UNITED NATIONS HUMAN RIGHTS COUNCIL (UNHRC)
1. Context
India has hit out at Pakistan for raking up the issue of Jammu and Kashmir in the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC), saying the “failed State” survives on “international handouts” and “dutifully spreads falsehoods handed down by its military-terrorist complex”.
2.Human Rights Council
The Human Rights Council (HRC) is a body within the United Nations (UN) system responsible for promoting and protecting human rights around the world. It was established in 2006 to replace the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which had faced criticism for being ineffective and politicized.
The HRC is comprised of 47 member states elected by the UN General Assembly for staggered three-year terms. Members are chosen based on their commitment to human rights and their willingness to uphold high standards in this regard. The council meets several times a year in Geneva, Switzerland, to discuss and address human rights issues globally.
The council's responsibilities include:
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The HRC examines human rights situations in different countries, receives reports from special rapporteurs, and can establish commissions of inquiry or fact-finding missions to investigate specific situations.
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The council plays a key role in developing and promoting international human rights standards and norms. It adopts resolutions, decisions, and declarations on various human rights issues.
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The HRC supports countries in strengthening their human rights institutions and practices through technical assistance, advisory services, and capacity-building programs.
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The council conducts periodic reviews of the human rights records of all UN member states through the UPR mechanism. During these reviews, countries' human rights records are examined, and recommendations are made to address any shortcomings
3. Working of the Council
- The Human Rights Council was established by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) on March 15, 2006, succeeding the former UN Commission on Human Rights. Its inaugural session took place from June 19 to June 30, 2006.
- In 2007, the Council implemented an "institution-building package" to establish its operational procedures and mechanisms. These included the introduction of the Universal Periodic Review mechanism, designed to evaluate the human rights conditions in all UN Member States.
- Additionally, the Advisory Committee was established to serve as a repository of expertise for the Council, offering guidance on thematic human rights matters. Moreover, the Complaint Procedure was introduced, enabling individuals and organizations to bring instances of human rights violations to the Council's attention.
- Furthermore, the Council collaborates with the UN Special Procedures, originally established by the former Commission on Human Rights. This framework comprises special rapporteurs, special representatives, independent experts, and working groups tasked with monitoring, examining, advising, and reporting on specific human rights issues or conditions in individual countries
4. Membership of the Council
- The Council convenes at the UN Office located in Geneva, Switzerland, and comprises 47 UN Member States elected through a direct and confidential ballot by majority vote at the UNGA. The selection process, as outlined on the Council's website, considers the candidate States' efforts in advancing and safeguarding human rights, alongside their voluntary commitments in this domain.
- Membership distribution within the Council ensures geographical equity. African and Asia-Pacific states hold 13 seats each, Latin American and Caribbean states possess 8 seats, Western European and other states have 7 seats, and Eastern European states hold 6 seats.
- Each member serves a term of three years and is ineligible for immediate re-election after serving two consecutive terms. Membership entails a responsibility to uphold rigorous human rights standards, a criterion underscored by States themselves during the adoption of resolution 60/251 in March 2006, which established the Human Rights Council, according to the Council.
- Allegedly, Russia has breached this responsibility in Ukraine. Russia commenced its three-year term as a member of the Council on January 1, 2021
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Leadership of the Council
The Council is governed by a Bureau comprising five individuals: a president and four vice-presidents, with each representing a different regional group. Their terms last for one year, aligned with the Council's annual cycle. Leading the Human Rights Council during the 16th Cycle (2022) is Federico Villegas, who serves as the Permanent Representative of Argentina to the UN and other international bodies in Geneva. Villegas assumed the presidency of the Human Rights Council for the year 2022 following his election in December 2021.
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5. Meetings of the Council
- The Human Rights Council convenes at least three regular sessions annually, totaling a minimum of 10 weeks. These sessions occur in March (4 weeks), June (3 weeks), and September (3 weeks). The most recent regular session (49th) of the Council took place from February 28 to April 1, 2022.
- In the event that a third of the Member states request it, the Council has the authority to convene a special session at any point to address urgent human rights violations and crises.
- During the presidency of Nazhat S Khan from Fiji, the Council held a notable five special sessions in 2021, focusing on issues concerning Myanmar, the Occupied Palestinian Territory and Israel, Afghanistan, Sudan, and Ethiopia
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For Prelims: UNHRC, UNGA, Amnesty International
For Mains: 1.Discuss the role and significance of the United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) in addressing global human rights issues. Highlight its key functions, mechanisms, and achievements, with a particular emphasis on its Universal Periodic Review (UPR) mechanism
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which one of the following statements regarding the Human Rights Council is not correct? (CDS GK 2018)
A.It is an inter-governmental body within the United Nations system made up of all members of the UN.
B.It is responsible for the promotion and protection of all human nights around the globe.
C.It replaced the former United Nations Commission on Human Rights.
D.It is made up of 47 UN Member States which are elected by the UN General Assembly.
