US-TAIWAN 

1.Context

The recent February 16 update of the U.S. State Department factsheet on Taiwan calls for a revisit of U.S.-Taiwan relations. The factsheet now does not assert that “we do not support Taiwan independence” and states that the U.S. will support “Taiwan’s membership in international organisations where applicable”

2. Background

• China has condemned US Speaker Nancy Pelosi's visit to Taiwan, calling it "extremely dangerous."

• It is the highest-ranking visit by an American politician to the island in 25 years.
• China sees Taiwan as a breakaway province that will eventually be under Beijing's control again.
• However, Taiwan sees itself as an independent country, with its constitution and democratically-elected leaders.
• China's President Xi Jinping has said "reunification" with Taiwan "must be fulfilled" - and has not ruled out the possible use of force to achieve this.

3. About Taiwan

• Taiwan is an island, roughly 100 miles from the coast of southeast China.
• It sits in the so-called "first island chain", which includes a list of US-friendly territories that are crucial to US foreign policy.

• If China was to take over Taiwan, some western experts suggest it could be freer to project power in the western Pacific region and could even threaten US military bases as far away as Guam and Hawaii.
• But China insists that its intentions are purely peaceful.

4. Historical Ties between China and Taiwan

• Historical sources suggest that the island first came under full Chinese control in the 17th Century when the Qing dynasty began administering it. Then, in 1895, they gave up the island to Japan after losing the first Sino-Japanese war.
• China took the island again in 1945 after Japan lost World War Two.
• But a civil war erupted in mainland China between nationalist government forces led by Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong's Communist Party.
• The communists won in 1949 and took control of Beijing.
• Chiang Kai-shek and what was left of the nationalist party - known as the Kuomintang - fled to Taiwan, where they ruled for the next several decades.
• China points to this history to say that Taiwan was originally a Chinese province. But the Taiwanese point to the same history to argue that they were never part of the modern Chinese state that was first formed after the revolution in 1911 - or the People's Republic of China that was established under Mao in 1949.
• The Kuomintang has been one of Taiwan's most prominent political parties ever since - ruling the island for a significant part of its history.
• Currently, only 13 countries (plus the Vatican) recognise Taiwan as a sovereign country.
• China exerts considerable diplomatic pressure on other countries not to recognise Taiwan, or to do anything which implies recognition.
• Taiwan's defence minister has said relations with China are the worst they have been for 40 years.

5. Military preparedness of Taiwan

• China could attempt to bring about "reunification" by non-military means such as strengthening economic ties.
• But in any military confrontation, China's armed forces would dwarf those of Taiwan.
• China spends more than any country except the US on defence and could draw on a huge range of capabilities, from naval power to missile technology, aircraft and cyber attacks.
• Much of China's military power is focused elsewhere but, in overall terms of active duty personnel, for example, there is a huge imbalance between the two sides.

• In an open conflict, some western experts predict that Taiwan could at best aim to slow a Chinese attack, try to prevent a shore landing by Chinese amphibious forces, and mount guerrilla strikes whilst waiting for outside help.
• That help could come from the US which sells arms to Taiwan.
• Until now, Washington's policy of "strategic ambiguity" has meant the US has been deliberately unclear about whether or how it would defend Taiwan in the event of an attack.
• Diplomatically, the US currently sticks to the "One-China" policy, which recognises only one Chinese government - in Beijing - and has formal ties with China rather than Taiwan.

 One-China Policy:

The One China policy recognizes the long-held position in Beijing that there is only one China, and that Taiwan is a part of that.

“one country, two systems” approach?

• The principle of “one country, two systems” was first proposed by Deng Xiaoping as a way to restore the relationship between the communist mainland with historically Chinese territories (Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau)—that had capitalist economies. 

