MULLAPERIYAR DAM
1. Context
The Supreme Court directed a supervisory committee, constituted by the Centre on January 3 and chaired by the head of the National Dam Safety Authority, to look into the issues raised by Tamil Nadu against Kerala over maintenance of the 125-year-old Mullaperiyar dam
2. New Guidelines
- The CWC (Central Water Commission) implemented a set of guidelines for dam construction following Kerala's preparation of the DPR (Detailed Project Report) in 2011. Those informed about the situation mentioned that the costs for various project components have increased since the last DPR, hence the need for a revision.
- Recently, the State government approached the CWC to expedite approval for a new dam's construction. Additionally, the State expressed its readiness to supply water to Tamil Nadu from this new dam.
- Kerala and Tamil Nadu have been embroiled in a prolonged legal dispute regarding the stability and other related aspects of the current dam. Kerala has been advocating for a new dam primarily on safety grounds.
- Both states witnessed significant protests after Kerala raised safety concerns and called for the decommissioning the existing dam
3. What do we Know about the Mullaperiyar Dam?
The Mullaperiyar Dam is located in the southern Indian state of Kerala, but it's owned and operated by the Government of Tamil Nadu.
Here are some key points about the dam:
- Situated in the Western Ghats, the Mullaperiyar Dam is built across the Periyar River in the state of Kerala
- Although the dam is located in Kerala, it is owned, maintained, and operated by the Government of Tamil Nadu based on a 999-year lease agreement signed in 1886
- The primary purpose of the dam is to divert water from the Periyar River's catchment area to the Vaigai River basin in Tamil Nadu for irrigation and drinking water purposes
- The dam has been a subject of contention between Kerala and Tamil Nadu due to concerns over its structural integrity. Kerala has raised concerns about the dam's safety due to its age and the potential risk to downstream areas in case of a dam failure. Tamil Nadu contends that the dam is safe and necessary for meeting its water needs
- The two states have engaged in a prolonged legal battle over the Mullaperiyar Dam's safety and the need for a new dam. Kerala has called for decommissioning the existing dam and constructing a new one, while Tamil Nadu has insisted on raising the dam's water level, citing its necessity for irrigation
- The issue has reached the Supreme Court of India multiple times, and the court has issued various directives regarding the water level and safety measures to address concerns from both states
4.What is the Dispute regarding Mullaperiyar dam?
The dispute surrounding the Mullaperiyar Dam primarily revolves around several key issues:
- Kerala has raised serious concerns about the dam's structural integrity due to its age and the potential risks associated with a dam failure. There have been apprehensions that the dam, which is over a century old, might not withstand a major earthquake or natural calamity, posing a threat to the downstream areas in Kerala
- Tamil Nadu, which owns and operates the dam, asserts its rights to receive a certain amount of water from the Periyar River through the dam for irrigation purposes in the Vaigai River basin. There have been disagreements between the two states regarding the permissible water level in the dam and the quantity of water to be released to Tamil Nadu
- The disagreement between Kerala and Tamil Nadu has escalated into a legal battle that has been ongoing for decades. Both states have filed numerous cases and counter-cases in courts, including the Supreme Court of India, seeking decisions on issues related to the dam's safety, water sharing, and the need for a new dam
- The Mullaperiyar Dam issue has significant political implications for both states. It has been a point of contention in the political landscape of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, with each state advocating for its respective stance on the dam's safety and water-sharing agreements
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Periyar river
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5. What is the Dam Safety Act?
- The Dam Safety Act, introduced to the Rajya Sabha in December 2021, aimed to address issues of inadequate monitoring and maintenance that have led to dam-related disasters.
- This legislation outlined specific duties and required the establishment of both national and state-level bodies to enforce its provisions.