Answer (A)
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Source: Indianexpress
OLIVE RIDLEY TURTLES
1. Context
A 16-year-long assessment of trends in turtle populations in India says the numbers of the Olive Ridley species suggest a “steady or growing” population. However, rising sand temperatures due to climate change are causing a large proportion of these turtles to be females, “raising questions” on the long-term viability of the population
2. Olive Ridley Turtles
- The Olive ridley turtles are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world.
- These turtles are carnivores and get their name from their olive-colored carapace.
- They are best known for their unique mass nesting called Arribada, where thousands of females come together on the same beach to lay eggs.
- They are found in warm waters of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans.
- Odisha's Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is known as the world's largest rookery of sea turtles.
Image Source: Down to Earth3. Conservation of Olive Ridley Turtles
- Conservation of the Olive Ridley turtles in Odisha began with the discovery and worldwide recognition of the Gahirmatha rookery close to the mouth of the Brahmani-Baitarani (Dharma) River, in 1974.
- A second mass nesting was discovered in 1981 at the Devi River mouth, about 55 nautical miles south of Gahirmatha.
- In 1994, a third mass nesting area was also discovered at the Rushkulya river mouth, 162 nautical miles south of Gahirmatha.
- The Olive Ridley Turtles come to the beaches of the Odisha coast annually between November and December and stay on until April and May for nesting.
- Off late, nesting has been observed to start from late January to early February. The turtles choose the narrow beaches near estuaries and bays for laying their eggs.
- Each adult female lays approximately a hundred to hundred and forty eggs at a time.
4. Threats faced by Olive Ridley Turtles
- The Olive Ridleys face serious threats across their migratory route, habitat, and nesting beaches, due to human activities such as turtle-unfriendly fishing practices, and the development and exploitation of nesting beaches for ports, and tourist centers.
- Though international trade in these turtles and their products is banned, they are still extensively poached for their meat, shell, and leather.
- Turtles eggs, though illegal to harvest, have a significantly large market around the coastal regions.
- The most severe threat faced by the Olive Ridleys is the accidental killing of adult turtles through entanglement in trawl nets and gill nets due to uncontrolled fishing around nesting beaches during their mating season.
- Over 1.3 lakh turtles are believed to have been killed after being entangled in the nets of mechanized fishing trawlers in the last thirteen years.
5. Legislation for the Protection of Olive Ridley Turtles
- All five species of sea turtles occurring in India, including the Olive Ridley Turtles, are legally protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, and Appendix I of the CITES convention which prohibits trade in turtle products.
- The mass nesting beach of Gahirmatha is a part of Bhitarkanika Wildlife sanctuary and the waters around Bhitarkanika was declared as Gahirmatha (Marine) Wildlife Sanctuary in September 1997, to protect the nesting and breeding habitat of the Olive Ridley.
- The coastal waters off Devi and Rushikulya rookery are declared as a no-fishing zone during the sea turtle breeding season under the Odisha Marine.
- Fisheries Regulation Act (OMFRA), 1982, and Odisha Marine Fisheries Regulation Rules, 1983. The Coast Guard is empowered to enforce the provisions of the Act.
- To reduce accidental entrapment and death of turtles, the Odisha government has made it mandatory for the mechanized fishing trawlers to use Turtle Excluder Devices or TEDs, which is a specially designed net with an exit cover that retains the catch while allowing the turtles to escape.
6. Operation Olivia, 2014
- As the nesting period stretched over six months, the Indian Coast Guard undertakes the Olive Ridley Turtle protection program under the code name 'Operation Olivia' every year.
- Coast Guard District No.7 (Odisha) commenced Operation Olivia 2014 on 08 Nov 2014 under the coordination and control of Commander Coast Guard Region (North East).
- As part of the operation, fishing boats found close to the marine reserve area were regularly checked by the ship's boarding party for confirming the usage of turtle excluder devices (TEDs).
- Offenders were warned and reported to the Assistant Director of Fisheries. Close coordination was maintained with the fisheries and forest department during the entire operation.
7. Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary
- Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary is a marine wildlife sanctuary located in Odisha.
- It extends from the Dhamra River mouth in the north to the Mahanadi river mouth in the south.
- It is very famous for its nesting beach for olive ridley sea turtles.
- It is the one of world's most important nesting beaches for turtles.
- The olive ridley turtles turn up in millions for mass nesting along the Odisha coast every year. This phenomenon is referred to as 'arribada'.
- Apart from Gahirmatha, these aquatic animals turn up at the Rushikulya river mouth and Devi river mouth for mass nesting.
- Rushikulya river mouth is considered the second-biggest nesting site for Olive Ridley Turtles in India.