6. The unwelcome situations

• In 2021, China appeared to ramp up the pressure by sending military aircraft into Taiwan's Air Defence Zone, a self-declared area where foreign aircraft are identified, monitored, and controlled in the interests of national security.
• Taiwan made data on plane incursions public in 2020.
• The Taiwanese Parliament has passed the Anti-Infiltration Bill which sent the relations between Taiwan and China to a new low. This has been passed in the wake of the news that China has been influencing the media in Taiwan through illicit means, to influence the upcoming political elections.
• Taiwan’s President Tsai Ing-wen has rejected Chinese President Xi Jinping’s call for unification under a “One Country Two Systems” approach and vowed to defend the island nation’s sovereignty. She maintained that the Hong Kong model would not work for Taiwan, as democracy and authoritarianism cannot co-exist in the same country. 
• China, however, claims Taiwan as its territory and wants to bring it under Beijing’s control even if it requires the use of force.

7. Importance of Taiwan for India and the world

• Taiwan's economy is hugely important.
• Much of the world's everyday electronic equipment - from phones to laptops, watches and games consoles - is powered by computer chips made in Taiwan.
• By one measure, a single Taiwanese company - the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company or TSMC - has over half of the world's market.

• A Chinese takeover in Taiwan could give Beijing some control over one of the world's most important industries.

8. Role of the US in Taiwan

• The US is by far Taiwan's most important friend and its only ally.
• In 1979, the US ended diplomatic recognition of Taiwan to concentrate on burgeoning ties with China.
• However, it later revoked and passed the Taiwan Relations Act, which promises to supply Taiwan with defensive weapons, and stressed that any attack by China would be considered of "grave concern" to the US.
• The Taiwan Travel Act aims to promote greater engagement between US and Taiwan.
• The US has also sought to leverage Taiwan to pressure China in the U.S.’s ongoing trade war.

9. Stand of India on the ongoing issue

• India’s policy on Taiwan is clear and consistent and it is focused on promoting interactions in areas of trade, investment and tourism among others.
• Government facilitates and promotes interactions in areas of trade, investment, tourism, culture, education and other such people-to-people exchanges.
• However, India doesn’t have formal diplomatic relations with Taiwan, but both sides have trade and people-to-people ties.

Previous year Question   1. Which one of the following statements best reflects the issue with Senkaku Islands, sometimes mentioned in the news? (UPSC 2022) A. It is generally believed that they are artificial islands made by a country around the South China Sea. B. China and Japan engage in maritime disputes over these islands in the East China Sea. C. A permanent American military base has been set up there to help Taiwan to increase its defense capabilities. D. Though the International Court of Justice declared them as no man's land, some South-East Asian countries claim them. Answer: B

 

 

Source: The Indian Express

 

ONE NATION-ONE ELECTION

 

 

1. Context 

Electoral reforms are a hot topic of discussion in India, especially with the introduction of One Nation One Election Bill in Parliament, currently under consideration by the Joint Parliamentary Committee. This is an opportune time to consider other potential electoral reforms such as the practice of sitting legislators contesting for another legislative office, whether at the national or state level

2. About the ONOE Plan

• The ONOE plan revolves around a core concept synchronizing the timing of Lok Sabha (India's lower house of Parliament) and State Assembly elections across all states.
• The primary objective is to reduce the frequency of elections throughout the country.

3. Historical Perspective on Simultaneous Elections

• Taking a historical glance, the first-ever general elections to Lok Sabha and all State Assemblies occurred simultaneously in 1951-1952, immediately following the enforcement of the Constitution on January 26, 1950.
• This practice persisted through three subsequent Lok Sabha elections until 1967 when it was disrupted.
• The initial disruption took place in 1959 when Article 356 of the Constitution was invoked by the Centre to dismiss the Kerala government.
• Subsequently, due to political defections and counter-defections, several Legislative Assemblies dissolved post-1960, ultimately leading to separate elections for Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
• Presently, assembly polls in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha are held in conjunction with Lok Sabha elections.

