressants) may contribute.
• Psychological Factors – Stress, emotional eating, and mental health disorders.
• Sleep Deprivation – Poor sleep patterns can disrupt metabolism and increase appetite

 

3. Global Statistics

 

 

• By 2050, more than half of the global adult population and a third of children and adolescents are expected to be overweight or obese. The report indicates that, compared to 1990, obesity rates worldwide have surged by 155.1% in males and 104.9% in females.

• A particularly concerning trend is the sharp rise in obesity among older adolescents, specifically those aged 15 to 24. Among young men, the number of overweight or obese individuals increased from 0.4 crore in 1990 to 1.68 crore in 2021, with projections reaching 2.27 crore by 2050. Similarly, for young women, this figure rose from 0.33 crore in 1990 to 1.3 crore in 2021, and is expected to reach 1.69 crore by 2050.

• The report estimates that by 2050, India will have 21.8 crore overweight or obese men and 23.1 crore women, bringing the total to 44.9 crore—nearly one-third of the country’s projected population.

• The prevalence of overweight and obesity among boys in India increased from 0.46 crore in 1990 to 1.3 crore in 2021, with a projected rise to 1.6 crore by 2050. For girls, this number grew from 0.45 crore in 1990 to 1.24 crore in 2021, and is expected to reach 1.44 crore by 2050.

• These findings are particularly alarming given India's already high burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) such as heart disease, strokes, and diabetes. Obesity significantly contributes to these conditions and is a key factor in the early onset of Type 2 diabetes, even among teenagers

Indian Scenario     As per the National Family Health Survey (NFHS)-5 (2019-21), 24% of women and 23% of men in India are classified as overweight or obese. Additionally, 56.7% of women and 47.7% of men have a high-risk waist-to-hip ratio, which is a key indicator of obesity-related health risks. Among individuals aged 15-49 years, obesity affects 6.4% of women and 4.0% of men. The prevalence of overweight children under the age of five (based on weight-for-height measurements) has also risen at the national level, increasing from 2.1% in NFHS-4 (2015-16) to 3.4% in NFHS-5 (2019-21)

 

4. Reasons for increasing Obesity

 

• A major factor contributing to the rising obesity epidemic is the increased consumption of processed foods that are high in salt, sugar, and fat. According to the study, between 2009 and 2019, countries like Cameroon, India, and Vietnam recorded the highest annual growth in per capita sales of ultra-processed food and beverages.

• There has been a noticeable shift away from traditional diets and active lifestyles. Traditional diets were generally low in animal products, salt, refined oils, sugars, and flours, whereas modern dietary patterns are high in energy but low in essential nutrients. These new eating habits consist largely of refined carbohydrates, high-fat foods, processed meats, and packaged foods.

• Urbanization has further contributed to decreasing physical activity, with longer commutes, desk jobs, and sedentary lifestyles becoming more common. This shift has also led to increased work-related stress, poor sleep, and mental health issues, all of which are linked to obesity.

• The study also highlighted the rising obesity rates among women. Several factors contribute to this trend, including traditional societal roles, lack of time for physical activity, limited access to nutritious food, and dietary practices that prioritize the needs of other family members over their own. Additionally, many women have restricted access to healthcare and obesity awareness programs, making it even more challenging to address the issue effectively

 

5. Measuring Obesity

 

• The World Health Organization (WHO) defines obesity as an abnormal or excessive accumulation of body fat that increases health risks. According to Body Mass Index (BMI) classifications, individuals with a BMI below 18.5 are considered underweight, those between 18.5 and 24.9 fall within the normal range, individuals with a BMI of 25 to 29.9 are classified as overweight, and those with a BMI above 30 are categorized as obese.

• However, relying solely on BMI to diagnose obesity can lead to both overestimation and underestimation. Some individuals with excess body fat may not have a BMI exceeding 30 but still face obesity-related health issues.

