2.3. Goals 

• Political and security cooperation, including the fight against terrorism, separatism and extremism
• Economic cooperation, including trade, investment, energy and transportation
• Cultural and humanitarian cooperation and
• Coordination of positions on major international issues.

IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA

1.Context:

On August 25, 2025, the Supreme Court urged the Union government to frame guidelines for regulating social media, observing that influencers often commercialise free speech in ways that can offend the sentiments of vulnerable groups. A Bench of Justices Surya Kant and Joymalya Bagchi directed that the regulations be prepared in consultation with the National Broadcasters and Digital Association (NBDA). The directive comes at a time when nearly 491 million Indians are active on social media, highlighting the challenges of safeguarding free expression while simultaneously protecting individual dignity.

PC: Searchenginejournal

2.Case study:

• One cannot deny that Social media has become a daily habit, especially among youth.
• Individuals across different age groups use social media platforms for communication & networking.
• There is a growing dependency on social media.
• Constant use of social media leads to many problems like-
• Changes in behavioural pattern
• Exposure to risky content
• Cyber-bullying
• Inferiority complex, resulting in grave mental health challenges & illness.

3.Issue:

Impact of social media on youth. It is imperative to address the current challenges to regulating social media use, especially among the young generation.

There can be many problems which can be highlighted, but let us focus on three of them-

• According to UNICEF, 1 in 7 Indians aged 15-24 years feel depressed.
• Depression is linked to lack of self-esteem, poor concentration & other maladaptive symptoms and can lead to difficulties in communication, failure to work or study productively, amplified risk of substance use & abuse, as well as suicidal thoughts.
• One of the key risk factors for this depression is social media.

• As social beings, humans inherently need social acceptance & social media often becomes a tool for validation.
• The number of likes one’s posts or images garners becomes a quantitative measure for many, about their looks, and intelligence and even extends to their worth as a person.
• Individuals strive to maintain an “internet persona” which paints a rosy picture of one’s life, using filters to hide parts considered” not enough good”.
• Body Dysmorphia- It is common among young people & increased over the past few years.
• Use of algorithms on these platforms forces people to only watch similar content.

Excessive social media use takes time away from doing other things that may benefit our mental health like connecting with others in person, spending time in nature and taking care of ourselves.

4.Solutions

• Action must be taken on mental health seriously & monitor the incidence of psychiatric disorders like depression, and anxiety and identify the factors of risk & resilience.
• Need to focus on socialization in familiar places & professional spaces along with physical exercises and meditation. Getting closer to nature and natural things is necessary.
• Need of creating awareness & dialogue that would help in de-stigmatizing the issue, to allow autonomy for the individual to share feelings in a safe space.
• To address the structural challenges, there is a need to reimagine the workspace & educational framework. Social media dependence in such spaces can be reduced to an extent that it doesn’t become addictive.
• Support systems like family & peers, need to be equipped with understanding the factors related to the issue & initiate supportive steps.
• Family and teachers are seen as role models. Restricting them from social media will inspire youth.
• Pragmatic government policies based on empirical evidence, strong political will, social inclusion, mental health literacy, vibrant media and a responsive corporate sector coupled with innovative technologies & crowdsourcing could mitigate this apathy.

