2. About Wetlands

A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, and supports a distinct ecosystem of plants and animals adapted to wet conditions. Wetlands are found all over the world, from the tropics to the Arctic, and they come in a variety of forms, including marshes, swamps, bogs, and fens.

2.1. Importance of Wetlands

• Wetlands are some of the most biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth. They provide habitat for a wide variety of plant and animal species, many of which are specially adapted to these waterlogged environments. They serve as breeding grounds and nurseries for numerous aquatic and terrestrial species.
• Wetlands act as natural water filters. They can remove excess nutrients, pollutants, and sediment from water, improving water quality and helping to purify drinking water sources. This filtration function is critical for maintaining clean and healthy ecosystems.
• Wetlands act as natural sponges, absorbing excess rainfall and reducing the risk of flooding. They store water during periods of heavy rainfall and gradually release it, helping to control downstream flooding and erosion.
• Wetlands store and sequester significant amounts of carbon, which can help mitigate climate change. They also play a role in regulating local and regional climate patterns by influencing temperature and humidity.
• Wetlands are often valued for their aesthetic beauty and recreational opportunities. People visit wetlands for activities like birdwatching, fishing, and nature appreciation. This can support local economies through tourism and outdoor recreation.
• Many indigenous and local communities have deep cultural and traditional connections to wetlands. These ecosystems hold spiritual and cultural significance, and they often provide resources for traditional practices and livelihoods.
• Wetlands offer unique opportunities for scientific research and education. They help us better understand ecosystem dynamics, species interactions, and environmental processes.
• Wetlands can provide economic benefits through activities like fishing, agriculture, and forestry. They can also act as natural infrastructure for storm protection, reducing the economic costs of disasters.
• Many species, including endangered and threatened ones, rely on wetlands for their survival. By conserving wetland ecosystems, we can protect these species and their habitats.

2.2. Types of Wetlands

Wetlands come in various types, each with its unique characteristics and ecological functions. Some of the primary wetland types include:

• Swamps are forested wetlands dominated by trees and woody shrubs. They often occur in areas with slow-moving or standing water. Swamps are important for providing habitat to numerous bird and amphibian species. They can be freshwater or saltwater, depending on their location.
• Marshes are herbaceous wetlands dominated by grasses, reeds, sedges, and other non-woody plants. They are typically found near the edges of lakes, rivers, and coastlines. Marshes are vital for water purification and provide habitat for a wide range of wildlife, including birds, amphibians, and insects. They can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater.
• Bogs are acidic wetlands characterized by waterlogged, spongy ground and a distinctive peat layer. They tend to be low in nutrients and are often fed by rainwater. Bogs support unique plant communities, including sphagnum mosses and carnivorous plants. They are important for carbon storage and can be sources of groundwater recharge.
• Fens are similar to bogs but have alkaline or mineral-rich water sources. They typically have a higher nutrient content and support different plant species. Fens are essential for water filtration and can be important for maintaining water quality in certain regions.
• Vernal Pools are temporary or seasonal wetlands that often appear in the spring and dry up during the summer or fall. They provide breeding habitats for amphibians and invertebrates. Because they are ephemeral, vernal pools are not always wetlands in the traditional sense, but they serve important ecological functions.
• Tidal Wetlands are influenced by the ebb and flow of ocean tides. They include salt marshes and mangrove swamps. These wetlands are important for shoreline stabilization, habitat for numerous marine species, and protection against coastal erosion and storm surges.
• Freshwater Wetlands are found in various settings, including along rivers, lakes, ponds, and in the interior of continents. They are essential for water purification, flood control, and providing habitat for numerous species.
• Saltwater Wetlands such as salt marshes and mangroves, occur in coastal areas and estuaries where saltwater from the ocean mixes with freshwater from rivers. They are vital for coastal protection, as well as supporting a range of marine life.
• Estuarine Wetlands are transitional zones where freshwater rivers and saltwater bodies meet, creating a unique mix of conditions. They are important for supporting diverse and specialized species, acting as nurseries for fish and providing food and habitat for numerous wildlife species.

2.3. Threats to Wetlands

Wetlands, despite their ecological importance, face numerous threats that can lead to their degradation or loss. Some of the primary threats to wetlands include:

• One of the most significant threats to wetlands is urban and industrial development. Construction of roads, buildings, and infrastructure often involves draining or filling wetlands, leading to their destruction. Urbanization can also introduce pollution and increased runoff, degrading water quality.
• Agriculture, including the drainage of wetlands for crop cultivation or livestock grazing, can lead to the loss of wetland habitats. The use of fertilizers and pesticides in agricultural areas can also result in pollution of wetlands.
• Pollution from various sources, including urban, industrial, and agricultural runoff, can contaminate wetland water, affecting the health of aquatic life and undermining the water purification function of wetlands.
• Altering the natural flow of water, such as through dam construction, water diversion for irrigation, or urban drainage systems, can disrupt the natural hydrology of wetlands. Changes in water levels can negatively impact the plants and wildlife that rely on these ecosystems.
• The introduction of non-native or invasive species can threaten wetland ecosystems. Invasive plants, in particular, can outcompete native species and alter the wetland's natural composition and functions.
• Climate change can lead to rising sea levels and increased temperatures, affecting coastal and freshwater wetlands. Altered precipitation patterns can also impact wetland hydrology. Climate-related factors can lead to shifts in wetland ecosystems and can exacerbate other threats.
• Excessive water extraction from wetland areas, often for agricultural or industrial use, can lead to the depletion of wetland resources and the drying up of these habitats.
• Conversion of wetlands into other land uses, such as residential or commercial developments, can result in the loss of wetland ecosystems. This often involves drainage and filling activities.
• Large infrastructure projects like road construction, mining, and the development of hydropower facilities can disrupt or destroy wetlands. Dams, in particular, can alter water flow and reduce wetland habitat.
• Fragmentation of wetlands due to human activities can isolate populations of plants and wildlife, making it challenging for species to move and maintain genetic diversity.
• Dredging and channelization of water bodies for navigation and flood control can modify natural watercourses and negatively impact wetland ecosystems.
•  Practices such as overgrazing, deforestation, and soil erosion can result in sedimentation and nutrient runoff into wetlands, degrading their water quality.