- It proposed the creation of a National Committee on Dam Safety responsible for overseeing policies and regulations, a National Dam Safety Authority tasked with implementation and the resolution of state-level disputes, designating the Chairman of the Central Water Commission (CWC) to lead national dam safety protocols, and the formation of State Committees on Dam Safety (SCDS) and State Dam Safety Organizations (SDSO)
- The Dam Safety Act (DSA) 2021 was enacted by the Union Government of India to prevent dam failure-related disasters. The act focuses on the proper surveillance, inspection, operation, and maintenance of specified dams. It also establishes an institutional mechanism to ensure their safe functioning
- The act was notified by the Government of India on December 14, 2021, and came into effect on December 30, 2021.
- The act provides for institutional mechanisms for surveillance, inspection, operation, and maintenance of the specified dams. The Central Water Commission (CWC) provides technical expertise and guidance on all matters related to dams.
- Failure to comply with any provision of the act is punishable with imprisonment and/or fines. If such obstruction or refusal to comply with directions results in loss of lives or imminent danger thereof, the entity shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years
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Previous Year Questions
1. Which one of the following pairs is not correctly matched? (UPSC CSE 2010) Dam/Lake River (a) Govind Sagar : Satluj Answer: (b) 2.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2009)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (d) |
Source: The Hindu
NATIONAL GREEN TRIBUNAL
1. Context
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) on Wednesday pulled up the Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board (UPPCB) for not submitting adequate information to the court, including faecal coliform levels in river water in Prayagraj during Maha Kumbh.
2. What is National Green Tribunal (NGT)?
- The National Green Tribunal (NGT) is a specialized judicial body established in India to handle cases related to environmental protection and conservation.
- It was established under the National Green Tribunal Act, of 2010, and its primary objective is to effectively and expeditiously address environmental disputes and promote sustainable development.
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With the establishment of the NGT, India became the third country in the world to set up a specialized environmental tribunal, only after Australia and New Zealand, and the first developing country to do so.
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NGT is mandated to make disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of the filing of the same.
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The NGT has five places of sittings, New Delhi is the Principal place of sitting, and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai are the other four.
3. Structure of the National Green Tribunal (NGT)
- Chairperson: The NGT is headed by a full-time Chairperson who is a retired judge of the Supreme Court of India. The Chairperson is responsible for the overall administration and functioning of the tribunal.
- Judicial Members: The NGT consists of judicial members who are retired judges of either the Supreme Court or a High Court. These members have extensive legal knowledge and experience in handling environmental matters.
- Expert Members: The tribunal also includes expert members who possess expertise in areas such as environmental science, ecology, hydrology, and forestry. These members provide valuable technical insights and guidance in the resolution of environmental disputes.
- The NGT is organized into multiple benches located across different regions of India. These benches are responsible for hearing cases specific to their respective jurisdictions. Each bench is headed by a judicial member and consists of one or more expert members, as required.
4. What are the Important Landmark Judgements of NGT?
The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has delivered several landmark judgments that have had a significant impact on environmental protection and conservation in India. Here are some of the important landmark judgments delivered by the NGT:
- Vardhaman Kaushik v. Union of India (2013): This case dealt with the issue of groundwater depletion due to illegal extraction by industries in Uttar Pradesh. The NGT directed the closure of industries that were extracting groundwater without proper permissions and ordered the payment of compensation for environmental damage caused.
- Alembic Pharmaceuticals Ltd. v. Rohit Prajapati & Ors. (2014): In this case, the NGT ordered the closure of an industrial unit in Gujarat for releasing untreated effluents into a water body, causing pollution and harm to the environment and public health.
- M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2014): The NGT issued a landmark judgment in this case regarding the pollution of the Yamuna River. It directed several measures to clean and rejuvenate the river, including the establishment of sewage treatment plants and the regulation of industries contributing to pollution.
- Subhash Chandra Sharma v. Union of India (2015): This case focused on the issue of air pollution caused by solid waste burning in open areas. The NGT imposed a ban on burning waste in open spaces and directed municipal authorities to take measures to manage waste effectively.
- Raghu Nath Sharma v. State of Himachal Pradesh (2016): The NGT ordered the closure of illegal hotels and structures in the eco-sensitive Rohtang Pass area of Himachal Pradesh to protect the fragile Himalayan ecosystem.