5.Mental Health Issue

• Mental illness is an amalgamation of biological, social, psychological, hereditary and environmental stressors.
• The WHO defines mental health as a state of well-being, where an individual realizes their capabilities, can cope with the normal stress of life, work productively and can contribute to their community.
• According to recent research, there is an estimated increase of about 35% in the prevalence of anxiety & depression in India during the COVID-19 pandemic.
• As per the National Mental Survey, 2016, the prevalence of mental disorders in the age group 13-17 years was 7.3%. The most common prevalent problems were Depressive Episodes & Recurrent Depressive Disorder(2.6%), Agoraphobia(2.3%), Intellectual Disability(1.7%), Autism Spectrum Disorder(1.6%), phobic anxiety disorder(1.3%) and Psychotic disorder(1.3%).
• As per WHO, for 1lakh population India has 0.3 psychiatrists, 0.12 nurses & 0.007 psychologists & 0.007 health workers. These reflect an alarming shortage of Human Resources & a dire need to scale up investments to address the issue.
• Though Mental Health Act 2017 granted patients the legal right to live with dignity without discrimination, coercion, or harassment, the endeavour in this segment is too scattered & lacks focus & coordination.
• It should be noted that this act envisages the establishment of the Central Mental Health Authority & State Mental Health Authority.
• The Union Budget 2022-23, took the consideration the issue of mental health & announced the National Tele-Mental Health Program in India.
• An efficient & robust community-integrated model will have the ability to build a response system of cadres of community volunteers & leaders to create ‘safe spaces. They would build upon locally established peer support networks like Self-help Groups(SHGs), activity-based groups and civil society organizations to provide care.
• It is important that any community-based mental health program provides access to institutional social care benefits by building strategic partnerships with local governments, panchayats, educational institutions & other stakeholders to enable referrals & access to existing social benefit schemes.
• Prioritizing availability of essential psychotropic drugs at all levels of healthcare.
• The theme of World Mental Health Day 2022, 10^th October is ‘Make mental health & well-being for all a global priority.
• In 1982, the Indian government launched the National Mental Health Program(NMHP) to improve the status of mental health in India. It has three components treatment of the mentally ill, rehabilitation, prevention & promotion of positive mental health.
• WHO’s Comprehensive Mental Action Plan 2013-2020 was adopted by the 66^th World Health Assembly. The Mental Health Atlas was launched by WHO in 2017.
• The Sustainable Development Goals target 3.4 & 3.5 talks about reducing mental illness.
• The Supreme Court held healthcare to be a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Constitution.

Source: indianexpress

 AT A time when the US administration has come down hard on the Indian economy by imposing tariffs and President Donald Trump described it as a “dead economy”, Japan has increased its investment target from 5 trillion Yen (USD 34 billion) to 10 trillion Yen (USD 68 billion), in what is being seen as a vote of confidence for New Delhi. 

2. Historical Background

 

• Exchange between Japan and India is said to have begun in the 6th century when Buddhism was introduced to Japan. Indian culture, filtered through Buddhism, has had a great impact on Japanese culture, and this is the source of the Japanese people's sense of closeness to India.
• After World War II, in 1949, Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru donated an Indian elephant to the Ueno Zoo in Tokyo. This brought a ray of light into the lives of the Japanese people who still had not recovered from defeat in the war. Japan and India signed a peace treaty and established diplomatic relations on 28th April 1952. This treaty was one of the first peace treaties Japan signed after World War II.
• Ever since the establishment of diplomatic relations, the two countries have enjoyed cordial relations. 
• In the post-World War II period, India's iron ore helped a great deal in Japan's recovery from the devastation. 

3. Bilateral relations

• India and Japan are committed to working together to promote peace, stability and prosperity, through economic growth and development in the Indo-Pacific, including Africa, by enhancing connectivity through quality infrastructure and capacity building of our partners. 
• Both countries are of firm belief that all development cooperation must be carried out in an open, transparent and non-exclusive manner and based on international standards including respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity of nations, responsible debt financing practices, and in alignment with local economic and development strategies and priorities.
• While Japan has been one of the biggest sources of investment flows into India, accounting for $28.16 billion in FDI between April 2000 and June 2018, trade engagements have been below potential. On the list of countries that India exports to, Japan is a lowly 18th; on the list of countries importing into India, Japan ranks 12th.
• Both India and Japan believe that their development cooperation in the Indo-Pacific can contribute to unlocking the potential for an equitable, positive and forward-looking change in the region, and contribute to the socio-economic development of Africa.