Previous year question
| 1. Which one of the following is the national aquatic animal of India? (UPSC 2015)
A.Saltwater crocodile Answer: C 2. The 'Olive Ridley Turtles are considered to be endangered because of their few remaining nesting sites in the world. In this context, which among the following statement(s) is/are correct? (OPSC 2016) (1) Their peculiar behavior of synchronized nesting in mass numbers is known as Arribada'. (2) Gahirmatha Beach in Orissa is one of their few nesting grounds in the world. A. Only 1 B. Only 2 C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: C 3. Which of the following statements about the olive ridley turtles is/are correct? (CDS 2018) 1. They are the smallest and most abundant of all sea turtles found in the world. 2. They live in warm waters of Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. 3. The Coromandel Coast in India is the largest mass nesting site for the olive ridley turtles. Select the correct Answer using the code given below. A. 1, 2 and 3 B. 1 and 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1 only Answer: B |
For Prelims
| For Prelims: Olive Ridley turtles, arribada, Gahirmatha Marine Sanctuary, Brahmani-Baitarani (Dharma) River, Devi River, Rushkulya river, Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, CITES convention, Bhitarkanika Wildlife sanctuary, Fisheries Regulation Act (OMFRA), 1982, and Turtle Excluder Devices or TEDs. |
Source: Down to Earth
NON BANKING FINANCIAL COMPANIES (NBFC)
1. Context
Banks will stay conservative in the short run while lending to non-banking finance companies (NBFCs) due to fears of performance in the sector, according to Pankaj Naik, Director of India Ratings and Research (Ind-Ra).
2. What are the non-banking financial companies (NBFCs)?
- Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) are financial institutions that provide banking services but do not hold a banking license.
- They are crucial to the financial system as they cater to the financial needs of sectors where traditional banks may not reach or provide services.
- NBFCs offer various financial services such as loans and advances, acquisition of shares/stocks/bonds/debentures/securities issued by Government or local authority, leasing, hire-purchase, insurance business, chit business, etc.
- They differ from traditional banks because they cannot accept demand deposits and do not form part of the payment and settlement system like banks do.
- However, they play a significant role in providing credit to individuals, small businesses, and the unorganised sector, thereby contributing to financial inclusion and economic growth. Examples of NBFCs include companies engaged in equipment leasing, hire-purchase finance, vehicle finance, and microfinance
3. Classification of NBFCs
NBFCs can be classified into various categories based on their activities, ownership structure, and regulatory requirements.
Here are some common classifications:
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Asset Financing NBFCs: These NBFCs primarily provide financing for the purchase of assets such as vehicles, machinery, equipment, etc.
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Investment and Credit NBFCs: These NBFCs primarily make investments in securities or extend credit facilities.
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Infrastructure Finance Companies (IFCs): These NBFCs focus on financing infrastructure projects such as roads, ports, power, telecommunications, etc.
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Housing Finance Companies (HFCs): These NBFCs specialize in providing finance for housing and related activities.
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Microfinance Institutions (MFIs): These NBFCs provide financial services, including small loans, savings, and insurance, to low-income individuals and microenterprises.
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Non-Deposit Taking NBFCs: These NBFCs do not accept deposits from the public. They rely on other sources of funding such as borrowings from banks, financial institutions, and capital markets.
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Deposit Taking NBFCs: These NBFCs accept deposits from the public and are regulated more closely, similar to banks, to ensure the safety of depositor funds.
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Systemically Important NBFCs (SI-NBFCs): These are NBFCs whose failure could potentially disrupt the financial system. They are subject to additional regulatory requirements to mitigate systemic risks.
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Core Investment Companies (CICs): These NBFCs are primarily engaged in the business of acquisition of shares and securities and hold not less than 90% of its Total Assets in the form of investment in equity shares, preference shares, bonds, debentures, debt, or loans in group companies.
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Infrastructure Debt Funds (IDFs): These NBFCs are set up to facilitate the flow of long-term debt into infrastructure projects.
4. What is the 50-50 Criteria of Principal Business?
- The 50-50 criteria of principal business refers to a regulatory guideline set by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) for determining whether a company's principal business is that of a Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC).
- According to this criterion, if more than 50% of a company's total assets or gross income comes from financial assets or income derived from financial assets, it is considered to be primarily engaged in the business of an NBFC. In other words, if at least 50% of the company's assets or income is from financial activities, it falls under the purview of NBFC regulations.
- This guideline helps to differentiate between companies engaged primarily in non-financial activities with some incidental financial activities and those whose main business revolves around financial services, thereby ensuring appropriate regulation and supervision of NBFCs by the RBI. It is an important criterion used by regulators to determine the regulatory classification of companies operating in the financial sector
5.RBI rules on Non Banking Financial Companies
The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) regulates Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) in India to ensure financial stability, consumer protection, and the smooth functioning of the financial system.
Some of the key rules and regulations imposed by the RBI on NBFCs include:
- NBFCs need to obtain a Certificate of Registration (CoR) from the RBI to commence or carry on the business of non-banking financial institution.