3. The Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention)

• The Convention on Wetlands, commonly known as the Ramsar Convention, is an international treaty dedicated to the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.
• It is named after the city of Ramsar in Iran, where the convention was adopted on February 2, 1971, and officially entered into force on December 21, 1975.
• The Ramsar Convention is the only global environmental treaty that focuses on a single ecosystem type, specifically wetlands.

3.1. Key aspects of the Ramsar Convention include

• The primary mission of the Ramsar Convention is to ensure the conservation and wise use of wetlands around the world.
• The term "wise use" in the context of the convention refers to the sustainable use of wetlands to maintain their ecological character and provide for the well-being of human communities that depend on them.
• Parties to the convention designate wetlands within their territories as "Wetlands of International Importance," often referred to as Ramsar Sites. These sites are recognized for their significance in terms of biodiversity, water resources, and human well-being.
• The Ramsar Convention emphasizes the importance of conserving wetlands in a manner that maintains the ecological character of the site and provides benefits for both nature and people.
• The convention recognizes a wide range of wetland types, including lakes, rivers, marshes, peatlands, and coastal areas. It encompasses both freshwater and saltwater wetlands.
• The Ramsar Convention promotes international cooperation and information sharing related to wetland conservation and management. It encourages countries to work together on transboundary wetland issues.
• The convention supports capacity building, scientific research, and public education to raise awareness about the value of wetlands.
• As of my last knowledge update in September 2021, there were over 170 countries that were parties to the Ramsar Convention. These countries commit to implementing the convention's principles within their territories.
• February 2nd of each year is celebrated as World Wetlands Day to raise awareness about the importance of wetlands and the need for their conservation.

4. About Ramsar Sites

4.1. Importance of Being a Ramsar Site

1. Designation as a Ramsar Site confers international recognition of the wetland's ecological and cultural importance. It places the site on a global platform, highlighting its significance.
2. Ramsar Sites receive increased attention and support for their conservation. This often leads to improved protection measures and management practices to safeguard the ecological character of the wetland.
3. Many Ramsar Sites are vital for the conservation of rare and endangered species. Protecting these areas helps ensure the survival of these species and maintains the overall biodiversity of the region.
4. Ramsar Sites provide essential ecosystem services, such as water purification, flood control, and water storage. These services benefit both the environment and human communities, making them crucial for sustainable development.
5. Designated Ramsar Sites often become focal points for scientific research and monitoring. They contribute to our understanding of wetland ecosystems and their functioning.
6. Ramsar Sites can attract eco-tourism, providing opportunities for recreation, research, and environmental education. They can serve as platforms for raising awareness about wetland conservation.
7. Being a Ramsar Site promotes international cooperation and collaboration, as many wetlands are transboundary in nature. Neighbouring countries often work together to manage and protect these shared resources.
8. Many Ramsar Sites have cultural and traditional significance for local communities. Recognition under the convention can support the continuation of cultural practices and livelihoods.

5. About the National Wetland Inventory and Assessment (NWIA)

The National Wetland Inventory and Assessment (NWIA) is a comprehensive program initiated by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) in India to map, classify, and assess the wetlands of the country. The primary objective of the NWIA is to generate a reliable database of wetlands, understand their distribution and characteristics, and assess their ecological status and conservation needs.

5.1. The NWIA is implemented in two phases

National Wetland Inventory (NWI)

The NWI involves the mapping and classification of wetlands using satellite imagery and ground-truthing surveys. The NWI aims to identify and delineate the extent of wetlands, classify them into different types based on their hydrological, ecological, and geomorphological characteristics, and create a spatial database of wetlands.

National Wetland Assessment (NWA)

• The NWA involves the assessment of the ecological status and conservation needs of wetlands.
• The NWA aims to evaluate the ecological health of wetlands, identify threats and pressures affecting them, and prioritize wetlands for conservation and management interventions.
• The NWIA provides a valuable tool for wetland conservation and management in India.
• It helps in understanding the distribution and status of wetlands, identifying priority areas for conservation, and informing policy and decision-making related to wetland management.
• The NWIA also contributes to raising awareness about the importance of wetlands and their role in maintaining ecological balance and providing ecosystem services.

5.2. The key benefits of the NWIA

1. The NWIA provides a comprehensive database of wetlands, including their location, extent, type, and ecological characteristics. This information is essential for understanding the distribution and diversity of wetlands in India.
2. The NWA evaluates the ecological health of wetlands and identifies threats and pressures affecting them. This information helps in prioritizing wetlands for conservation and management interventions.
3. The NWIA provides scientific data and information to support policy and decision-making related to wetland conservation and management. This includes identifying priority areas for conservation, developing management plans, and implementing conservation measures.
4. The NWIA contributes to raising awareness about the importance of wetlands and their role in providing ecosystem services, such as water purification, flood control, and biodiversity conservation.
5. The NWIA aligns with international efforts to conserve wetlands, such as the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. It provides data and information that can be shared with the international community to support global wetland conservation initiatives.

 

Source: indianexpress

 

ONE NATION-ONE ELECTION

 

 

1. Context 

The idea of “one nation, one election” threatens parliamentary democracy, the Constitution’s Basic Structure, and the country’s federal polity, the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) 

The party said it had told the high-level committee led by former President Ram Nath Kovind that the suggestion of holding concurrent elections to the Lok Sabha and all State legislatures posed a grave threat to the idea of free and fair polls.

Holding simultaneous polls is “inadequate in addressing hung legislatures, paving the way for anti-defection and the open buying-selling of MLAs/MPs”, the party said in a statement. It stated that the argument that “one nation, one election” would save election-related costs did not hold as it would only save 0.1% of the Union Budget

2. About the ONOE Plan

• The ONOE plan revolves around a core concept synchronizing the timing of Lok Sabha (India's lower house of Parliament) and State Assembly elections across all states.
• The primary objective is to reduce the frequency of elections throughout the country.