• Conversely, people with high muscle mass may have a BMI over 30 while being physically fit and not requiring medical intervention. In India, many individuals with BMI below 30 still carry abdominal fat, which can negatively impact organ function.

• A recent Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology Commission report introduced a broader definition of obesity, incorporating factors such as height, weight, waist circumference, muscle mass, and organ function rather than relying solely on BMI.

• The new definition eliminates the overweight category and introduces "preclinical obesity", which is described as a physical condition rather than a disease. The Commission explains that, in some individuals, preclinical obesity may progress to clinical obesity, whereas in others, it may not directly impair organ function.

• In India, obesity is categorized differently, using the terms "stage 1" and "stage 2" obesity instead of preclinical and clinical obesity.

• Under Indian guidelines, stage 1 obesity is diagnosed when an individual has a BMI over 23—with waist circumference and waist-to-height ratio being optional criteria—but does not exhibit functional limitations or obesity-related chronic conditions.

• Stage 2 obesity, according to Indian criteria, is diagnosed when a person has a BMI above 23, meets at least one additional physical marker of obesity (such as waist circumference or waist-to-height ratio), and experiences obesity-related complications or limitations in daily activities

 

 

 

 

For Prelims:  Body Mass Index (BMI), Obesity   For Mains: GS III - Science & Technology

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

SPACE DEBRIS

 

 

1. Context

 

Despite being a critical issue in space governance, space debris lacks a universally accepted legal definition; thus, legal disputes often hinge on whether a piece of debris qualifies as a ‘space object’ under the Convention for International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects of 1972

 

2. What is Space debris?

 

Space debris, also known as space junk, refers to defunct human-made objects in space, primarily in Earth's orbit. These include non-functional satellites, spent rocket stages, and fragments from disintegration, erosion, and collisions

Space debris, also known as space junk, refers to defunct, human-made objects orbiting Earth that no longer serve a useful purpose. This includes:

• Defunct Satellites – Old or broken satellites left in orbit.
• Rocket Stages – Spent upper stages of rockets used to launch satellites.
• Fragments from Collisions – Pieces resulting from explosions, collisions, or breakups of satellites and rockets.
• Lost Equipment – Items like tools accidentally dropped by astronauts during spacewalks

 

3. Laws regarding Space debris

 

• Although space debris is a crucial concern in space governance, it lacks a universally recognized legal definition in international treaties. Instead, commonly referenced definitions are provided by the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee and the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).
• According to COPUOS, space debris encompasses all human-made objects—including fragments and components—that exist in Earth’s orbit or are re-entering the atmosphere without any functional purpose.
• Due to the absence of a clear definition, legal disputes often revolve around whether a particular piece of debris qualifies as a “space object” under the 1972 Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects.
• This classification is significant because the convention assigns liability to space objects, but if debris is no longer under a state’s control, enforcing responsibility becomes more complex.
• A fundamental principle of international space law is outlined in Article VI of the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which holds states accountable for all national space activities, regardless of whether they are conducted by government agencies or private entities.
• Additionally, the 1972 Liability Convention introduced the concept of “absolute liability” for damage caused by space objects on Earth.
• Unlike fault-based liability, absolute liability does not require proof of negligence—launching states are automatically held accountable for any damage resulting from their space debris

 

4. Challenges

 

• Enforcing liability remains a significant challenge. Dispute resolution primarily relies on diplomatic negotiations, which often lead to prolonged settlements that fail to cover the full extent of damages.
• A notable example is the crash of the Soviet satellite Cosmos 954, which contained a nuclear reactor, in Canada in 1978. Although Canada incurred approximately $6 million in cleanup costs, years of negotiations with the USSR resulted in a settlement of only $3 million. This case highlighted the disparity between legal liability and practical enforcement, leaving affected parties with insufficient compensation.
• Another legal uncertainty arises when debris from a long-defunct satellite causes damage decades later—can the original launching state still be held accountable? Such ambiguities weaken the effectiveness of current liability frameworks and further complicate enforcement efforts.
• Identifying the source of space debris presents yet another challenge. While modern tracking systems and forensic techniques can trace debris back to specific origins—such as identifying components from Soviet-era satellites or SpaceX missions—older, undocumented objects or highly fragmented debris may be impossible to attribute, making accountability even more difficult