- RBI imposes prudential regulations on NBFCs to ensure the safety and soundness of their operations. These norms cover aspects such as capital adequacy, income recognition, asset classification, provisioning, liquidity management, and exposure limits.
- NBFCs are required to adhere to a Fair Practices Code (FPC) prescribed by the RBI, which outlines the principles of transparency, fairness, and responsible lending practices.
- NBFCs are mandated to follow KYC norms while onboarding customers, including verification of identity, address, and other relevant information, to prevent money laundering and terrorist financing activities
- NBFCs are required to implement effective AML/CFT measures, including customer due diligence, transaction monitoring, and reporting of suspicious transactions, to mitigate the risks of money laundering and terrorist financing.
- RBI mandates NBFCs to adhere to good corporate governance practices, including the composition of the board of directors, risk management framework, internal controls, and disclosure requirements
- NBFCs are required to have robust risk management systems in place to identify, assess, monitor, and mitigate various risks such as credit risk, market risk, liquidity risk, and operational risk.
- NBFCs need to submit various regulatory returns and reports to the RBI periodically, providing details of their financial performance, capital adequacy, asset quality, and compliance with regulatory requirements.
- RBI conducts regular inspections and supervisory reviews of NBFCs to assess their financial health, compliance with regulations, and adherence to best practices.
- RBI has the authority to issue directions, impose restrictions, and take corrective actions against NBFCs that fail to comply with regulatory requirements or pose risks to the financial system.
6. Way Forward
Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) play a vital role in India's financial landscape, serving as critical intermediaries between traditional banking institutions and underserved segments of the economy. With their diverse range of financial services and flexible approach to lending, NBFCs contribute significantly to promoting financial inclusion, fostering entrepreneurship, and driving economic growth. However, the regulatory framework governing NBFCs remains paramount in ensuring the stability and integrity of the financial system. As the sector continues to evolve and face new challenges, effective regulation, prudent risk management, and adherence to best practices will be essential for NBFCs to sustain their growth trajectory and fulfill their socio-economic mandate in a responsible and sustainable manner
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For Prelims: Economy
For Mains: GS-III: Indian Economy and issues relating to planning, mobilisation, of resources, growth, development, and employment.
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Previous Year Questions 1.The RBI acts as a bankers’ bank. This would imply which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2012) 1. Other banks retain their deposits with the RBI. 2. The RBI lends funds to the commercial banks in times of need. 3. The RBI advises the commercial banks on monetary matters. Select the correct answer using the codes given below : (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer (d)
The central bank, also known as the apex bank, has overarching control over a nation's banking system. It holds the exclusive authority for issuing currency and regulates the money supply within the economy. As outlined in the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, the central bank fulfills several key functions:
2.With reference to the Non-banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) in India, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2010)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (b)
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Source: Indianexpress
C V RAMAN
1.Context
National Science Day is celebrated every year on February 28 to mark the contribution of Indian scientists to society’s development. In 1986, the Government of India designated this day to commemorate the announcement of the discovery of the “Raman Effect.” Chandrasekhara Venkata (CV) Raman discovered the Raman effect on February 28, 1928, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1930
Image Source: Alamy
2.Background
The Raman Effect was the discovery which won physicist Sir CV Raman his Nobel Prize in 1930. Conducting a deceptively simple experiment, Raman discovered that when a stream of light passes through a liquid, a fraction of the light scattered by the liquid is of a different colour. This discovery was immediately recognised as groundbreaking in the scientific community, being the subject of over 700 papers in the first seven years after its announcement
3.About C.V. Raman
- Raman was born to a family of Sanskrit scholars in Trichy (present-day Tiruchirapalli) in the Madras Presidency in 1888
- At the age of only 16, He received a BA degree from Presidency College in Madras, and was placed first in his class
- While studying for his MA degree, at the age of 18, he got published in the Philosophical Magazine: this was the first research paper ever published by Presidency College
- Due to his ill health, he was unable to travel abroad for further education. Thus, in 1907, he got married and settled down in Calcutta as an assistant accountant general
- While still a full-time civil servant, Raman began after-hours research at the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science (IACS)
- Raman raised the profile of IACS, doing some award-winning research as well as conducting public demonstrations with charisma
- At the age of 29, he finally resigned from his civil services job and took up a professorship in Presidency College, Calcutta
- By 1921, CV Raman had gained a solid reputation as a top scientific mind both in India and in the West
- That year, he made his first journey to England. It was on the return journey that Raman would make an observation that would change his life and science forever
- While passing through the Mediterranean Sea, Raman was most fascinated by the sea’s deep blue colour
- He soon found out that the colour of the sea was the result of the scattering of sunlight by the water molecules
- Fascinated by the phenomenon of light-scattering, Raman and his collaborators in Calcutta began to conduct extensive scientific experiments on the matter experiments that would eventually lead to his eponymous discovery.
4.The Raman Effect
- Raman Effect refers to the phenomenon in which when a stream of light passes through a liquid, a fraction of the light scattered by the liquid is of a different colour
- This happens due to the change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules.