3. Historical Perspective on Simultaneous Elections

• Taking a historical glance, the first-ever general elections to Lok Sabha and all State Assemblies occurred simultaneously in 1951-1952, immediately following the enforcement of the Constitution on January 26, 1950.
• This practice persisted through three subsequent Lok Sabha elections until 1967 when it was disrupted.
• The initial disruption took place in 1959 when Article 356 of the Constitution was invoked by the Centre to dismiss the Kerala government.
• Subsequently, due to political defections and counter-defections, several Legislative Assemblies dissolved post-1960, ultimately leading to separate elections for Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
• Presently, assembly polls in the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha are held in conjunction with Lok Sabha elections.

4. Insights from Reports on ONOE

• In August 2018, the Law Commission of India (LCI), chaired by Justice B. S. Chauhan, released a draft report on simultaneous elections.
• This comprehensive report analyzed the constitutional and legal aspects of the ONOE issue.
• Notably, the LCI submitted that simultaneous elections are not feasible within the current framework of the Constitution.
• The LCI emphasized that conducting simultaneous polls would require amendments to the Constitution, the Representation of the People's Act 1951, and the Rules of Procedure of Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.
• Furthermore, the commission recommended that this proposal receive ratification from at least 50% of the states.
• However, in terms of the benefits of simultaneous elections, the commission argued that ONOE would result in substantial cost savings, reduced strain on the administrative setup and security forces, timely implementation of government policies, and a shift of managerial focus towards development activities instead of electioneering.
• Notably, this is not the first time such a proposal has been made, as a similar recommendation was made by the LCI in 1999, headed by Justice B. P. Jeevan Reddy.

5. Concerns Surrounding ONOE

• The feasibility of ONOE is a matter of paramount concern. Articles 83(2) and 172 of the Constitution specify that the tenure of Lok Sabha and State Assemblies, respectively, shall last for five years unless dissolved earlier.
• However, Article 356 provides for circumstances where assemblies can be dissolved earlier.
• Consequently, the ONOE plan raises crucial questions, such as what would happen if the Central or State government collapses mid-tenure.
• Would elections be held again in every state, or would President's rule be imposed
• Amending the Constitution to implement such a significant change would necessitate extensive consideration of various scenarios and provisions and could set a concerning precedent for further constitutional amendments.
• Another critical concern relates to the idea of ONOE not aligning with the concept of 'federalism.'
• Federalism is established on the notion that the entire nation is a "Union of States," which appears to contradict the concept of 'one nation' proposed by ONOE.

6. Benefits of Recurrent Elections

• The present system of recurrent elections is viewed by some as beneficial in a democracy.
• It allows voters to have their voices heard more frequently and ensures that issues at the national and state levels remain distinct.
• This separation of issues promotes greater accountability among elected officials.
• The Central government has highlighted the substantial costs associated with frequent elections as a key motivator for ONOE.
• The Election Commission's expenditure of ₹8,000 crore over five years, equivalent to ₹1,500 crore annually or ₹27 per voter per year, can truly be considered a 'massive' expense for maintaining India's status as the world's largest electoral democracy.

8. The Way Forward

• The 'One Nation, One Election' plan presents both advantages and challenges that warrant careful consideration and debate.
• It is essential to weigh the benefits of reduced election frequency against the potential disruption to the democratic process and the fundamental principles of federalism and accountability.

 

For Prelims: One Nation-One Election, Article 356, Law Commission of India, Representation of the People's Act 1951, Article 83(2), Article 172, federalism,  For Mains: 1. What is One Nation-One Election? Explain how having simultaneous elections across Lok Sabha and State assemblies counter federalism. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. If the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, then  (UPSC 2018) A. the Assembly of the State is automatically dissolved. B. the powers of the Legislature of that State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of the Parliament. C. Article 19 is suspended in that State. D. the President can make laws relating to that State.   Answer: B   2. What is the provision in Article 356 of Indian Constitution? (Soldier Technical Paper 2021) A. For jobs in reservation of backward classes B. To impose President's rule in the states C. For the protection of religious monument D. To give special status to Jammu and kashmir   Answer: B   3. According to the Representation of the People Act, 1951, in the event of a person being elected to both houses of Parliament, he has to notify within ______ days in which house he intends to function. (Delhi Police Constable 2020) A. 22             B. 10         C. 20             D. 15   Answer: B   4. Under what Article of the Constitution of India can the President take over the administration of a state in case its constitutional machinery breaks down? (MP Police Constable 2016)  A. Article 83          B. Article 352         C. Article 356          D. Article 343   Answer: C   5. Which one of the following in Indian Polity is an essential feature that indicates that it is federal in character? (UPSC 2021) A. The independence of judiciary is safeguarded B. The Union Legislature has elected representatives from constituent units C. The Union Cabinet can have elected representatives from regional parties D. The Fundamental Rights are enforceable by Courts of Law   Answer: A

 

 Source: The Hindu

CONFLICTS IN WEST ASIA 

 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

 

The West Asian region is undergoing a significant transformation. What initially began as a direct military clash between Israel and Hamas has evolved into a broader regional security dilemma. Various entities, including Hezbollah, Kataib Hezbollah, Hashad al-Shabi, the Houthis, Iran, Pakistan, and the United States, have become involved in the escalating conflict. Israel's ongoing military campaign in Gaza, resulting in the death of over 24,000 people in 100 days, shows no signs of imminent resolution. Consequently, the security crisis in the region is expanding.

 

2. Escalation of the Israel-Hamas Conflict

• When Israel initiated its military campaign in Gaza in response to Hamas's cross-border attack on October 7, resulting in the death of at least 1,200 Israelis, concerns arose about the conflict extending beyond Palestine.
• Hezbollah, a Lebanese Shia group supported by Iran, expressed solidarity with the Palestinians by launching rockets at Israeli forces in the Shebaa Farms. Despite intermittent exchanges of fire between Hezbollah and Israel, both parties sought to prevent tensions from escalating into a full-blown war.
• Arab nations, critical of Israel's indiscriminate bombing, pursued diplomatic channels to exert pressure. Meanwhile, Iran-backed militias, such as the Houthis in Yemen, targeted commercial vessels in the Red Sea, disrupting maritime traffic in "solidarity with the Palestinians."
• As Houthi attacks endangered Red Sea navigation, the U.S., supporting Israel, conducted airstrikes in Yemen against Houthi positions. This triggered over 100 attacks by Hashad al-Shabi, Shia Mobilisation Forces of Iraq and Syria backed by Iran, on U.S. troops in both countries.
• In retaliation, the U.S. carried out airstrikes in Syria and killed a Hashad al-Shabi commander in Baghdad, leading to protests in Iraq. Israel, amid regional instability, conducted multiple strikes in Syria and Lebanon, targeting Hamas, Hezbollah, and Iranian commanders.
• Amid growing pressure, the Islamic State targeted a memorial event for Qassem Soleimani, an Iranian general assassinated by the U.S. in January 2020. Iran responded by carrying out strikes in Iraq's Kurdistan, Syria, and Pakistan on January 16, claiming to hit a Mossad operational centre and Sunni Islamist militants. In retaliation, Pakistan conducted airstrikes in Iran on January 18.