- Yamuna Muktikaran Abhiyan v. Union of India (2017): This case dealt with the rejuvenation of the Yamuna River and led to the NGT issuing directions to clean and restore the river, including measures to prevent encroachments and pollution.
- M.C. Mehta v. Union of India (2017): The NGT banned the use of disposable plastic in Delhi and the National Capital Region (NCR) and directed authorities to take steps to prevent the use and sale of such plastic.
- Shailesh Singh v. Hotel Holiday Regency (2019): In this case, the NGT imposed heavy fines on a hotel in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, for causing air pollution by running diesel generators without proper emission control measures.
- Subhash Chandran vs. Tamil Nadu Pollution Control Board (2020): This judgment highlighted the importance of safeguarding coastal areas and wetlands from unauthorized construction and development activities, emphasizing the need for stringent environmental norms.
- In Re: Report by Comptroller and Auditor General of India (2021): The NGT directed the formulation of guidelines for the regulation of groundwater extraction and management to prevent overexploitation and depletion.
5. What is a dissolved oxygen level?
- Dissolved oxygen (DO) level refers to the concentration of oxygen gas (O2) that is dissolved in a liquid, typically water.
- It is a crucial parameter in aquatic ecosystems as it directly affects the survival and well-being of aquatic organisms.
- In natural water bodies like lakes, rivers, and oceans, oxygen dissolves from the atmosphere through processes such as diffusion and aeration.
- Aquatic plants, algae, and phytoplankton also contribute to the production of oxygen through photosynthesis. However, the level of dissolved oxygen can fluctuate based on various factors, including temperature, altitude, water flow, pollution, and organic matter decomposition.
- Dissolved oxygen is essential for aquatic organisms because they rely on it for their respiration process, similar to how animals breathe oxygen from the air.
- Insufficient levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to hypoxia, a condition where organisms are deprived of the oxygen they need to survive. This can result in stress, reduced growth, reproductive issues, and even mortality in aquatic species.
Different species of aquatic organisms have varying tolerance levels for dissolved oxygen. For example:
- Fish and other aquatic animals often require dissolved oxygen levels between 4 to 6 milligrams per liter (mg/L) to thrive.
- Some species of fish, insects, and other aquatic organisms can tolerate lower levels of dissolved oxygen, even below 2 mg/L, while others require higher concentrations.
6. What are chemical oxygen demand and biological oxygen demand?
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD):
- COD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize and break down organic and inorganic substances present in water.
- It provides an indication of the total amount of pollutants that can be chemically oxidized by a strong oxidizing agent. COD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed.
- COD is useful in assessing the overall pollution load in a water sample, including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.
- It is commonly used for industrial wastewater monitoring, as it provides a rapid estimation of the organic content and potential pollution levels. However, COD does not differentiate between different types of pollutants or indicate the potential impact on aquatic life.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
- BOD measures the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms (bacteria) during the biological degradation of organic matter in water.
- It is a key indicator of the level of biodegradable organic pollutants present in water. BOD is expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/L) of oxygen consumed over a specific time period, usually 5 days (BODâ‚…).
- BOD is particularly important in assessing the impact of organic pollution on aquatic ecosystems.
- High BOD levels indicate that a water body may have a significant amount of organic pollutants, which can lead to oxygen depletion as microorganisms break down the organic matter. This oxygen depletion, known as hypoxia, can harm aquatic organisms and disrupt the ecological balance of the water body.
Comparing BOD and COD:
- BOD primarily measures the biologically degradable organic matter and provides information about the potential impact on aquatic life.
- COD measures both biologically and chemically degradable pollutants, giving an indication of the overall pollution load and oxygen demand.
- BOD is a more specific and ecologically relevant parameter, but it takes longer to determine (5 days), while COD can be measured more quickly.
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For Prelims: National Green Tribunal (NGT), National Green Tribunal Act, of 2010, Dissolved oxygen (DO), Chemical Oxygen demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance of Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) as critical indicators for assessing water pollution and quality. (250 Words)
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Previous year Question1. How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)? (UPSC 2018)
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by the executive order of the Government.