 

5. Gaps in Governance

 

 

• The rapid expansion of global space activities and the frequent use of rockets and their components have heightened the risks associated with uncontrolled reentries. Earlier this month, debris from a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket fell in Poland.
• However, the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) stated that its jurisdiction ended once SpaceX lost control of the rocket. This response highlights a growing issue: once a space object is no longer actively managed, no clear authority is responsible for its reentry or any resulting damage.
• In July 2024, the core stage of China’s Long March 5B rocket—an enormous 23-tonne structure—descended uncontrollably into the southern Pacific Ocean, narrowly missing inhabited regions. This marked the fourth such reentry event since 2020, reigniting global concerns over space debris hazards.
• Unlike modern rockets, which are engineered to either burn up completely during reentry or be guided toward uninhabited areas, the Long March 5B lacks any disposal mechanisms, making its return to Earth unpredictable. Although China has improved reentry forecasting, warnings often come too late for other nations to implement effective safety measures.
• These incidents highlight a critical gap in space governance: there are no binding international regulations to penalize uncontrolled reentries unless they result in damage. While space agencies have condemned such risks as “reckless,” these warnings lack legal enforcement without global agreements requiring proactive measures.
• The expansion of satellite mega-constellations—such as SpaceX’s Starlink, Amazon’s Kuiper, and Eutelsat’s OneWeb—will add over 100,000 satellites by 2030, increasing the likelihood of uncontrolled reentries.
• Additionally, many older satellites remain in orbit without deorbiting plans, exacerbating the accumulation of space debris. While small satellites typically burn up upon reentry, larger components like rocket boosters and fuel tanks often survive, posing significant threats. In 2022, a fragment from SpaceX’s Dragon crew capsule crashed in Australia.
• Although the UN recommends that satellites deorbit within 25 years, this guideline remains voluntary, with only about 30% compliance. As a result, thousands of aging satellites continue to drift in unpredictable orbits, further complicating space sustainability efforts

 

6. Way Forward

 

• Clear regulatory frameworks are urgently needed to address a major gap in space governance: no mandatory oversight exists for reentries unless they cause direct harm. Without immediate reforms, uncontrolled reentries will become increasingly common, leaving affected communities to bear the costs without any means of redress.
• Stronger regulations are essential. COPUOS should advocate for binding international rules that mandate controlled reentries and impose penalties on entities that fail to comply.
• At the national level, governments must enhance domestic policies by making debris mitigation a prerequisite for launch licenses.
• Additionally, disposal regulations should be compulsory, requiring space operators to conduct controlled reentries or relocate defunct satellites to graveyard orbits to prevent collisions. These measures must be enforced through sanctions or launch restrictions.
• Advanced tracking technologies, such as expanding the U.S. Space Fence, would improve the ability to monitor space debris and predict reentry trajectories.
• Encouraging sustainable space practices is equally important. Incentives should be introduced for debris-neutral technologies and reusable rockets to reduce orbital congestion and enhance long-term safety.
• Moreover, the 1972 Liability Convention should be updated to establish an independent international tribunal with binding enforcement authority.
• Space is not a lawless domain, but without decisive action, it risks becoming one. Voluntary guidelines are no longer sufficient—global cooperation, enforceable regulations, and accountability measures must be prioritized to prevent greater risks in the future

 

 