4. The partnership in the economic domain

• Cooperation on the development of connectivity in the Indo-Pacific region, including in Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Bangladesh as well as in Africa.
• In this regard, the two Prime Ministers welcomed the discussions for establishing the "Platform for Japan-India Business Cooperation in Asia-Africa Region” to further enhance the exchanges between Japanese and Indian businesses toward developing industrial corridors and industrial networks in the region.
• India-Japan Act East Forum identifies and implements projects for enhancing connectivity, sustainable forest and ecological management, disaster risk reduction and people-to-people exchanges. They also highlighted the importance of developing smart islands in India.
• Mumbai-Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail project, which is an important symbol of India-Japan collaboration marked by the 75th anniversary of India’s independence. 
• Japan’s role in promoting connectivity through quality infrastructure projects such as the Western Dedicated Freight Corridor and the Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Corridor is immense 
• India welcomed Japan’s strong support for key transformational initiatives such as "Make in India”, "Skill India” and "Clean India Mission”, through sharing of resources and advanced technologies, and active mobilization of the Japanese public and private sector investments. 
• Both countries recognise the close cooperation in Intellectual Property Rights between the Intellectual Property Offices of the two countries
• Japan’s Foreign Direct Investment in India under the "India-Japan Investment Promotion Partnership”, the progress made in Japan Industrial Townships (JIT) and other initiatives included in the Japan-India Roadmap for Investment Promotion. 
• Bilateral Swap Arrangement (BSA) of USD 75 billion about External Commercial Borrowing (ECB), no mandatory hedging will be required for infrastructure ECB of more than 5 years minimum average maturity.
• Japan-India Institutes for Manufacturing (Jims) as well as the Japanese Endowed Courses (JEC) in various Indian states. 
• Cooperation in human resource development and exchanges, including through utilizing frameworks such as Japan’s "Innovative Asia” initiative, and the Technical Intern Training Program (TITP) will be further promoted, aligning with the emerging demands of the industry.
• India-Japan Digital Partnership with the vision to develop IoT and AI solutions for societal benefits and explore collaboration in emerging technologies by utilizing the "Japan-India Start-Up Hub” having a convergence between India’s flagship programmes such as "Digital India”, "Start-Up India” and "Smart City” with Japan’s "Society 5.0” to promote societal benefits. 
• People-to-people exchanges are at the core of the India-Japan partnership and noted with satisfaction the growing cultural, educational, parliamentary, academic and Track 1.5 engagements, including the "Indo-Pacific Forum”. 

 

5. Challenges in India-Japan Relations

• India’s exports to Japan in FY20 were lower than in FY18 in overall value.
• India and Japan have come a long way in their economic cooperation which is appreciable but India needs to take a vital stand as China-Japan economic ties are 30 times more than that of India
• India's access to the Japanese market is limited as India is struggling with various sanitary and phytosanitary measures.
• Exchanges associated with defence equipment are barely seen between the two democracies.
• Though there are common interests in tackling china but common measures associated to replace china are barely seen.
• Concerns regarding China’s intentions in the Indo-Pacific region have led to strengthening bilateral cooperation, but none wish to threaten China with the developing partnership. 

 

6. Need of the Hour

• While the huge economic opportunity in India draws attention from across the world there is a need to attract Japanese companies to invest in India.
• India can aid as a competitive replacement for china.
• Issues of India’s insistence on data localisation and reluctance to accede to global cybersecurity agreements such as the Budapest Convention needs to be discussed.
• Defense ties need to be made for a more dynamic exchange of defence equipment and technologies.
• India-Japan summit should reaffirm Japan’s support for key manufacturing initiatives such as ‘Make in India’ and the Japan Industrial Townships.

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance For Mains: GS II - International relations

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

BIOE3 POLICY

 

 

1. Context

 

From active pharmaceutical agents for making key medicines to enzymes needed for developing biofuels, and reagents needed for manufacturing biofertilizers — the government under its BioE3 policy plans to set up around 16 biomanufacturing hubs across the country to ensure that India starts making the components for which it is largely dependent on imports.

 

2.Benefits of biotechnology

 

• Biotechnology, which involves manipulating living organisms and biological processes to create specific products or applications, is an expansive and diverse field. It encompasses areas such as genomics, genetic modification, synthetic biology, bioinformatics, and gene therapy.
• Advancements in these fields have led to breakthroughs like treatments for genetic diseases or the development of crop varieties with enhanced traits. Historically, biotechnology solutions have been primarily applied in healthcare and agriculture.
• However, recent progress in gene-editing techniques, protein production, and the cultivation of enzymes using genetically altered microorganisms, alongside enhanced data processing and artificial intelligence, has broadened the potential of biotechnology.
• Traditional goods like synthetic fabrics, plastics, meat, milk, and fuel now have eco-friendly alternatives created through modern biological methods. For example, biological processes can replace chemical industrial methods, offering cleaner and more sustainable solutions.
• Precision fermentation, for instance, allows for the production of animal-free milk, which mirrors the taste, texture, and nutrition of natural milk, but with a lower carbon footprint, enhanced accessibility, and higher nutritional value.
• Environmentally harmful conventional plastics can be replaced by biodegradable bioplastics like polylactic acid, which is produced from renewable materials such as corn starch or sugarcane, rather than petroleum-based hydrocarbons.
• Additionally, certain microorganisms like bacteria and algae can be utilized for atmospheric carbon capture, a critical bioprocess in mitigating climate change. Traditional carbon capture and storage methods, which rely on chemical processes, have faced challenges such as high costs and the need to store captured CO2 underground indefinitely. Biological processes, however, allow microorganisms to convert CO2 into useful byproducts, including biofuels, eliminating the need for storage.
• In synthetic biology, entirely new organisms can be engineered to perform specific tasks, such as producing proteins or enzymes. Organs for transplantation can also be grown in laboratories through organogenesis, potentially reducing the reliance on human donors.
• The potential applications of biotechnology are just beginning to emerge. While some products, like animal-free milk, are already available in select markets, many other technologies are still in the development stage, facing challenges related to scalability, cost, or regulatory approval