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells, and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
2. The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 was enacted in consonance with which of the following provisions of the Constitution of India? (UPSC 2012)
1. Right of a healthy environment, construed as a part of the Right to life under Article 21
2. Provision of grants for raising the level of administration in the Scheduled Areas for the welfare of Scheduled Tribes under Article 275(1)
3. Powers and functions of Gram Sabha as mentioned under Article 243(A)
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: A
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Source: The Indian Express
COALITION FOR DISASTER RESILIENT INFRASTRUCTURE (CDRI)
1. Context
The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI), a multilateral organisation launched by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in 2019, put out a report earlier this month studying Indian telecom networks’ preparedness in the event of disasters. The report suggests ways in which State governments can better prepare for calamities that may impact telecom networks.
2. About the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI)
- The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) is an international initiative aimed at promoting the resilience of infrastructure systems to disasters and climate change impacts.
- It was launched in September 2019 by Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi at the UN Climate Action Summit in New York.
- CDRI serves as a platform for governments, UN agencies, financial institutions, infrastructure networks, and academia to collaborate on enhancing the resilience of infrastructure systems worldwide.
- The coalition focuses on various aspects such as knowledge sharing, capacity building, policy advocacy, and financing mechanisms to support resilient infrastructure development.
The main objectives of CDRI include
- Promoting the integration of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation into infrastructure planning, design, and implementation processes.
- Facilitating the exchange of knowledge, best practices, and innovative solutions among member countries and stakeholders.
- Enhancing capacity-building efforts to strengthen the resilience of infrastructure systems.
- Advocating for policy reforms and investments in resilient infrastructure.
- Mobilizing financial resources and partnerships to support resilient infrastructure projects in vulnerable regions.
3. The member countries of CDRI
The Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) has 38 members, consisting of 31 countries and 7 international organizations.
- The member countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Dominican Republic, Fiji, France, Germany, Ghana, Haiti, India, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Madagascar, Maldives, Mauritius, Mongolia, Nepal, Netherlands, Peru, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Turkey, the United Kingdom andUnited States.
- The Organizations include the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the World Bank Group, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), The Private Sector Alliance for Disaster Resilient Societies, the European Union, European Investment Bank.
4. The International Conference on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (ICDRI)
The International Conference on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (ICDRI) is an annual event organized by the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI). It's essentially a platform for bringing together various stakeholders involved in infrastructure development to discuss and find solutions for building disaster-resilient infrastructure. It serves as a forum for dialogue and collaboration among governments, infrastructure experts, financial institutions, and the private sector. The 6th ICDRI took place in New Delhi, India in March 2024. The ICDRI 2024 Theme: "Investing today for a more resilient tomorrow".
Goals
- By providing a platform for decision-makers to discuss challenges and identify areas for collaboration.
- Promote collaboration and showcase successful practices in building resilient infrastructure.
- Raise awareness and attract new members to the CDRI's mission.
5. What is the International Solar Alliance (ISA)?
The International Solar Alliance (ISA) is an intergovernmental organization that aims to promote solar energy deployment and facilitate the adoption of solar technologies globally, especially in countries located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. It was jointly launched by India and France during the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris.
The primary objective of the International Solar Alliance is to address common challenges related to solar energy access, affordability, and sustainability by leveraging collective efforts, knowledge sharing, and cooperation among its member countries. By fostering collaboration, the ISA seeks to accelerate the deployment of solar energy infrastructure, promote investment in solar projects, and facilitate technology transfer and capacity-building initiatives.
Key features and objectives of the International Solar Alliance include
- ISA aims to create an enabling environment for solar energy deployment by promoting conducive policies, regulations, and incentives at the national and regional levels.
- The alliance seeks to mobilize financial resources and investments for solar energy projects through innovative financing mechanisms, such as concessional loans, grants, and risk mitigation instruments.
- ISA promotes the transfer of solar technologies, knowledge, and best practices among member countries. It also supports capacity-building initiatives to enhance the skills and capabilities of stakeholders involved in the solar energy sector.