For Prelims: Europa Clipper, Artemis II, VIPER, Hera mission, NASA,  Moon, Mars, Jupiter, JAXA, Martian Moon eXploration, Lunar Trailblazer, PRIME-1, DART Mission,  For Mains:  1. Analyze the role of close flybys in Europa Clipper's mission plan and its impact on scientific exploration. (250 Words) 2. Elaborate on the importance of sustained human presence in space and its connection to Artemis II. (250 Words) 3. Outline the objectives of NASA's VIPER mission and its role in lunar exploration. (250 Words) 4. Explain the concept of NASA's SIMPLEx program and its cost-effective strategy. (250 Words) 5. Discuss the scientific importance of studying Phobos and Deimos and their potential origins. (250 Words) 6.  Explain the "kinetic impact" technique tested by NASA's DART mission and its role in planetary defence. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions     1. What is the purpose of the US Space Agency’s Themis Mission, which was recently in the news? (UPSC 2008) A.  To study the possibility of life on Mars B.  To study the satellites of Saturn C.  To study the colorful display of high-latitude skies D. To build a space laboratory to study the stellar explosions     2. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014)                Spacecraft                                                         Purpose 1. Cassini-Huygens:                                 Orbiting Venus and transmitting data to theEarth    2. Messenger:                                            Mapping and investigating the Mercury 3. Voyager 1 and 2:                                   Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only           B. 2 and 3 only           C. 1 and 3 only                     D. 1, 2 and 3   3. Chandrayaan - 2 was launched from which of the following states by ISRO? (DSSSB LDC 2019)  A. Maharashtra           B.  Rajasthan             C.  Kerala             D.  Andhra Pradesh   4. The phases of the moon as we see from the Earth are due to changing relative positions of the sun, the earth and the moon. Which of the following statements is true?  (CTET  2022)   A. on a full moon day, the earth comes between the sun and the moon B. on a new moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun C. on a full moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun D. on a new moon day, the earth is between the sun and the moon. E. on a new moon day, the sun is between the moon and the earth  A. A, B          B.  B, C          C. C, D          D. A, E   5. ISRO is related to:  (SSC JE EE  2020)  A. space research          B. agricultural research           C. seed research        D. marine research 6. “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to (UPSC 2020)  A. Voyager-2          B. New Horizons          C. LISA Pathfinder          D. Evolved LISA   7. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only       B. 2 and 3           C. 1 and 2            D. 3 only     8. ‘Black hole’ is a (NDA  2019) (UPPSC 2019) A. huge black star which has zero acceleration due to gravity on its surface B. star which has moderate acceleration due to gravity on its surface C. star which has collapsed into itself and has large acceleration due to gravity on its surface D. star which has collapsed into itself and has zero acceleration due to gravity on its surface    9. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014) Spacecraft                                 Purpose Cassini-Huygens              Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth Messenger                        Mapping and investigating the Mercury Voyager 1 and 2               Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only       (b) 2 and 3 only            (c) 1 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3   10. Aditya L1 is a ______. (ISRO IPRC Technical Assistant Mechanical 2016)  A. Long-range missile B. Rocket to moon C. Spacecraft project D. Light combat aircraft     11. With reference to 'Astrosat', the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space. 2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 only           B.  2 only          C. Both 1 and 2         D. Neither 1 nor 2     12. If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth? (UPSC 2022) 1. GPS and navigation systems could fail. 2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions. 3. Power grids could be damaged. 4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth. 5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet. 6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed. 7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 only    B. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only    C.  1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only    D.  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7     13. A spinning neutron star emits radio-wave and is called (Maha TAIT 2017) A. Supernova        B. Pulsar            C. White dwarf          D. Protostar     14. Consider the following pairs:  (UPSC 2023) Objects in space   Description (1) Cepheids          Giant clouds of dust and gas in space (2) Nebulae            Stars which brighten and dim periodically (3) Pulsars            Neutron stars that are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? A. Only one             B. Only two          C. All three          D. None   Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-D, 4-A, 5-A, 6-D, 7-A, 8-C, 9-B, 10-C, 11-D, 12-C, 13-B, 14-A   Mains 1. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions, both in terms of technology and logistics. Explain critically (UPSC 2017) 2. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? (UPSC 2016)

 

 

Source: The Hindu