 

3. Key Players in the Crisis

• Israel asserts its right to attack Gaza until it achieves specific goals, including the dismantling of Hamas and the release of hostages. The Israeli perspective frames the conflict as a vengeful war on the Palestinians, with full support from the United States.
• Iran plays a pivotal role as the main supporter of various anti-Israel non-state actors in West Asia. This support extends to groups such as Hamas, the Islamic Jihad, Hezbollah, Houthis, and Shia militias in Iraq and Syria. Iran seeks to strengthen its deterrence in the region.
• The United States, with a significant military presence in the area, pursues three main objectives. These include ensuring the security of Israel, safeguarding American troops and assets deployed in the region, and maintaining the U.S.-led order in West Asia. The U.S. actively supports Israel in the ongoing conflict and conducts operations against Iran-backed proxies to meet its strategic goals.

4. Unstable Regional Dynamics

• The current situation in West Asia represents a departure from past conflicts, which often involved nation-states or state-non-state actor dynamics. While historical conflicts, such as the Iran-Iraq and Israel-Arab wars, were contained, the ongoing crisis features a broader and more complex security challenge.
• In contrast to the brief 1967 transnational war, the present conflict, extending over 100 days, continues to escalate and widen. The instability is characterized by a combination of powerful states and non-state actors, making it a widespread security crisis.
• The longstanding U.S. dominance in West Asia, influencing geopolitical outcomes, has been a stabilizing force. However, the current crisis signals a breakdown of the old order. Iran-backed proxies directly target both Israeli and American positions, challenging the previously established red lines.
• Arab countries, traditional allies of the U.S., are expressing growing frustration with Washington's unwavering support for Israel in the Gaza conflict. The crisis has strained alliances, and the U.S. appears unable or unwilling to influence Israel to halt its prolonged military campaign.
• The inability to end the protracted conflict, coupled with confrontations with Shia militias, positions the U.S. as a disruptor in the region. Instead of serving as a guarantor of peace, stability, and deterrence, the world's most powerful country is contributing to the ongoing disruptions in West Asia.

 

5. Prolonged Conflict and Uncertain Future

• After over 100 days of conflict, Israel's military campaign in Gaza has yielded limited results, and there is no apparent resolution in sight. The offensive is unlikely to de-escalate in the immediate future.
• As long as Israel persists in its military actions, groups like Hezbollah and the Houthis are expected to continue their attacks. The effectiveness of U.S. airstrikes on the Houthis remains uncertain, and previous strikes in Iraq and Syria have not deterred Shia units from launching new attacks.
• The extended instability may create opportunities for extremist groups like the Islamic State to exploit the situation. Iraq and Syria, already vulnerable to internal and external challenges, could face heightened threats.
• Iran's efforts to project military force face limitations, as highlighted by Pakistan's response. The U.S., once influential in shaping outcomes in West Asia, now observes the region descending into chaos.
• Amid the crisis, a potential silver lining is the holding of the Saudi-Iran detente. The associated Saudi-Houthi peace appears to be maintaining stability, offering a glimmer of hope amid the broader spiral of crisis.

 

6. The Way Forward

 

The future remains uncertain, with a prolonged conflict in Gaza, continuous regional tensions, and the potential for further instability. The only positive aspect, for now, is the stability maintained by the Saudi-Iran detente and the Saudi-Houthi peace.

 

 

For Prelims: West Asia, Israel, Hamas, Hezbollah, Kataib Hezbollah, Hashad al-Shabi, the Houthis, Iran, Pakistan, the United States, Gaza For Mains:  1. Discuss the factors that led to the escalation of the Israel-Hamas conflict into a broader regional crisis in West Asia. (250 Words) 2.  Discuss the challenges of balancing national security interests with humanitarian concerns in complex regional conflicts. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Which one of the following countries of South-West Asia does not open out to the Mediterranean Sea? (UPSC 2015) A. Syria        B.  Jordan        C.  Lebanon              D.  Israel   2. The term "two-state solution" is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of  (UPSC 2018) A. China         B. Israel            C. Iraq              D.  Yemen   3. Mediterranean Sea is a border of which of the following countries? (UPSC 2017) Jordan Iraq Lebanon Syria Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only      (b) 2 and 3 only         (c) 3 and 4 only                  (d) 1, 3 and 4 only   4. Which of the following is NOT a member of Gulf Cooperation Council? (UPSC 2016) A. Iran           B. Saudi Arabia             C. Oman            D.  Kuwait   Answers: 1-B, 2-B, 3-C, 4-A   Mains 1. ‘Too little cash, too much politics, leaves UNESCO fighting for life.’ Discuss the statement in the light of US’ withdrawal and its accusation of the cultural body as being ‘anti-Israel bias’. (UPSC 2019) 2 . “India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss. (UPSC 2018)

 

Source: The Hindu

INDIA-MYANMAR

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Union government will soon fence the 1,643-km border between India and Myanmar, and will consider ending the free movement regime (FMR) agreement with the neighbouring country, Union Home Minister Amit Shah said on Saturday.