- In general, when light interacts with an object, it can either be reflected, refracted or transmitted
- One of the things that scientists look at when light is scattered is if the particle it interacts with is able to change its energy
- The Raman Effect is when the change in the energy of the light is affected by the vibrations of the molecule or material under observation, leading to a change in its wavelength
- In their first report to Nature, titled “A New Type of Secondary Radiation,” CV Raman and co-author KS Krishnan wrote that 60 different liquids had been studied, and all showed the same result – a tiny fraction of scattered light had a different colour than the incident light
- “It is thus,” Raman said, “a phenomenon whose universal nature has to be recognised.”
- Raman would go on to verify these observations using a spectroscope, publishing the quantitative findings in the Indian Journal of Physics on March 31, 1928
5.Importance of the Discovery
- CV Raman’s discovery took the world by storm as it had deep implications far beyond Raman’s original intentions
- As Raman himself remarked in his 1930 Nobel Prize speech, “The character of the scattered radiations enables us to obtain an insight into the ultimate structure of the scattering substance.”
- For quantum theory, in vogue in the scientific world at the time, Raman’s discovery was crucial
- The discovery would also find its use in chemistry, giving birth to a new field known as Raman spectroscopy as a basic analytical tool to conduct nondestructive chemical analysis for both organic and inorganic compounds
- With the invention of lasers and the capabilities to concentrate much stronger beams of light, the uses of Raman spectroscopy have only ballooned over time
- Today, this method has a wide variety of applications, from studying art and other objects of cultural importance in a non-invasive fashion to finding drugs hidden inside luggage at customs
Source:indianexpress
MULTIMODAL ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
1. Context
Despite the fact that in this day and age where everyone is hyper-connected and technologically occupied, for a lot of people, there’s very little time or desire to just be present for each other.
2. Other Artificial Intelligence
- In this race towards multimodal AI, leading AI companies are vying for dominance.
- OpenAI, the creator of ChatGPT, recently announced its GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 models' ability to analyze images and engage in spoken conversations via mobile apps.
- This move comes after reports of Google's forthcoming multimodal large language model named Gemini, which has raised the stakes in this competition.
- Google holds an advantage due to its vast repository of images and videos through its search engine and YouTube.
- However, OpenAI is aggressively pursuing multimodal capabilities, hiring experts and working on a project called Gobi, distinct from its GPT models.
3. About Multimodality
- Multimodal AI systems are not entirely new. Recent years have witnessed the emergence of such systems, including OpenAI's DALL·E, a text-to-image model released in 2021, which underpins ChatGPT's vision capabilities.
- DALL·E, like other multimodal models, links text and images during training, allowing it to generate images based on textual prompts.
- Similarly, for audio-based systems, GPT relies on Whisper, an open-source speech-to-text model.
- Whisper can convert speech in audio into text, extending GPT's capabilities to voice processing.
4. Applications of Multimodal AI
- Multimodal AI systems find applications across various domains. They combine computer vision and natural language processing or audio and text to perform tasks like automatic image captioning.
- Beyond these, more complex systems are in development. Meta, for instance, has explored multimodal systems for detecting harmful memes on Facebook and predicting dialogue lines in videos.
- These systems hold potential for future applications involving multiple sensory inputs, such as touch, smell, and brain signals.
- In fields like medicine, multimodal AI is indispensable for analyzing complex datasets of images and translating them into plain language.
- Additionally, multimodal AI has significance in autonomous driving and robotics.
5. The Future of Multimodal AI
- The future of multimodal AI is poised for exciting possibilities. AI systems could cross-reference sensory data to create immersive experiences, and industries like medicine and translation services will continue to benefit from these advancements.
- As technology evolves, multimodal AI is expected to play a pivotal role in shaping our interactions with AI systems, making them more versatile and attuned to human-like cognition.
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For Prelims: artificial intelligence, ChatGPT, DALL·E,
For Mains:
1. What is multimodal artificial intelligence and why is it important? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? ( UPSC 2020)
1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
3. Disease diagnosis
4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1, 2, 3, and 5 only
B. 1, 3, and 4 only
C. 2, 4, and 5 only
D. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
Answer: B
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Source: The Hindu
CARBON BORDER ADJUSTMENT MECHANISM (CBAM)
1. Context
India is set to raise concerns over the European Union’s controversial carbon tax, which seeks to impose tariffs as high as 30 per cent on imports of carbon-intensive products such as steel and aluminium from next year, during the two-day visit by the President of the European Commission, Ursula von der Leyen, and 21 EU Commissioners, beginning on February 27, 2025
2. What is a carbon trading platform?
A carbon trading platform, also known as a carbon market or emissions trading platform, is a financial marketplace where organizations and entities can buy and sell carbon credits or emissions allowances. The primary goal of carbon trading platforms is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and combat climate change by creating economic incentives for entities to reduce their carbon emissions.