3.BioE3 Policy benefits for India

 

• In the coming years, these emerging technologies are projected to reshape the economy and existing industrial practices.
• Biomanufacturing, which involves using biological organisms or processes for industrial production, is expected to generate an economic impact of $2-4 trillion within the next decade, according to government projections. This is just one aspect of the broader shift towards integrating biology into economic activities.
• India’s BioE3 policy aims to prepare the country for this future. Although it may not yield immediate economic benefits, the policy focuses on building expertise, promoting research, training young talent, and participating in technology development, positioning India to take advantage of these advancements when they mature.
• This policy aligns with other government initiatives, such as the Artificial Intelligence Mission, Quantum Mission, and Green Hydrogen Mission, which aim to equip India with cutting-edge technologies that are expected to become essential to the global economy and address key challenges like climate change and energy security.
• The BioE3 policy proposes establishing several biomanufacturing hubs across India. These hubs will provide a space for industry partners and start-ups to create specialized chemicals, smart proteins, enzymes, functional foods, and other bio-based products and services.
• The hubs will concentrate on six areas: bio-based chemicals and enzymes, functional foods and smart proteins, precision biotherapeutics, climate-resilient agriculture, carbon capture and utilization, and advanced marine and space research.
• The latter focuses on developing life support systems for astronauts that can recycle waste, produce oxygen, and grow food using specialized plants or microorganisms like algae in space environments.
• Additionally, research on marine ecosystems could lead to the production of novel compounds and enzymes by marine organisms, with potential applications in sectors such as pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
• The BioE3 policy is spearheaded by the Department of Biotechnology, but its scope is so broad that it will require the collaboration of at least 15 other government departments for successful implementation

4. BioE3 Policy

 

The BioE3 policy refers to India's strategic initiative aimed at fostering a bio-economy by leveraging biotechnology to address various industrial, environmental, and societal challenges. This policy is designed to prepare India for a future where biological processes and technologies play a central role in economic development. The key focus of the BioE3 policy includes the promotion of biomanufacturing, where biological organisms or processes are used for industrial production, and creating a framework to harness the potential of biotechnology in sectors such as healthcare, agriculture, and environmental sustainability.

Objectives of BioE3 Policy:

• Establishing biomanufacturing hubs where industries and start-ups can develop bio-based products like specialized chemicals, enzymes, smart proteins, functional foods, etc.

• Developing competencies by promoting research, education, and talent development in biotechnology fields.

• Supporting the development of advanced biotechnologies, including gene editing, bioinformatics, and precision biotherapeutics, to stay at the forefront of global innovation.
• Utilizing biotechnology to address challenges like climate change, carbon capture, and creating eco-friendly alternatives to traditional industrial processes.
• Ensuring that multiple government departments work together to implement the policy effectively, reflecting its broad impact on various sectors

 

For Prelims: Global Biofuel Alliance (GBA), G-20 summit, E10 (10% ethanol) or E85 (85% ethanol), Electric vehicle (EV), and International Energy Agency (IEA). For Mains: 1. Discuss the role of biofuels in the global transition to sustainable energy sources, considering their environmental impact, economic implications, and potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. (250 words).