- ISA encourages research, development, and innovation in solar energy technologies to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and address specific challenges faced by member countries.
- The alliance facilitates collaboration and partnerships for the development, implementation, and operation of solar energy projects, including solar parks, off-grid solutions, and decentralized systems.
- ISA engages in advocacy efforts to raise awareness about the benefits of solar energy and promote sustainable energy transitions. It also works to foster partnerships with international organizations, governments, industry stakeholders, and civil society organizations.
6. How is CDRI similar to ISA?
Both the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and the International Solar Alliance (ISA) are international organizations with a focus on global challenges, but in different aspects.
Similarities
- Both CDRI and ISA are international initiatives that facilitate collaboration among member countries, governments, international organizations, and other stakeholders to address common challenges.
- Both initiatives promote sustainable development goals by addressing key issues related to infrastructure resilience (CDRI) and renewable energy deployment (ISA).
- CDRI and ISA prioritize knowledge sharing, capacity building and technology transfer among member countries to promote best practices, innovation, and skill development in their respective fields.
- Both initiatives advocate for supportive policies, regulations, and incentives to accelerate progress towards their goals. CDRI advocates for policies that integrate disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation into infrastructure planning, while ISA promotes policies that support solar energy deployment and investment.
- CDRI and ISA work to mobilize financial resources and investments to support their objectives, whether it's financing resilient infrastructure projects (CDRI) or funding solar energy initiatives (ISA).
- While CDRI focuses on enhancing infrastructure resilience worldwide, ISA primarily targets countries located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, aiming to promote solar energy deployment in these regions. However, both initiatives have global relevance and engage with stakeholders beyond their member countries.
Key Differences
- CDRI targets disaster resilience in infrastructure development, while ISA concentrates on promoting solar energy usage.
- There's some overlap, but not complete. CDRI has 39 members, while ISA has over 120 members, with a focus on countries receiving abundant sunlight.
- CDRI promotes research, knowledge sharing, and developing standards for disaster-resilient infrastructure. ISA works on deploying solar technologies, making them affordable, and supporting developing countries in solar adoption.
7. Where is ICDRI organised?
- The International Conference on Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (ICDRI) is typically organized in various locations around the world, depending on the host country and organizing partners.
- Since its inception, ICDRI has been held in different countries to facilitate broader participation and engagement from stakeholders across regions.
- The selection of the host country for ICDRI may involve considerations such as the country's expertise in disaster resilience, infrastructure development, and its commitment to addressing climate change-related challenges.
- Additionally, hosting ICDRI provides an opportunity for the host country to showcase its initiatives, share best practices, and contribute to global discussions on enhancing infrastructure resilience.
- ICDRI aims to promote international collaboration, knowledge exchange, and capacity building in disaster-resilient infrastructure across diverse geographical contexts.
- By rotating the location of the conference, it allows for a more inclusive and comprehensive approach to addressing the multifaceted challenges of infrastructure resilience worldwide.
- The specific venue and logistical details of each ICDRI are typically announced closer to the date of the event, in collaboration with the host country and organizing partners.
8. International Cooperation for Disaster Risk Resilience (DRR)
International cooperation for Disaster Risk Resilience (DRR) refers to collaborative efforts among countries, international organizations, NGOs, civil society, academia, and other stakeholders to address the challenges posed by natural hazards and reduce the risks associated with disasters. This cooperation aims to build the resilience of communities, countries, and regions to withstand, adapt to, and recover from the impacts of disasters.
Global Frameworks
- Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) is the UN agreement (2015-2030) and is the current roadmap for DRR globally. It sets seven targets and four priorities for reducing disaster losses.
- Several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), like clean water and sanitation (SDG 6) and climate action (SDG 13), are linked to DRR, as disaster preparedness can help achieve these broader goals.
International Organizations
- The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) is the UN agency that leads international efforts for DRR by promoting policies, knowledge sharing, and monitoring progress on the SFDRR.
- The World Bank and other development banks and institutions provide financial and technical assistance to developing countries for DRR projects.
Key Areas of Cooperation
- Sharing information and technologies to create and improve early warning systems for floods, earthquakes, and other hazards.