Here's how a carbon trading platform typically works:
- Emissions Allowances: Governments or regulatory bodies set an overall cap on the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions that are allowed within a specific jurisdiction or sector. This cap is typically established to limit emissions and reduce environmental impact.
- Allocation of Allowances: Under the cap-and-trade system, emissions allowances are distributed or allocated to participating entities, often based on historical emissions or other criteria. These allowances represent the right to emit a specific amount of greenhouse gases.
- Buying and Selling: Entities that emit fewer greenhouse gases than their allocated allowances can sell their excess allowances to those who exceed their allocated limits. This creates a market for emissions allowances.
- Carbon Credits: In addition to emissions allowances, carbon trading platforms may also involve the trading of carbon credits. Carbon credits are typically generated by activities that result in emissions reductions or removals, such as reforestation, renewable energy projects, or energy efficiency initiatives. These credits can be sold to entities looking to offset their emissions.
- Price Determination: The price of emissions allowances or carbon credits is determined by supply and demand in the carbon market. As emissions reduction targets become stricter or as entities seek to voluntarily reduce their carbon footprint, the price of carbon credits can fluctuate.
- Compliance and Offset: Some carbon trading platforms are mandatory and designed to help entities comply with government emissions reduction targets or regulations. Others are voluntary and allow organizations to offset their emissions voluntarily.
- Transparency and Verification: To ensure the integrity of the carbon market, transactions are often subject to rigorous monitoring, reporting, and verification processes. Independent third parties may verify emissions reductions and the validity of carbon credits.
- Environmental Benefits: Carbon trading platforms aim to incentivize emissions reductions, promote the transition to cleaner technologies, and fund projects that have positive environmental impacts.
One of the most well-known carbon trading platforms is the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), which operates in the European Union and covers various industries, including energy production, manufacturing, and aviation. Other countries and regions have also established their own carbon trading systems to address emissions reduction goals.
Overall, carbon trading platforms play a crucial role in the global effort to combat climate change by putting a price on carbon emissions and encouraging businesses and governments to reduce their environmental impact.
3. What are Carbon Credits?
Carbon credits, also known as carbon offsets or emission reduction credits, are a key component of carbon trading and cap-and-trade systems aimed at mitigating climate change. They represent a measurable reduction in greenhouse gas emissions or the removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent from the atmosphere. Carbon credits are typically measured in metric tons of CO2 or its equivalent in other greenhouse gases, such as methane (CH4) or nitrous oxide (N2O).
Here's how carbon credits work:
- Emission Reduction or Removal: Carbon credits are generated through activities or projects that either reduce greenhouse gas emissions (e.g., by using cleaner energy sources or improving energy efficiency) or remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (e.g., through reforestation or afforestation projects).
- Measurement and Verification: The reduction or removal of emissions must be accurately measured and verified according to established standards and methodologies. Independent third-party organizations often perform this verification to ensure the credibility of the carbon credits.
- Issuance: Once the emissions reduction or removal has been verified, carbon credits are issued. Each carbon credit represents one metric ton of CO2 or its equivalent that has been prevented from entering the atmosphere or removed from it.
- Trading and Sale: Carbon credits can be bought and sold on carbon markets or through specialized trading platforms. Entities that have exceeded their emissions limits or wish to voluntarily offset their emissions can purchase these credits to compensate for their own emissions.
- Compliance and Voluntary Markets: Carbon credits serve different purposes in different markets. In compliance markets, entities purchase credits to comply with emissions reduction regulations or obligations set by governments or regulatory bodies. In voluntary markets, organizations and individuals purchase credits as a means of voluntarily offsetting their carbon footprint.
- Environmental Benefits: The purchase of carbon credits helps fund emissions reduction projects and activities that have positive environmental and climate benefits. These may include renewable energy projects, energy efficiency initiatives, afforestation, reforestation, methane capture from landfills, and more.
- Additionality: One key principle in carbon credit generation is "additionality," which means that the emissions reductions or removals achieved by a project must be above and beyond what would have occurred in the absence of the project. This ensures that credits represent real and additional climate action.
- Sustainability and Co-Benefits: Many carbon credit projects are designed not only to reduce emissions but also to provide social, economic, or environmental co-benefits to local communities, such as job creation, biodiversity conservation, or improved air and water quality.
It's important to note that the carbon credit market is subject to various standards and regulations to maintain transparency, integrity, and credibility. Independent organizations and registries play a role in verifying and tracking the issuance and retirement of carbon credits to prevent double counting and ensure that the emissions reductions are genuine.
Carbon credits are a tool for addressing climate change by incentivizing emissions reductions and supporting projects that contribute to a more sustainable and low-carbon future. They are used by governments, businesses, and individuals to take action against climate change and reduce their carbon footprint.