4. Insights from Reports on ONOE

• In August 2018, the Law Commission of India (LCI), chaired by Justice B. S. Chauhan, released a draft report on simultaneous elections.
• This comprehensive report analyzed the constitutional and legal aspects of the ONOE issue.
• Notably, the LCI submitted that simultaneous elections are not feasible within the current framework of the Constitution.
• The LCI emphasized that conducting simultaneous polls would require amendments to the Constitution, the Representation of the People's Act 1951, and the Rules of Procedure of Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
• Furthermore, the commission recommended that this proposal receive ratification from at least 50% of the states.
• However, in terms of the benefits of simultaneous elections, the commission argued that ONOE would result in substantial cost savings, reduced strain on the administrative setup and security forces, timely implementation of government policies, and a shift of managerial focus towards development activities instead of electioneering.
• Notably, this is not the first time such a proposal has been made, as a similar recommendation was made by the LCI in 1999, headed by Justice B. P. Jeevan Reddy.

5. Concerns Surrounding ONOE

• The feasibility of ONOE is a matter of paramount concern. Articles 83(2) and 172 of the Constitution specify that the tenure of Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, respectively, shall last for five years unless dissolved earlier.
• However, Article 356 provides for circumstances where assemblies can be dissolved earlier.
• Consequently, the ONOE plan raises crucial questions, such as what would happen if the Central or State government collapses mid-tenure.
• Would elections be held again in every state, or would President's rule be imposed
• Amending the Constitution to implement such a significant change would necessitate extensive consideration of various scenarios and provisions and could set a concerning precedent for further constitutional amendments.
• Another critical concern relates to the idea of ONOE not aligning with the concept of 'federalism.'
• Federalism is established on the notion that the entire nation is a "Union of States," which appears to contradict the concept of 'one nation' proposed by ONOE.

6. Benefits of Recurrent Elections

• The present system of recurrent elections is viewed by some as beneficial in a democracy.
• It allows voters to have their voices heard more frequently and ensures that issues at the national and state levels remain distinct.
• This separation of issues promotes greater accountability among elected officials.
• The Central government has highlighted the substantial costs associated with frequent elections as a key motivator for ONOE.
• The Election Commission's expenditure of ₹8,000 crore over five years, equivalent to ₹1,500 crore annually or ₹27 per voter per year, can truly be considered a 'massive' expense for maintaining India's status as the world's largest electoral democracy.

8. The Way Forward

• The 'One Nation, One Election' plan presents both advantages and challenges that warrant careful consideration and debate.
• It is essential to weigh the benefits of reduced election frequency against the potential disruption to the democratic process and the fundamental principles of federalism and accountability.

 

For Prelims: One Nation-One Election, Article 356, Law Commission of India, Representation of the People's Act 1951, Article 83(2), Article 172, federalism,  For Mains: 1. What is One Nation-One Election? Explain how having simultaneous elections across Lok Sabha and State assemblies counter federalism. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. If the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, then  (UPSC 2018) A. the Assembly of the State is automatically dissolved. B. the powers of the Legislature of that State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of the Parliament. C. Article 19 is suspended in that State. D. the President can make laws relating to that State.   Answer: B   2. What is the provision in Article 356 of Indian Constitution? (Soldier Technical Paper 2021) A. For jobs in reservation of backward classes B. To impose President's rule in the states C. For the protection of religious monument D. To give special status to Jammu and kashmir   Answer: B   3. According to the Representation of the People Act, 1951, in the event of a person being elected to both houses of Parliament, he has to notify within ______ days in which house he intends to function. (Delhi Police Constable 2020) A. 22             B. 10         C. 20             D. 15   Answer: B   4. Under what Article of the Constitution of India can the President take over the administration of a state in case its constitutional machinery breaks down? (MP Police Constable 2016)  A. Article 83          B. Article 352         C. Article 356          D. Article 343   Answer: C   5. Which one of the following in Indian Polity is an essential feature that indicates that it is federal in character? (UPSC 2021) A. The independence of judiciary is safeguarded B. The Union Legislature has elected representatives from constituent units C. The Union Cabinet can have elected representatives from regional parties D. The Fundamental Rights are enforceable by Courts of Law   Answer: A