- Developed countries share best practices and expertise with developing countries to improve their DRR capabilities.
- Wealthier nations provide financial support to developing countries for disaster preparedness, mitigation, response, and recovery.
- Sharing advanced technologies like remote sensing and data analysis for better risk assessment and disaster response.
Challenges of International Cooperation
- Developing countries often lack the resources for effective DRR, requiring a stronger focus on financial aid and technology transfer.
- Countries have varying priorities based on their specific disaster risks, making it challenging to implement universal solutions.
- DRR requires sustained international cooperation, not just short-term responses to disasters.
9. The Way Forward
The international community can significantly improve its ability to withstand and recover from disasters. The CDRI has a crucial role to play in facilitating collaboration, knowledge sharing, and mobilizing resources towards a more resilient future.
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For Prelims: Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, International Cooperation for Disaster Risk Resilience, Sustainable Development Goals, International Solar Alliance
For Mains:
1. Explain the objectives of the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) and its role in promoting infrastructure resilience globally. (250 Words)
2. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR) is a key global agreement on DRR. Explain the goals of the SFDRR and discuss how the objectives of the CDRI align with the priorities outlined in this framework. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Select the correct statement about Sendai Framework. (MPSC 2019)
(a) This framework was passed by United Nations Organisation's conference at Sendai (Japan) on 18th March 2015.
(b) This framework is regarding measures for Disaster Risk Reduction.
(c) This is an onward step of the Hyogo Framework about disaster management.
(d) The provisions in this framework are binding on member countries.
A. (a), (b) statements are correct.
B. (b), (c) statements are correct.
C. (a), (b), (c) statements are correct.
D. All of the above statements are correct.
2. Consider the following statements
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome
2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct
A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 Nor 2
3. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2016)
1. The International Solar Alliance was launched at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2015.
2. The Alliance includes all the member countries of the United Nations.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 Nor 2
Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-A
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Source: The Indian Express
ISLAM AND INDIA
1. Context
Islam originated in Arabia in the 7th century and spread westwards towards the Mediterranean and eastwards into Persia. By the 8th century, it had expanded its reach from Spain to Sindh. But how did it reach India?
2. Early Signs of Islam in India
- The presence of Islam in India dates back to the 7th century, with the establishment of significant mosques such as the Cheraman Juma Mosque in Kerala, the Palaiya Jumma Palli in Tamil Nadu, and the Barwada Mosque in Gujarat— the latter uniquely oriented towards Jerusalem.
- These places of worship were constructed by Arab sailors and merchants, often with the patronage of local Hindu rulers, marking the initial introduction of Islamic teachings to Indian shores.
- A Persian text from the 13th century recounts the Arab expeditions in the 7th and 8th centuries, attempting to capture regions such as Thana near present-day Mumbai.
- However, these incursions were successfully resisted by ruling dynasties like the Pratiharas.
- While Islam primarily expanded in India through trade networks, it also entered the subcontinent via military campaigns, particularly in the Sindh region during the 7th century.
- By the 10th century, Central Asian raiders, notably Mahmud of Ghazni, began crossing the Hindu Kush mountains, launching raids on North Indian temples in search of wealth.
- Unlike the earlier Arab traders, these invaders were predominantly Turkic groups from Central Asia.
- From the 12th century onward, they established settlements and began exploiting India’s agricultural resources. By the 15th century, the dominance of the Turks and Afghans had waned, giving way to the emergence of the Mughal Empire
3. Sultans and Sufis
- The arrival of the Sultans in India brought with it a new Persian-influenced court culture, which gradually replaced the earlier Sanskritic traditions. Their mastery of cavalry warfare made them a dominant military force, which is why Rajasthan has many folk deities associated with horse-riding, known as ‘pirs’ and ‘virs,’ revered by both Hindus and Muslims.
- In South India, this cultural synthesis is reflected in temple traditions where Muslim warriors, such as Vavar and Ravuttan, are depicted as protectors of Hindu gods and goddesses.