4. Carbon Trading and Carbon Credit
Carbon trading and carbon credits are closely related concepts within the broader framework of climate change mitigation strategies. They are instrumental in addressing the issue of greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Here's a detailed explanation of both terms:
Carbon Trading:
- Definition: Carbon trading, also known as emissions trading or cap-and-trade, is a market-based approach to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It allows entities, such as companies or countries, to buy and sell emissions allowances, effectively putting a price on carbon emissions.
- How It Works: Under a carbon trading system, a regulatory authority or government sets an overall cap on the total amount of greenhouse gas emissions allowed within a specific jurisdiction or sector. This cap is often progressively reduced over time to achieve emissions reduction targets.
- Emissions Allowances: Entities subject to the cap are allocated a certain number of emissions allowances, which represent the right to emit a specific amount of greenhouse gases. These allowances are often distributed based on historical emissions, with the goal of gradually reducing emissions over time.
- Trading of Allowances: Entities that emit less than their allocated allowances can sell their surplus allowances to entities that exceed their limits. This creates a market for emissions allowances, and the price of allowances is determined by supply and demand.
- Compliance and Penalties: Entities are required to surrender a number of allowances equal to their actual emissions at the end of a compliance period. Failure to do so results in penalties. Entities that reduce emissions below their allowances can profit by selling their excess allowances.
- Environmental Goals: Carbon trading aims to achieve emissions reduction goals cost-effectively by allowing entities to find the most efficient ways to reduce emissions, either by reducing emissions directly or by purchasing allowances from others.
- Types of Markets: Carbon trading can occur in both compliance markets, where entities are legally obligated to participate, and voluntary markets, where entities choose to offset their emissions voluntarily.
Carbon Credits:
- Definition: Carbon credits, also known as carbon offsets or emission reduction credits, represent a quantified reduction in greenhouse gas emissions or the removal of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent from the atmosphere.
- Generation: Carbon credits are generated through specific activities or projects that reduce emissions or remove carbon from the atmosphere. These activities can include renewable energy projects, energy efficiency initiatives, reforestation, methane capture from landfills, and more.
- Measurement and Verification: To ensure the credibility of carbon credits, the reduction or removal of emissions must be accurately measured and independently verified according to established standards and methodologies.
- Sale and Use: Carbon credits can be bought and sold on carbon markets. Entities that wish to offset their emissions can purchase these credits to compensate for their own emissions, effectively balancing their carbon footprint.
- Environmental Benefits: The purchase of carbon credits helps fund projects that have positive environmental and climate benefits. These projects contribute to emissions reduction, biodiversity conservation, sustainable development, and more
5. Difference between ‘Net Zero’ and ‘Carbon Neutral’
"Net Zero" and "Carbon Neutral" are related but distinct concepts in the context of addressing climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. They both aim to achieve a balance between the amount of greenhouse gases emitted and the amount removed or offset, but they do so in slightly different ways. Here's the difference between the two terms:
| Net Zero | Carbon Neutral |
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Definition: Carbon neutrality, also known as "climate neutrality" or "carbon neutrality," means that an entity (e.g., a company, event, or country) has balanced its carbon emissions with an equivalent amount of carbon emissions reductions or removals, typically within a specific timeframe. |
| Emissions Reduction: Achieving net zero requires a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Organizations, governments, or individuals commit to reducing their emissions as much as possible through various measures, such as transitioning to renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and adopting sustainable practices. | Scope: Carbon neutrality specifically focuses on balancing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. While other greenhouse gases may be considered, the primary emphasis is on achieving neutrality for CO2 emissions. |
| Carbon Removal: To reach net zero, any remaining emissions that cannot be eliminated through reduction measures are offset by activities that remove an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This can include activities like afforestation (planting trees), reforestation, carbon capture and storage (CCS), and investment in carbon removal technologies. | Achievement: Achieving carbon neutrality can be accomplished through a combination of emissions reduction measures (e.g., using renewable energy, improving energy efficiency) and purchasing carbon offsets or credits to compensate for any remaining emissions. |
| Scope: Net zero encompasses all greenhouse gases, not just carbon dioxide (CO2). It accounts for emissions of methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and other greenhouse gases as well. | Timeliness: Carbon neutrality can be achieved on an annual basis, and it may not necessarily involve a long-term commitment to zero emissions. |
| Long-Term Goal: Net zero is often seen as a long-term goal, with organizations and countries committing to achieve it by a specific target year, such as 2050. | Application: Carbon neutrality is a term commonly used by businesses, events, and individuals to describe their efforts to reduce and offset carbon emissions. It is a practical approach for organizations looking to take immediate action to reduce their carbon footprint. |
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For Prelims: Carbon credits, carbon neutral, Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), Net Zero’, ‘Carbon Neutral’, and the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS).
For Mains: 1. Explain the concept of the Carbon Border Adjustment Tax (CBAT) and its objectives in the context of climate change mitigation. Discuss the potential benefits and challenges associated with its implementation. (250 words)
2. What are the key principles and mechanisms underlying the proposed Carbon Border Adjustment Tax (CBAT) policies in various regions? Analyze how CBATs can influence international trade and environmental sustainability. (250 Words).