 

 Source: The Hindu

 

MANDALA SYSTEM

 

 

1. Context

 

The chapters of the Rig Veda are called mandalas — circles of hymns. This is because unlike a book, where one moves from chapter to chapter, the Vedic chapters are not really chapters

 

2. Mandala System in Jain, Buddhist, and Mauryan traditions

 

• In Jainism, when a Tirthankara attains omniscience—complete knowledge of all things and beings—he is believed to ascend into the air, appearing to face all directions simultaneously. Beings from all realms gather around him in concentric circles to hear his teachings.
• Each individual perceives that the Tirthankara is addressing them personally, speaking in their own language and at their level of understanding. This sacred circular assembly was known as sam-sharana, symbolizing refuge for all.
• In Buddhism, the relics of the Buddha were enshrined beneath a hemispherical mound resembling an overturned bowl, known as a stupa. Surrounding the stupa was a circular pathway, bordered by a decorative fence adorned with disc-shaped ornaments illustrating scenes from the Buddha’s life and Jataka tales.
• Devotees would walk along this path in a clockwise direction, ensuring that the stupa remained on their right. This circular movement not only facilitated mindfulness but also deepened their contemplation of the Buddha’s teachings. This practice, known as pra-dakshina (meaning "towards the south"), was later integrated into Hindu temple rituals.
• The concept of circularity also influenced the idea of the Buddhist or Jain ruler, referred to as a Chakravartin. The term chakra (wheel) symbolized the extent of his dominion: the capital city at the center, the trade routes forming the spokes, and the outer boundary representing the limits of his influence.
• This model of governance gained prominence during the Mauryan period (circa 300 BCE) and became widely recognized in Buddhist and Jain traditions

 

3. Power Circles

 

• Kautilya, in the Arthashastra (circa 300 CE), introduced the concept of Rajamandala, a circular framework for understanding a kingdom’s structure. At its core is the king, surrounded by land for which he collects rent. Beyond this lies territory where he imposes taxes in exchange for protection.
• Further out are lands that pay him tribute; if they refuse, he uses military threats to enforce compliance. Beyond these tributary states are hostile territories that do not acknowledge his authority.
• Further still lies the enemy of the enemy, with whom the king forms alliances through gift exchanges to strategically weaken the hostile state caught in between.
• This concept gained prominence during the Gupta period and later influenced the Mandala kingdoms of Southeast Asia. The expansion or contraction of the mandala depended on the strength of the ruler—when the king was powerful, his influence spread; when weak, it shrank. This dynamic model of governance defined the Indian approach to kingship, centered around the idea of concentric circles of power.
• In Tantric Buddhism, the mandala structure became more intricate, incorporating multiple layers. At the center was Adi-Buddha, surrounded in the four cardinal directions by the Dhyan-Buddhas, who were encircled by Bodhisattvas.
• Similarly, Chanakya’s Rajamandala evolved into a more complex system of governance: the maharaja stood at the center, with subordinate rajas around him, each of whom had their own samantas (vassals). Every layer was part of a larger whole, reflecting an increasingly sophisticated political structure

 

4. Evolution of Governance

 