The FMR, implemented in 2018 as part of India’s Act East Policy, allowed residents of both countries living along the border to travel up to 16 km into each other’s territory without a visa. Ending the agreement will restrict this movement

2.India's free movement regime (FMR) agreement with Myanmar

 

• The Free Movement Regime (FMR) is a mutually agreed-upon arrangement between India and Myanmar, allowing tribes residing along the shared border to travel up to 16 kilometers inside each other's country without the need for a visa.
• This initiative was implemented in 2018 as part of the Act East policy under the Narendra Modi government, coinciding with an improvement in diplomatic relations between the two nations.
• Originally intended for implementation in 2017, the FMR faced a delay due to the Rohingya refugee crisis that unfolded in August of that year.
• The historical context of the India-Myanmar border reveals that it was demarcated by the British in 1826 without consulting the opinions of the local inhabitants.
• This arbitrary division separated people of the same ethnicity and culture into two nations without their consent, and the present-day border reflects the British-drawn line.
• The communities residing in the region maintain strong ethnic and familial ties across the border. Notably, in Manipur's Moreh region, some villages have homes situated in Myanmar, while in Nagaland's Mon district, the border passes through the residence of the chief of Longwa village, effectively splitting his home into two.
• Beyond fostering people-to-people contact, the FMR aimed to boost local trade and business. The region has a rich history of trans-border commerce through customs and border haats, which is crucial for sustaining local livelihoods in the context of a low-income economy.
• For those on the Myanmar side of the border, Indian towns are more accessible for business, education, and healthcare compared to options within their own country

3. Significance of Free Movement Regime Agreement

 

• The ongoing conflict in Manipur involves a significant aspect related to the illegal migration of tribal Kuki-Chin groups from Myanmar into India. In this complex situation, the Meiteis have accused these migrants and an alleged "narco-terror network" along the India-Myanmar Border (IMB) of causing disturbances in the state.
• Conversely, the Kukis have accused the Meiteis and Chief Minister N Biren Singh, a Meitei himself, of using these allegations as a pretext for what they perceive as "ethnic cleansing."
• Amidst the heated and sensitive discussions surrounding this issue, there are concerns raised about the Free Movement Regime (FMR).
• While it has proven beneficial for local populations and has contributed to improving relations between India and Myanmar, the FMR has faced criticism in the past for inadvertently facilitating illegal immigration, drug trafficking, and the illicit trade of firearms.
• The India-Myanmar Border (IMB) traverses challenging terrain, consisting mainly of unfenced, forested, and undulating areas, making effective monitoring a difficult task. In Manipur, less than 6 kilometers of the border is fenced.
• Since the military coup in Myanmar on February 1, 2021, the ruling junta has initiated a campaign of persecution against the Kuki-Chin communities, leading to a significant influx of Myanmarese tribals across the western border into India, particularly Manipur and Mizoram.
• In Mizoram, where a substantial part of the population shares close ethnic and cultural ties with those across the border, over 40,000 refugees have sought shelter in camps, despite objections from the Union Ministry of Home Affairs

4. Migration as an Issue

 

• In recent months, Manipur has experienced an influx of illegal migrants. A committee established by the state government in 2023 reported a count of 2,187 such migrants. In September 2022, sources indicate that 5,500 illegal immigrants were apprehended in Moreh, with 4,300 being repelled. Biometric data for these individuals has been documented.
• In 2023, Manipur Chief Secretary Vineet Joshi expressed concerns to the Assam Rifles about 718 reported new infiltrations from Myanmar and requested the paramilitary force to identify and repatriate them.
• The Manipur government contends that village chiefs have unlawfully relocated migrants from Myanmar to new settlements in the hills, resulting in deforestation. An eviction effort targeting these new villages became a source of tension between Kukis in the hills and the government in March of the previous year, leading to violence in the state.
• The hills surrounding the Imphal valley are inhabited by Kuki and Naga peoples, while the valley itself is predominantly home to the Meiteis. The extent of illegal immigration from Myanmar to Manipur is reflected in the detention of 410 individuals from that country who have been residing in the state without proper documentation. Additionally, around 2,400 individuals seeking refuge are currently housed in detention facilities along the border areas, having fled Myanmar

5. What happens after removing Free Movement Regime (FMR)?

 

The removal of the Free Movement Regime (FMR) between India and Myanmar on January 2nd, 2024, has significant implications for both countries and the communities living along the border. Here's a breakdown of what might happen:

Immediate impacts:

• Stricter border controls: Increased patrolling, fencing of strategic sections, and stricter visa requirements are likely to be implemented along the 1600km border. This could lead to:

  • Reduced cross-border movement: Residents who used the FMR for trade, social visits, or accessing healthcare across the border will face difficulties.
  • Economic disruption: Local economies that relied on cross-border trade and exchange might suffer.
  • Disruption of traditional way of life: Communities with cultural and family ties across the border could face challenges maintaining those connections.

• Security concerns: While the FMR's removal aims to address security issues like insurgency and illegal smuggling, it might not be a complete solution. These activities could continue through other means, potentially even increasing due to stricter border controls.

Long-term implications:

• The unilateral decision to end the FMR could strain diplomatic relations between the two countries. Myanmar might view it as a lack of trust and cooperation
•  The influx of refugees fleeing Myanmar's political turmoil could worsen if they are unable to cross the border legally. This could put a strain on India's resources and create humanitarian challenges
• The long-term future of cross-border movement and the livelihoods of communities that depend on it remain uncertain. Finding alternative solutions that address security concerns while minimizing negative impacts will be crucial

6. India-Myanmar relations

 

India and Myanmar share a long history of cultural, economic, and diplomatic ties. The relationship between the two countries has been influenced by geographic proximity, historical interactions, and shared cultural and economic interests.

 

Here's an overview of the historical context and key aspects of the India-Myanmar relationship:

• The northeastern states of India and Myanmar have historical cultural linkages. Communities living in border regions often share ethnic, linguistic, and cultural ties
• During British colonial rule, both India and Myanmar were part of British India. The border between the two countries was demarcated during this period
• Myanmar (then Burma) gained independence from British rule in 1948, a year before India. They established diplomatic relations soon after
• Over the years, India and Myanmar have signed various bilateral agreements covering trade, security, cultural exchange, and infrastructure development
• Both countries have cooperated on security issues, particularly in addressing cross-border insurgencies and ensuring the stability of the border regions
• Economic ties between India and Myanmar have strengthened. They have collaborated on projects related to connectivity, trade, and investment
• The Free Movement Regime allows tribes living along the India-Myanmar border to travel up to a certain distance without a visa, fostering people-to-people contact
• India has been involved in infrastructure development projects in Myanmar, including the Kaladan Multimodal Transit Transport Project, which aims to improve connectivity between the northeastern states of India and Myanmar's Sittwe port

Recent Developments:

• Rohingya Crisis:

  • The Rohingya refugee crisis in Myanmar has been a significant concern for both countries. India has expressed humanitarian concerns while emphasizing the importance of addressing the root causes of the crisis.