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following adopted a law on data protection and privacy for its citizens known as ‘General Data Protection Regulation’ in April, 2016 and started implementation of it from 25th May, 2018? (UPSC CSE 2019) (a) Australia Answer: (c) 2.‘Broad-based Trade and Investment Agreement (BTIA)’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of negotiations held between India and (UPSC CSE 2017) (a) European Union Answer: (a) |
CAMPA
1. Context
Days after the Comptroller and Auditor General’s (CAG) report on the Compulsory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) in Uttarakhand was released, the Chief Executive Officer of the body has said they are looking into the issues that have been flagged
2. About CAMPA Funds
- Establishment in 2004, the Ministry of Environment and Forests constituted the Compensatory Afforestration Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) to oversee and manage the Compensatory Afforestration Fund (CAF) as directed by the Supreme Court.
- CAMPA Act or Compensatory Afforestation Fund act is an Indian legislation that seeks to provide an appropriate institutional mechanism, both at the centre and in each state and Union Territory, to ensure expeditious utilisation in the efficient and transparent manner of amounts released instead of forest land diverted for the non-forest purpose which would mitigate the impact of diversion of such forest land.
3. Objectives of CAMPA
The funds are meant to promote afforestation and regenerative activities as a way of compensating for forest land diverted to non-forest uses.
National CAMPA Advisory Council has been established with the following mandate:
- Lay down broad guidelines for State CAMPA.
- Facilitate scientific, technological and other assistance that may be required by State CAMPA.
- Make recommendations to State CAMPA based on a review of their plans and programmes.
- Provide a mechanism to State CAMPA to resolve issues of an inter-state or Centre-State character.
4. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
- It is the international body for assessing the science related to climate change.
- It was set up in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to provide policymakers with regular assessments of the scientific basis of climate change, its impacts and future risks, and options for adaptation and mitigation.
- IPCC assessments provide a scientific basis for governments at all levels to develop climate-related policies, and they underlie negotiations at the UN Climate Conference- the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
5. What is the Assessment report of the IPCC?
- The Assessment Reports, the first of which had come out in 1990, are the most comprehensive evaluation of the state of the earth's climate.
- Every few years (about 7 years), the IPCC produces assessment reports.
- Hundreds of experts go through every available piece of relevant, published scientific information to prepare a common understanding of the changing climate.
- The four subsequent assessment reports, each thousand of pages long, came out in 1995, 2001, 2007 and 2015. These have formed the basis of the global response to climate change.
- Over the years, each assessment report has built on the work of the previous ones, adding more evidence, information and data. So that most of the conclusions about climate change and its impacts have far greater clarity, certainty and wealth of new evidence now than earlier.
- It is these negotiations that have produced the Paris Agreement, and previously the Kyoto Protocol. The Paris Agreement was negotiated based on the Fifth Assessment Report.
6. Why is afforestation Contested?
- India has committed to adding “an additional (cumulative) carbon sink of 2.53 GtCO2e through additional forest and tree cover by 2030”, as part of its climate commitments to the U.N.
- Afforestation is also codified in the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), a body chaired by the Environment Minister.
- When forest land is diverted to nonforest use, such as building a dam or a mine, that land can longer provide its historical ecosystem services nor host biodiversity.
- According to the Forest (Conservation) Act, of 1980, the project proponent that wishes to divert the land must identify land elsewhere to afforest and pay for the land value and the afforestation exercise. That land will, thereafter, be stewarded by the forest department.
7. Why does CAMPA matter?
- The money paid sits in a fund overseen by the CAMPA. As of 2019, the fund had ₹47,000 crores.
- The CAMPA has come under fire for facilitating the destruction of natural ecosystems in exchange for forests to be set up in faraway places.
8. How do ecosystems compare to renewable energy?
- The IPCC report also found that the sole option (among those evaluated) with more mitigating potential than "reducing the conversion of natural ecosystems" was solar power and that the third-highest was the wind.
- But many solar parks in India have triggered conflicts with people living nearby because they limit land use and increase local water consumption.
- A 2018 study published in Nature Ecology & Evolution also found that wind farms in the western ghats had reduced the abundance and activity of predatory birds, which consequently increased the density of lizards.
- However, the IPCC report also noted that reducing the conversion of natural ecosystems could be more expensive than wind power, yet still less expensive than ecosystem restoration, afforestation and restoration for every GtCO2e.
Previous year Question
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1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)
1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels.
2. People's participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: A
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For Prelims & Mains
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For Prelims: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA), Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF), World Meteorological Organisation (WMO), United Nations Environment Programme and (UNEP) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
For Mains: 1. What are CAMPA Funds and explain why is India's CAMPA at odds with the new IPCC report?
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Source: The Hindu