• In Odisha, some of the earliest Tantric mandalas—stupas arranged in circular formations—symbolized the spiritual realm and influenced political structures. This architectural concept later inspired the grand circular design of Borobudur in Java, Indonesia, around 900 CE.
• The mandala framework provided a model for rulers to structure their kingdoms, influencing not just governance but also temple architecture and paintings. As Buddhist and Hindu traditions spread, this design became prominent in regions such as Tibet, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, and Java.
• The same principle guided the construction of Hindu temples, where a central temple was surrounded by progressively smaller temples in concentric layers.
• In the Chakravartin system, power was primarily concentrated along trade routes. The Raja-mandala model extended control over agricultural land to generate revenue through rent, taxes, and tribute.
• Meanwhile, the Tantric mandala system introduced a cascading hierarchy of authority—lesser kings controlled their own territories but paid tribute to more powerful rulers, who, in turn, acknowledged an even stronger sovereign.
• This structure was fluid, with power centers constantly shifting based on the strength of individual rulers, causing mandalas to expand and contract organically. This governance model was distinctly Indian.
• However, with the advent of Islam, a different system emerged, where a singular sultan held supreme authority, granting land (iqta) to loyal subjects in exchange for military service.
• The circular power structure briefly reappeared under Akbar around 1600 CE, particularly in the design of his Diwan-e-Khas, where he positioned himself at the center on a lotus throne, symbolizing his central role in governance

 

For Prelims: Mandalas, iqtas, Jains, Budhists   For Mains:  GS I - Art & Culture

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

SHAMBHAJI MAHARAJ (CHHAAVA)

 

 

1. Context

 

Vicky Kaushal and Rashmika Mandanna’s historical drama Chhaava hit theatres on February 14, 2025, and has been a box office sensation ever since. The movie is an adaptation of Shivaji Sawant’s Marathi novel of the same name

 

2. Shambaji Maharaj

 

• Sambhaji Maharaj, the eldest son of the renowned Maratha emperor Chhatrapati Shivaji, ascended the throne as the second ruler of the Maratha kingdom following his father's demise. His reign, though brief at nine years, was marked by exceptional courage and unwavering patriotism. He remains a revered figure, especially in Maharashtra, for choosing martyrdom over conversion.

• From 1681 to 1689, his rule was dominated by conflicts with the Mughal Empire, the Siddi of Janjira, the Wadiyars of Mysore, and the Portuguese Empire, shaping the course of Maratha resistance.

• One of Sambhaji Maharaj's most notable military campaigns was the attack on Burhanpur, a vital Mughal trade hub in present-day Madhya Pradesh. Aware of Aurangzeb’s ambitions to expand into the Deccan, Sambhaji launched a strategic offensive that dealt a significant setback to the Mughals.

• Between 1682 and 1688, several battles were fought between the Marathas and the Mughals. Despite Mughal attempts to seize Maratha-held forts, their efforts were largely unsuccessful

 

3. Battle of Wai

 

• During the autumn of 1687, the Mughal and Maratha armies clashed in the dense forests near Wai and Mahabaleshwar in the Deccan region of India.

• In the Battle of Wai, Hambirrao Mohite, the Maratha commander-in-chief and a key ally of Sambhaji Maharaj, was killed. Although the Marathas emerged victorious, Mohite’s death proved to be a severe setback. His loss led to widespread desertion among Sambhaji’s troops, weakening his position. Eventually, in January 1689, Sambhaji was captured by the Mughal forces.

• Historical records differ on the exact sequence of events that followed, but most accounts agree that Sambhaji was given the choice to surrender his forts, hand over his treasures, and convert to Islam. Refusing to comply, he faced brutal torture and execution

 

4. Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight) 

 

The Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight) was a body of eight key ministers entrusted with the governance of the Maratha Kingdom. This administrative system was introduced by Chhatrapati Shivaji and included the following officials:

• Peshwa – The Prime Minister, responsible for overseeing the overall administration.
• Amatya – The Finance Minister, tasked with managing the empire’s finances and accounts.
• Shurunavis – The Secretary, responsible for drafting royal decrees and official documents.
• Mantri – The Interior Minister, overseeing internal administration and intelligence.
• Sari-i-Naubat / Senapati – The Commander-in-Chief, leading military operations and defense strategies.
• Sumant – The Foreign Minister, handling diplomatic relations with other rulers.
• Nyay Adhyaksh – The Chief Justice, responsible for judicial matters, including civil and criminal cases.
• Panditrao – The High Priest, overseeing religious affairs and spiritual guidance.