 

Previous year Question 1. According to India's National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels? (UPSC 2020) 1. Cassava 2. Damaged wheat grains 3. Groundnut seeds 4. Horse gram 5. Rotten potatoes 6. Sugar beet Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2, 5 and 6 only B. 1, 3, 4 and 6 only C. 2, 3, 4 and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Answer: A 2. It is possible to produce algae-based biofuels, but what is/are the likely limitation(s) of developing countries in promoting this industry? (UPSC 2017) 1. Production of algae-based biofuels is possible in seas only and not on continents. 2. Setting up and engineering the algae-based biofuels production requires a high level of expertise/technology until the construction is completed. 3. Economically viable production necessitates the setting up of large-scale facilities which may raise ecological and social concerns. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B 3. With reference to the Neem tree, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. Neem oil can be used as a pesticide to control the proliferation of some species of insects and mites. 2. Neem seeds are used in the manufacture of biofuels and hospital detergents. 3. Neem oil has applications in the pharmaceutical industry. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: C

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

DIGIPIN

 

 

1. Context

 

The Department of Posts (DOP), under the Ministry of Communications, on Friday inked a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with geospatial solutions provider MapmyIndia – Mappls at Dak Bhawan. The agreement is aimed at utilising the company’s mapping platform and products to support DIGIPIN. 

 

2. What is DIGIPIN?

 

 

• DIGIPIN is a distinctive ten-character alphanumeric identifier that can be assigned to any property spanning roughly 4 by 4 square meters within India. This allows for its application to nearly all property types—whether in urban neighborhoods, rural villages, or coastal and maritime zones.

• The Department of Posts has developed DIGIPIN’s core technology in partnership with the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Hyderabad and the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), which operates under the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).

• The government has clarified that DIGIPIN is designed to be open-source, interoperable, and privacy-conscious. Each code is based solely on the property’s geographic coordinates, ensuring no personal data is embedded or stored in the system.

• Rather than replacing the existing six-digit PIN code, DIGIPIN is meant to complement it by providing a more precise location layer over traditional postal addresses.

• Alongside the launch of the digital tool “Know Your DIGIPIN,” the Department of Posts also introduced “Know Your PIN Code,” which aligns with the objectives of the National Geospatial Policy 2022. This initiative supports the modernization of India's postal addressing framework and geospatial infrastructure.

• The “Know Your PIN Code” web app uses GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) capabilities to help users pinpoint the correct PIN code based on their location and offer feedback for enhancing PIN code accuracy

 

3. What is a Postal Index Number (PIN)?

 

• The Postal Index Number (PIN) system was launched on August 15, 1972, with the goal of streamlining mail sorting and delivery in India. This system became essential in a country where numerous places share similar or identical names and where correspondence is often written in multiple languages.

• The PIN code consists of six digits. The first digit identifies the postal zone—such as North, South, East, or West—with the digit 9 reserved for the Army Postal Service. The second digit specifies the sub-region, while the third digit points to the specific sorting district. The last three digits further refine the address by indicating the exact post office responsible for delivery.

• The introduction of the PIN system was led by Shriram Bhikaji Velankar, who served as an additional secretary in the Union Ministry of Communications and was a senior figure on the Posts and Telegraphs Board

 

4.What is NAKSHA?

 

 

• In the Union Budget 2025, the government introduced the National Geospatial Mission, aimed at building essential geospatial infrastructure and datasets. Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman stated that the initiative, aligned with the PM Gati Shakti framework, would help advance the modernization of land records, urban development, and infrastructure project design
• As part of this mission, Union Rural Development Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan launched a new Central government project in February called ‘NAKSHA’—short for National Geospatial Knowledge-based Land Survey of Urban Habitations
• This program is a city-level land survey initiative that falls under the broader Digital India Land Records Modernization Programme (DILRMP). It is led by the Department of Land Resources (DoLR) under the Ministry of Rural Development, and is fully funded by the Central Government.
• As per the DoLR, the NAKSHA program seeks to develop a detailed and precise geospatial database for urban land records. By combining aerial imagery, ground surveys, and GIS technology, the program aims to improve land governance, simplify property record management, and support effective urban planning.
• High-quality geospatial data will also aid in better decision-making, optimize land use, and provide more reliable and efficient property transactions

 

5. Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 

 

• Regarding DIGIPIN’s precision, India Post noted that its accuracy largely depends on the quality and capability of the device used to capture the Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) coordinates.

• GNSS operates through a network of satellites orbiting the Earth, constantly transmitting radio signals embedded with exact timing and positioning data. When a GNSS receiver—such as one found in smartphones—can access signals from at least four satellites, it determines its location using a method known as trilateration.

• To achieve worldwide coverage, a satellite network must consist of roughly 18 to 30 satellites strategically positioned in orbit. Multiple GNSS systems are maintained by different countries and unions. The most well-known among them are the GPS from the United States, Galileo from the European Union, GLONASS from Russia, and BeiDou from China. Additionally, certain regions operate their own localized systems, such as India’s NavIC and Japan’s QZSS, which cater to specific geographic zones rather than the entire globe.

• NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), is India’s regional GNSS. It is composed of eight satellites that provide navigational services across India and up to about 1,500 kilometers beyond its borders.

• The NavIC system offers two categories of services: the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) for general public and commercial applications, and the Restricted Service (RS) reserved for military and strategic use, both covering the Indian mainland and adjacent areas

 

 

For Prelims: NavIC system , Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS), National Geospatial Mission   For Mains: GS III - Science and technology

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to the Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. IRNSS has three satellites in geostationary and four satellites in geosynchronous orbits. 2. IRNSS covers entire India and about 5500 sq. km beyond its borders. 3. India will have its own satellite navigation system with full global coverage by the middle of 2019. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only     B. 1 and 2 only     C.  2 and 3 only        D. None   Answer: A   2. Full form of NavIC is : (CGPSC 2022)  A. Navigation without International Control B. Navigation with Indian Constellation C. Navigation with Indian Coastal D. Navigation with Indian Cooperation   Answer: B   3. ISRO is related to (SSC JE EE  2020)  A. space research B. agricultural research C. seed research D. marine research   Answer: A   4. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:  (UPSC  2018)  1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only                  B. 2 and 3             C. 1 and 2                    D.  3 only   Answer: A   5. In which of the following areas can GPS technology be used? (UPSC 2018) 1. Mobile phone operations 2. Banking operations 3. Controlling the power grids Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only    B. 2 and 3 only   C.  1 and 3 only      D.  1, 2 and 3   Answer: D

 

 Source: The Indian Express

 

 

GANGOTRI GLACIER SYSTEM (GGS)

 

 

 

1. Context

 

A recent study has reconstructed the long-term discharge flow of the Gangotri Glacier System (GGS), the source of the upper Ganga basin which contributes to the waters of the Bhagirathi river in the central Himalayas. In the wake of climate change, glaciologists the world over have been studying the impact of glacier melt.

 

2. Gangotri Glacier System (GGS)

 

 

• The Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) is one of the largest glacier systems in the Himalayas and holds immense significance both geographically and culturally. Stretching nearly 30 kilometers in length, it serves as the primary source of the river Bhagirathi, which later merges with the Alaknanda at Devprayag to form the Ganga, a river deeply revered in Indian civilization.
• Located in Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand, the glacier lies in the Garhwal Himalayas at an altitude ranging from about 7,100 meters at its highest peaks to 4,000 meters at its snout, known as Gomukh, which literally means “cow’s mouth” due to its distinct shape. The glacier system is fed by several tributary glaciers such as Raktvarn, Chaturangi, and Kirti, which together form the vast Gangotri Glacier complex.
• Like other Himalayan glaciers, the GGS is highly sensitive to climatic conditions. Over the decades, it has been retreating at a significant rate, largely due to rising global temperatures and local anthropogenic pressures.
• This retreat is a matter of concern because the glacier not only sustains perennial river systems but also supports millions of people who depend on the waters of the Ganga for agriculture, drinking water, and hydroelectric power.
• Apart from its hydrological importance, the Gangotri Glacier holds a sacred place in Indian culture and mythology. It is considered the mythological abode where the Ganga descended to Earth, sanctified by Lord Shiva, before flowing across the plains. Thus, it is both a lifeline and a spiritual symbol for the people of India

 

3. Significance of Gangotri Glacier System (GGS)

 

• The snow and ice reserves of the Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) play a vital role in feeding major river systems such as the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra. In recent decades, however, the region has witnessed significant climatic variations that have reshaped the cryosphere and disrupted the hydrological cycle.
• These changes have altered the functioning of glacier-fed river systems, leading to faster glacial retreat and shifts in seasonal water discharge.
• To understand these impacts, researchers often rely on modelling studies, which provide theoretical assessments of changing hydrological patterns. Yet, due to the vast size of these river basins, it is difficult to accurately measure river flow and separate the contributions of snowmelt from that of rainfall.
• Smaller glacier systems, like the Gangotri Glacier System (GGS), offer a more manageable scale for such assessments, making them a preferred subject of study among hydrologists and climate scientists.
• In this context, a recent study titled “Hydrological Contributions of Snow and Glacier Melt from the Gangotri Glacier System and Their Climatic Controls Since 1980” seeks to address this knowledge gap.
• Conducted by researchers from the Indian Institute of Technology, Indore, the Universities of Utah and Dayton (U.S.), and the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Kathmandu, the study has been published in the Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing

 

4. Findings of the Study

 

• The study reconstructed the long-term discharge patterns of the Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) using a high-resolution glacio-hydrological model known as Spatial Processes in Hydrology (SPHY).
• This model simulates various components of the terrestrial water balance, including rainfall-runoff, evapotranspiration, and cryospheric processes. To enhance accuracy, it was combined with the Indian Monsoon Data Assimilation and Analysis (IMDAA) dataset covering the period from 1980 to 2020.
• The results revealed that the GGS records its maximum discharge during the summer season, with a peak flow in July reaching about 129 cubic metres per second. On average, the annual discharge over the four decades was calculated at 28±1.9 m³/s, with snowmelt making the largest contribution (64%), followed by glacier melt (21%), rainfall-runoff (11%), and base flow (4%).
• A decade-wise examination highlighted a shift in the discharge peak from August to July after the 1990s, a change linked to reduced winter precipitation and increased early summer melting.
• Further, the mean decadal discharge indicated the sharpest rise—about 7.8%—between the periods 1991–2000 and 2001–2010. While the data reflected a steady rise in mean annual temperatures, there was no significant long-term trend in either annual precipitation or glacier melt.
• Interestingly, snowmelt contributions declined despite warming, primarily due to a reduction in the average snow cover area. In contrast, both rainfall-runoff and base flow showed an increasing pattern from 1980 to 2020.
• Statistical correlations from the study suggested that the mean annual discharge of GGS is primarily influenced by summer precipitation, with winter temperature being the secondary factor

5. Other important glaciers in the Himalayas

 

• The Himalayas, often called the “Third Pole,” are home to thousands of glaciers that act as crucial freshwater reserves, feeding some of the largest river systems of South Asia.
• These glaciers not only sustain perennial rivers such as the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra but also serve as important indicators of climate change because of their sensitivity to temperature and precipitation variations.
• Apart from the Gangotri Glacier System, several other glaciers hold immense geographical, hydrological, and cultural importance. The Siachen Glacier, located in the eastern Karakoram range, is the second-longest glacier outside the polar regions, stretching about 76 kilometers.
• It is strategically significant as it lies near the India-Pakistan-China tri-junction, making it one of the most militarized zones in the world.
• Another important glacier is the Baltoro Glacier, also situated in the Karakoram. It is famous for being surrounded by some of the highest peaks of the world, including K2. To the west, the Biafo Glacier connects with the Hispar Glacier, forming one of the longest glacial systems outside the poles.
• In the central Himalayas, the Pindari Glacier in Uttarakhand is a well-known source of the Pindar River and is popular among trekkers. The Milam Glacier, also in Uttarakhand, is another major glacier feeding the Gori Ganga River. The Zemu Glacier in Sikkim, lying on the eastern Himalayas, is the largest glacier in the region and contributes significantly to the Teesta River.
• In the Kashmir Himalayas, glaciers like the Kolhoi Glacier in Lidder Valley and the Drang-Drung Glacier in the Zanskar region are vital for local river systems. The Dokriani Glacier near Gangotri is often used by scientists as a benchmark glacier to study retreat and climatic effects in the Garhwal Himalayas.
• Collectively, these glaciers form the backbone of water security in the Indian subcontinent, regulating river flow, supporting agriculture, hydropower, and drinking water needs for millions of people downstream.
• However, many of them are retreating rapidly due to global warming, making their conservation and continuous monitoring a pressing environmental concern

 

6. Way Forward

 

The Gangotri Glacier System (GGS) has shown a rising trend in rainfall-runoff and base flow, pointing towards hydrological changes linked to warming conditions. This year, the summer monsoon in northern India has been unusually intense, recording about 25% higher rainfall than the seasonal average between June and August. The region has witnessed several severe flooding events in Uttarakhand, Jammu, and Himachal Pradesh, which local authorities frequently describe as ‘cloudbursts.’ However, such labels are often made without scientific evidence, since neither ground-based instruments nor satellite data are available to confirm them. By definition, a cloudburst refers to an extreme weather event where more than 10 cm of rainfall occurs within an hour over an area smaller than 30 square kilometers

 

 

For Prelims: Gangotri Glacier System, Siachen Glacier, Indian Monsoon Data Assimilation and Analysis (IMDAA)   For Mains: GS I - Geography

 

Source: The Hindu