- Similarly, in Vishnu temples like Srirangam, the presence of Bibi-Nachiyar—a Muslim princess believed to be a consort of the deity—highlights the deep cultural interconnections of the time.
- From the 12th century onward, Sufi mystics from Central Asia began arriving in India, gaining widespread popularity, especially after the Mongol invasions disrupted the old Arabic empire.
- These Sufis traveled extensively along trade routes, bringing with them not only spiritual teachings but also practical knowledge in law, medicine, and agriculture. While some were warriors or ghazis, others were preachers who provided solace and guidance to local communities, making them highly respected figures.
- Upon their passing, their tombs, known as dargahs, became centers of spiritual devotion, attracting people from diverse backgrounds seeking divine blessings. Over time, these Muslim pirs integrated with Hindu virs, becoming an integral part of India's rich folk traditions and religious landscape
4. Islam through agriculture
- Beyond trade and conquests, Islam also expanded in India through agricultural innovations. From the 10th century onward, Sufi settlers introduced advanced farming techniques, such as underground water canals and water wheels, which had been developed in regions like Persia and Spain.
- These innovations enabled cultivation in arid areas, particularly in Sindh and Punjab, transforming previously barren lands into fertile fields. As a result, landless peasant communities, such as the Jats, gained access to land and experienced economic upliftment. Over time, these regions developed significant Muslim populations, eventually forming the foundation of what later became Pakistan.
- During the Mughal era in eastern India, a shift in the Ganga River’s course exposed new tracts of land suitable for cultivation. The Mughal administration encouraged farming in these areas to boost revenue, drawing in frontier communities that had previously remained on the periphery of mainstream society.
- Many Sufi scholars, who had been marginalized in Delhi, supported these settlers in building new agricultural settlements, which later contributed to the formation of Bangladesh.
- This period also saw the emergence of unique cultural and religious traditions, such as the veneration of Panch Pir—five revered Muslim saints who were often identified with the Five Pandavas of Hindu mythology.
- Additionally, figures like Bon Bibi, a guardian spirit of the Sunderbans, became central to local belief systems.
- Architecturally, the mosques built in Bengal during this time featured terracotta designs resembling traditional Bengali huts, reflecting a distinct departure from the Arabic-Persian styles seen elsewhere
5. Immigrant Way
- The influx of Muslim migrants from Central Asia and Persia increased significantly after the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Many were drawn to India due to the vast job opportunities offered by the Delhi and Bahmani sultanates.
- Some arrived with their families, while others married local women. These immigrants took on various roles, serving as naukars (paid soldiers) and chakars (accountants), bringing Islam along with them.
- As members of the elite, they predominantly spoke Persian and constructed Persian-style mosques in the Deccan, such as the renowned Gawan Madarsa in Bidar.
- However, tensions arose between local Indian Muslim elites and the newly arrived immigrant Muslims. The latter often viewed Indian Muslim converts, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds, with disdain.
- Over time, Islam in India began to reflect the existing caste hierarchy, with Sayyids—those claiming descent from the Prophet Muhammad—occupying a superior status, while Pasmandas (a Persian term for marginalized Muslim communities) were regarded as lower caste. In between were groups who traced their lineage to Arab merchants and Persian nobility.
- The introduction and expansion of Islam in India was not a singular event but rather a complex, multi-layered process spanning over seven centuries. It involved a combination of trade, warfare, missionary efforts, agricultural advancements, and migration, each contributing to the diverse and evolving landscape of Islam in the Indian subcontinent
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For Prelims: Religion, Art , Culture
For Mains: GS I - Art & Culture
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Source: Indianexpress
IRON AGE
1. Context
Releasing a report on the antiquity of iron, Tamil Nadu Chief Minister M.K. Stalin proclaimed that the iron age began on “Tamil soil”, placing the date 5,300-odd years ago (4th millennium BCE), and that the “history of Indian subcontinent could no longer overlook Tamil Nadu”.
2. What is an Iron Age?
- The Iron Age marks a transformative period in human civilization when societies transitioned from using bronze to iron for making tools, weapons, and other essential implements.