• Strategic Importance:

  • Myanmar holds strategic importance for India's "Act East" policy, aiming to enhance economic and strategic relations with Southeast Asian nations.

• Military Coup in Myanmar:

  • The military coup in Myanmar in February 2021 has posed challenges to the bilateral relationship, and India, along with the international community, has closely monitored developments in Myanmar

7. Way Forward

 

Given the interests of the local population, however, neither the complete removal of the FMR nor full fencing of the border may be desirable. Livelihoods will be impacted, and essential travel for health care and education may be hit. Oinam’s paper argued that “it is imperative for New Delhi to tackle the issue by pursuing ‘killing the snake without breaking the stick’ approach.”

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

INDIA-BANGLADESH 

 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

 

Recently, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina secured a historic fourth consecutive term in Bangladesh after her party, the Awami League, won two-thirds of the seats in the national elections. Prime Minister Narendra Modi was among the initial global leaders to extend congratulations to Ms Hasina, highlighting the strong bilateral relationship between Bangladesh and India.

 

2. The Evolution of India-Bangladesh Ties

• The genesis of India's relationship with Bangladesh traces back to the 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War when India played a crucial role in providing military and material support for Bangladesh's fight for independence from Pakistan.
• However, in the aftermath, relations faced challenges as military regimes took control, leading to a rise in anti-India sentiment in the mid-1970s.
• Issues such as boundary disputes, insurgency, and water-sharing disputes contributed to the strained ties.
• The situation persisted for several decades until Sheikh Hasina assumed power in 1996, ushering in a new era in bilateral relations.
• Under her leadership, a significant milestone was reached with the signing of a treaty on the sharing of Ganga waters.
• Since then, India and Bangladesh have successfully fostered cooperation in various areas, including trade, energy, infrastructure, connectivity, and defence.

3. India-Bangladesh Economic Ties

• Over the past decade, bilateral trade between India and Bangladesh has demonstrated consistent growth.
• Bangladesh has emerged as India's largest trade partner in South Asia, with bilateral trade surging from $10.8 billion in 2020-21 to $18 billion in 2021-2022.
• However, a slight dip occurred in 2022-23 due to the impact of the pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine war.
• In return, India stands as Bangladesh's second-largest trade partner, with exports amounting to $2 billion in the Indian markets.
• In 2022, both countries successfully concluded a joint feasibility study on a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA).
• This agreement, designed to reduce or eliminate customs duties on traded goods and streamline trade norms, is expected to unlock broader social and economic opportunities.
• The CEPA gains added significance as Bangladesh is poised to lose its Least Developed Country (LDC) status after 2026, thereby forfeiting its duty-free and quota-free market access in India.
• Dhaka is keen to finalize a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with New Delhi and simultaneously pursue the China-backed Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). This dual-track approach raises concerns for India.

 

4. India's Infrastructural Investments in Bangladesh

• As a significant development partner for Bangladesh, India has been actively contributing to various infrastructure and connectivity projects.
• Since 2010, India has provided Lines of Credit totalling over $7 billion. A milestone in this collaboration was achieved last year when Prime Minister Modi and Sheikh Hasina inaugurated the Akhaura-Agartala rail link, connecting Bangladesh and the northeast through Tripura.
• This link grants India access to Chattogram and Mongla ports in Bangladesh, facilitating cargo movement and poised to stimulate small-scale industries while fostering the development of Assam and Tripura.
• In the energy sector, Bangladesh imports nearly 2,000 megawatts of electricity from India.
• The BIMSTEC Master Plan for Transport Connectivity is instrumental in connecting major transport projects in India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand, thereby establishing a comprehensive shipping network.
• India's focus is likely to be on the Matarbari Port, situated approximately 100 km from Tripura, being developed by Bangladesh.
• This port will play a pivotal role in establishing a crucial industrial corridor, connecting Dhaka with the northeastern part of India.

 

5. Navigating Challenges in the India-Bangladesh Relationship

 

• Several points of tension mark the diplomatic landscape between India and Bangladesh.
• Foremost among them is the impending Teesta dispute, which holds a central position in the agenda of the Hasina-led government.
• This dispute revolves around the equitable sharing of Teesta's waters, with Bangladesh seeking a fair distribution.
• Another source of contention is the Rohingya issue. The Hasina government aims for the peaceful repatriation of Rohingyas to Myanmar, but talks with the military junta have proven unsuccessful thus far.
• Bangladesh seeks India's cooperation to influence Myanmar, but the Modi government, with ties to the junta, asserts its intention to deport Rohingyas from its mainland.
• Cross-border terrorism and infiltration pose additional threats to internal security. The rise of majoritarian forces adds complexity to the already intricate landscape.
• While violence against Muslims has increased in India in recent years, Prime Minister Hasina has consistently condemned these attacks and expressed dissatisfaction with comments by Indian leaders concerning "illegal" immigrants.

 

6. Global Influences on the India-Bangladesh Relationship

• The Awami League government under Sheikh Hasina has faced vocal criticism from the U.S., particularly concerning "democratic backsliding."
• In 2021, the Biden administration imposed sanctions on a Bangladeshi anti-crime and anti-terrorism task force, citing human rights violations.
• Tensions escalated further as the U.S. announced a policy to restrict visas for Bangladeshis deemed responsible for undermining the election process in the country. This external pressure has implications for the global ties of Bangladesh.
• Adding to India's concerns is the deepening relationship between Bangladesh and China, marked by substantial Chinese investments in infrastructure in recent years.
• According to the Chinese Ambassador to Bangladesh, China has undertaken the construction of 12 highways, 21 bridges, and 27 power and energy projects in Bangladesh.
• However, Prime Minister Hasina has asserted that her government is "very much careful" about its partnership with China.

 

7. The Way Forward

 

Despite challenges, the India-Bangladesh relationship boasts strong potential for further growth. Open communication, constructive dialogue, and focus on shared interests are crucial for navigating the complexities and ensuring a prosperous future for both nations.