Additionally, the Chitnis served as the Personal Secretary to the Chhatrapati, functioning as a senior official responsible for documentation and often acting as the Peshwa’s deputy in their absence

 

5. Battles fought by Marathas

 

• Battle of Pratapgarh (1659) – A conflict between the Marathas and the Adilshahi forces.
• Battle of Kolhapur (1659) – A battle fought between Chhatrapati Shivaji and the Adilshahi army.
• Battle of Surat (1664) – A confrontation between Maratha ruler Shivaji Maharaj and Inayat Khan, a Mughal commander.
• Battle of Purandar (1665) – A war between the Marathas and the Mughal Empire.
• Battle of Salher (1672) – A significant battle fought between the Maratha Empire and the Mughals.
• Battle of Sangamner (1679) – The last battle led by Shivaji, fought between the Mughal and Maratha forces.
• First Anglo-Maratha War (1775–82) – Ended with the Treaty of Salbai in 1782.
• Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–05) – Involved major agreements, including:
  • Treaty of Bassein (1802) – Between Peshwa Baji Rao II and the British East India Company.
  • Treaty of Deogaon (1803) – Between Raghuji Bhonsle II of Nagpur and Sir Arthur Wellesley of the British East India Company.
• Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–19) – Led to several key treaties:
  • Treaty of Poona – Signed with the Peshwa.
  • Treaty of Gwalior – Signed with Sindhia.
  • Treaty of Mandasor – Signed with Holkar

 

 

For Prelims: Anglo Maratha Wars, Peshwas, British East India Company

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Among the Ashtapradhans of Shivaji, who among the following did not hold any military commands besides civil duties? ( Combined Geo-Scientist (Preliminary) Examination, 2025) 1. Peshwa 2. Amatya 3. Sumanta 4. Pandit Rao Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 4 only Answer (d) Among the Ashtapradhan (Council of Eight) of Chhatrapati Shivaji, Pandit Rao was the High Priest responsible for religious and spiritual affairs. Unlike some other ministers who had both civil and military responsibilities, Pandit Rao did not hold any military command. Peshwa (Prime Minister) – Primarily an administrative head but could also be involved in military planning. Amatya (Finance Minister) – Managed financial affairs but had some influence in administrative and military matters. Sumant (Foreign Minister) – Handled diplomatic relations, often assisting in military alliances. Pandit Rao (High Priest) – Solely managed religious and ethical matters, with no military role. Thus, only Pandit Rao among the given options did not hold any military command 2.Chronologically arrange the following treaties/conventions signed between the Marathas and the British (starting with the earliest): (CDS Exam (I) 2021) 1. Treaty of Salbai 2. Treaty of Purandar 3. Convention of Wadgaon 4. Treaty of Surat Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 4-2-3-1 (b) 4-3-2-1 (c) 1-3-2-4 (d) 1-2-3-4 Answer (a) 4 - 2 - 3 - 1 Treaty of Surat (1775) – Signed between Raghunathrao (Raghoba) and the British East India Company (Bombay Government). Raghunathrao sought British support in his claim to the Peshwa position, leading to the First Anglo-Maratha War. Treaty of Purandar (1776) – Signed between the Pune-based Maratha leadership and the British (Calcutta Council), canceling the Treaty of Surat. It denied Raghunathrao any claim to the Peshwa throne but allowed him a pension. Convention of Wadgaon (1779) – Signed after the British defeat at the Battle of Wadgaon during the First Anglo-Maratha War. The British were forced to surrender and withdraw. Treaty of Salbai (1782) – This treaty ended the First Anglo-Maratha War, restoring the pre-war status quo and granting peace between the Marathas and the British for nearly two decades

Source: Indianexpress