 

 

For Prelims: India-Bangladesh, Free Trade Agreement, Rohingyas, Teesta River, BIMSTEC, Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement For Mains:  1.  Assess the role of China's growing influence in Bangladesh and its implications for the India-Bangladesh relationship. How can India navigate this complex geopolitical landscape? (250 Words) 2. Discuss the potential benefits of the BIMSTEC Master Plan for Transport Connectivity for India, Bangladesh, and the broader region. What are the key considerations for effective implementation and ensuring equitable benefits? (250 Words)

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2017) The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta. River Teesta flows into Bay of Bengal on the border of India and Bangladesh. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 3 only               (b) 2 only               (c) 2 and 3 only                    (d) 1, 2 and 3   2. Consider the following countries: (UPSC 2018) 1. Australia 2. Canada 3. China 4. India 5. Japan 6. USA Which of the above are among the free-trade partners' of ASEAN?  A.  1, 2, 4 and 5        B. 3 , 4, 5 and 6        C. 1, 3, 4 and 5          D. 2, 3, 4 and 6   3. Increase in absolute and per capita real GNP do not connote a higher level of economic development, if (UPSC 2018) (a) Industrial output fails to keep pace with agricultural output. (b) Agricultural output fails to keep pace with industrial output. (c) Poverty and unemployment increase. (d) Imports grow faster than exports. 4. The SEZ Act, 2005 which came into effect in February 2006 has certain objectives. In this context, consider the following: (UPSC 2010) Development of infrastructure facilities. Promotion of investment from foreign sources. Promotion of exports of services only. Which of the above are the objectives of this Act? (a) 1 and 2 only           (b) 3 only            (c) 2 and 3 only            (d) 1, 2 and 3   5. A “closed economy” is an economy in which (UPSC 2011) (a) the money supply is fully controlled (b) deficit financing takes place (c) only exports take place (d) neither exports or imports take place   6. Consider the following pairs:(UPSC 2016) Community is sometimes mentioned in the news                  In the affairs of 1. Kurd                                                                                       Bangladesh 2. Madhesi                                                                                  Nepal 3. Rohingya                                                                                Myanmar Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? A. 1 and 2            B. 2 only              C. 2 and 3                 D. 3 only     7.  With reference to the BIMSTEC, which of the following statements is/are true? (UPPSC 2022) 1. P. M. Narendra Modi addressed the 5th BIMSTEC Summit on 30th March 2022. 2. 5th Summit of BIMSTEC had been chaired by India. Select the correct answer from the code given below: A. Neither 1 nor 2 B. Both 1 and 2 C. Only 2 D. Only 1     8. Which of the following statement/s is/are true about the three-day international Seminar on 'Climate Smart Farming System' for BIMSTEC countries held during December 11-13, 2019? (UPPSC 2020) 1. It was held at Katmandu, Nepal. 2. It was aimed to have experience sharing for more resilience to climate change through an ecological approach to enable the improvement of tropical small-holding farming systems. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: A. Only 1             B. Only 2              C. Both 1 and 2               D. Neither 1 nor 2     9. The term 'Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership; often appears in the news in the context of the affairs of a group of countries known as (UPSC 2016)  A. G20         B.  ASEAN        C. SCO          D. SAARC     10.  Recently, with which one of the following countries did India sign the 'Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement' ? (UPSC CAPF 2022)  A. Egypt           B.  Israel          C. South Africa           D. United Arab Emirates   Answers: 1-B, 2-C, 3-C, 4-A, 5- D, 6-C, 7-D, 8-B, 9-B, 10- D

 

Source: The Hindu

NAGARA STYLE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The Ram temple in Ayodhya will be inaugurated on January 22. Chandrakant Sompura, 81, and his son Ashish, 51, have designed the complex in the Nagara style of temple architecture.

 

2. Nagara Style of Architecture

 

The Nagar style of architecture is a distinctive Indian architectural style that emerged in the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in the Himalayan foothills and the surrounding areas. This style is often associated with the construction of Hindu temples and is characterised by certain architectural elements and features. 

The Nagara style of temple architecture, prevalent in North India and parts of Central and East India, boasts a rich tapestry of regional variations and sub-styles. These subdivisions are primarily distinguished by the distinct forms of their towering shikharas, the crowning elements that dominate the temple silhouette

 

3. Nagara Architecture Features

 

• Nagar temples are typically characterized by a tall and curvilinear shikhara (tower) that rises above the sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha). The shikhara is often adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures
• Nagar temples commonly have a mandapa (hall) in front of the sanctum, serving as an assembly or congregation hall for devotees.
• The pillars in the mandapa are often intricately carved and decorated with ornate designs. They may have a bell-shaped capital and a fluted shaft
• Nagar temples often feature an entrance porch or vestibule that leads to the main sanctum. This area may also be adorned with carvings and sculptures
• The outer walls of Nagar temples often have projections and facets that contribute to the overall grandeur of the temple structure. These projections create a sense of movement and dynamism in the architecture
• Elaborate carvings and sculptures depicting deities, mythological scenes, and intricate designs are a hallmark of Nagar architecture. These adornments can be found on temple exteriors as well as on pillars and ceilings
• Nagar temples may have dormer windows, known as amlas, along the sides of the shikhara. These windows provide additional architectural ornamentation and contribute to the overall aesthetics
• In some Nagar temples, especially in the Himachal Pradesh region, wooden elements such as ceilings and doors may play a significant role in the architectural composition
• Nagar temples are typically constructed using stone, reflecting the local building materials available in the region
• There may be variations in the Nagar style across different regions, with influences from local traditions and materials

 

4.Subdivisions of Nagara Style - Based on Style

 

The Nagara style of temple architecture, prevalent in North India and parts of Central and East India, boasts a rich tapestry of regional variations and sub-styles. These subdivisions are primarily distinguished by the distinct forms of their towering shikharas, the crowning elements that dominate the temple silhouette. Here's a glimpse into some prominent sub-styles based on their unique shikhara styles:

a. Latina or Rekha-Prasad:

• The quintessential Nagara shikhara, characterized by a square base, gracefully curving inwards to a pointed apex
• Examples: Kandariya Mahadeva Temple (Madhya Pradesh), Sun Temple (Konark, Odisha)

b. Shekhari:

• An evolution of the Latina style, featuring a central Rekha-prasad shikhara flanked by smaller, tiered replicas on either side, resembling miniature peaks
• Examples: Khajuraho temples (Madhya Pradesh), Somnath Temple (Gujarat)

c. Bhumija:

• Developed in Malwa (western Madhya Pradesh), Bhumija temples sport curvilinear shikharas with bulbous profiles and segmented sections, resembling a stepped pyramid
• Examples: Neelkanth Mahadev Temple (Ujjain), Chausath Yogini Temple (Jabalpur)

d. Valabhi:

• Found in Gujarat, Valabhi temples possess rectangular shrines with barrel-vaulted roofs over the sanctum, creating a unique horizontal emphasis
• Examples: Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki Vav (Patan)

5.Sub-schools of Nagara style of temple architecture

 

Within the broader Nagara style of temple architecture, there are sub-schools or regional variations that exhibit unique features influenced by local traditions, historical developments, and cultural influences. Some of these sub-schools include:

• Odisha (Kalinga) Nagara Style:

  • Region: Primarily found in the state of Odisha (formerly known as Kalinga).
  • Characteristics:
    • Rekha Deula (Curvilinear Tower): The main tower, or rekha deula, is curvilinear in shape and is often adorned with intricate carvings and sculptures.
    • Jagamohana: The assembly hall or mandapa is known as jagamohana and typically has a pyramidal roof with a square base.

• Khajuraho Nagara Style:

  • Region: Associated with the temples of Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh.
  • Characteristics:
    • Erotic Sculptures: The Khajuraho temples are renowned for their intricate and explicit erotic sculptures, depicting various aspects of human life and passion.
    • Shikhara Style: The shikharas of Khajuraho temples often feature a combination of both curvilinear (shringara) and pyramidal (vesara) elements.

• Gujarat Nagara Style:

  • Region: Predominantly found in Gujarat.
  • Characteristics:
    • Minimalistic Design: Temples in this style often exhibit a simpler and more minimalistic design compared to some other Nagara sub-schools.
    • Square Plan: The temple structures may have a square plan, and the shikhara is usually pyramidal with minimal ornamentation.

• Rajasthan Nagara Style:

  • Region: Associated with temples in Rajasthan.
  • Characteristics:
    • Ornate Carvings: Temples in Rajasthan often feature highly ornate carvings, including depictions of local rulers, deities, and intricate geometric patterns.
    • Chhatri (Canopy) Motif: Some temples in Rajasthan incorporate chhatri motifs, which are small elevated domed pavilions.

• Central Indian Nagara Style:

  • Region: Encompasses temples in regions like Madhya Pradesh and parts of Uttar Pradesh.
  • Characteristics:
    • Varied Shikhara Styles: The shikharas of Central Indian temples may exhibit variations, including curvilinear, pyramidal, or a combination of both styles.
    • Intricate Sculptures: Temples often showcase intricate sculptures depicting various aspects of Hindu mythology and daily life

6.Famous Nagara temples in various regions of India

 

The Nagara style of temple architecture, with its towering shikharas and intricate carvings, has graced India's landscape for centuries. Here's a journey through some of the most famous Nagara temples across various regions:

West India:

• Sun Temple, Modhera (Gujarat): This 11th-century masterpiece, dedicated to Surya, the sun god, dazzles with its intricate carvings depicting celestial bodies and mythological scenes. Its stepped tank, lined with exquisitely sculpted figures, is a sight to behold
• Rani ki Vav, Patan (Gujarat): This grand stepwell, resembling an inverted temple, showcases the beauty of the Valabhi style. Its ornate carvings tell stories from Hindu epics and mythology, while the geometric precision of its architecture is truly awe-inspiring

North India:

• Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho (Madhya Pradesh): This 11th-century temple, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is renowned for its exquisite erotic sculptures and intricate carvings depicting celestial beings and mythical creatures. Its towering Latina shikhara dominates the skyline, a stunning testament to the skill of ancient artisans
• Khajuraho Temples (Madhya Pradesh): The group of over 20 temples in Khajuraho, dedicated to various Hindu and Jain deities, offers a diverse showcase of Nagara architecture. From the iconic Lakshmana Temple with its intricately carved panels to the erotic sculptures of the Chausath Yogini Temple, each structure tells a unique story

East India:

• Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneswar (Odisha): This massive 11th-century temple, dedicated to Shiva, is a prime example of Odia Nagara architecture. Its towering deul, adorned with intricate carvings, dominates the Bhubaneswar skyline. The surrounding complex houses numerous smaller shrines and intricate sculptures, making it a true architectural marvel
• Konark Sun Temple (Odisha): The ruins of this 13th-century temple dedicated to Surya still evoke awe, showcasing the grandeur of Nagara architecture. The chariot-shaped base, carved from stone, is a marvel of engineering, while the surviving fragments of the shikhara offer glimpses of its once-magnificent beauty

Central India:

• Neelkanth Mahadev Temple, Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh): Dedicated to Shiva, this 8th-century temple showcases the Bhumija style, with its distinctive curvilinear shikhara and stepped pyramid-like form. The temple offers stunning views of the holy Shipra River and is a popular pilgrimage destination
• Chausath Yogini Temple, Jabalpur (Madhya Pradesh): This unique circular temple complex houses 64 intricately carved sandstone statues of yoginis, female practitioners of tantric yoga. The Bhumija-style shikharas of the individual shrines add to the mystical atmosphere of the site

7.Way forward

 

Both the North Indian Nagara and South Indian Dravida styles have contributed significantly to the rich tapestry of Indian temple architecture, showcasing the diversity and creativity of builders and artisans across the subcontinent

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1.Consider the following statements about the Nagara style of temple architecture: (UPSC NDA 2017) 1. This style of temples are commonly found in the areas between Himalayas and Vindhyas. 2. The most striking feature of this style is its pyramidal shikhara. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer (A) 2.'Nagara' temples typically have a _______ style of architecture (SSC MTS 2020) A.South Indian B.East Indian C.North Indian D.mixed Answer (C)

Source: Indianexpress