- This shift played a crucial role in shaping technological advancements, social structures, and economic developments across different regions. The emergence of iron as the primary metal for tool-making was largely due to its abundance and durability compared to bronze, which required both copper and tin—two metals that were not always easily available.
- The beginning of the Iron Age varied across regions. The earliest evidence of ironworking dates back to around 1200 BCE in Anatolia and the Near East, where the Hittites are believed to have pioneered iron smelting techniques.
- Over time, iron usage spread to other parts of the world, reaching India around 1200–1000 BCE, Europe by 800 BCE, and China by 600 BCE. As the knowledge of ironworking expanded, it led to significant changes in warfare, agriculture, and daily life.
- One of the key reasons for the rapid adoption of iron was its strength and availability. Unlike bronze, which required the extraction and combination of two different metals, iron ore was more widely accessible.
- Even though early iron tools were initially less effective than bronze ones, advancements in metallurgy, such as carburization (adding carbon to iron to create steel), improved their quality. This made iron tools sharper, more durable, and ideal for both farming and combat.
- The Iron Age was also marked by the rise of powerful kingdoms and empires. As societies gained access to superior weapons and agricultural tools, they were able to expand their territories, strengthen their economies, and develop more complex political systems.
- In India, for example, the use of iron contributed to the rise of the Mahajanapadas, powerful kingdoms that laid the foundation for later Indian empires. Similarly, in Europe, the Celts and other civilizations thrived due to their iron-based weaponry and farming tools.
- Another significant development during this period was the growth of trade and urbanization. The increased use of iron led to the expansion of trade networks, as civilizations exchanged iron goods along with other commodities. Cities grew in size and complexity, with specialized craftsmen, traders, and warriors playing key roles in society.
- Despite its many advantages, the Iron Age also had challenges. The process of iron smelting required high temperatures and advanced knowledge, making it more complex than working with bronze. Additionally, the increased competition for resources and the rise of stronger armies led to frequent conflicts and territorial expansions.
- In conclusion, the Iron Age revolutionized human civilization, bringing significant advancements in technology, agriculture, warfare, and trade. It laid the foundation for the development of great empires and shaped the course of history in profound ways.
- As societies mastered the use of iron, they moved towards more sophisticated governance systems and economic structures, ultimately setting the stage for the classical civilizations that followed
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Indian Scenario
Excavations carried out by the U.P. State Archaeological Department at sites such as Raja Nala-ka-tila (1996–98), Malhar (1998–99), and Dadupur (1999–2001) unearthed iron artefacts, furnaces, and tuyeres, which were carbon-dated to between 1800 and 1000 BCE. The discoveries at Malhar, in particular, provided strong indications of large-scale iron tool production due to the presence of tuyeres, slags, and finished iron objects. Based on this collective evidence, scholars concluded that iron smelting and the manufacture of iron tools were well understood in the Eastern Vindhyas and that iron may have been in use in the Central Ganga Plain as early as the early second millennium BCE
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3. Iron age through the prism of Tamilnadu
- In Tamil Nadu, several archaeological excavations have been actively conducted in recent years. In 2022, prior to the latest report released by Chief Minister M.K. Stalin that further revised the antiquity of iron usage, the site of Mayiladumparai in Krishnagiri district gained significant attention.
- The Chief Minister had announced that the introduction of the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu dates back 4,200 years (third millennium BCE), based on the findings of the State Archaeological Department’s report, ‘Mayiladumparai - Beginning of Agrarian Society; 4,200-year-old Iron Age Culture in Tamil Nadu.’ This revelation led experts to observe that the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu aligns with the Copper or Bronze Age in other regions.
- A more recent report by the State Archaeology Department, titled ‘Antiquity of Iron: Recent Radiometric Dates from Tamil Nadu,’ supports this claim. It highlights that while cultural zones north of the Vindhyas were still in the Copper Age, southern regions, particularly Tamil Nadu, may have already transitioned into the Iron Age due to the limited availability of commercially viable copper ore.
- In an effort to gain a comprehensive understanding of Tamil Nadu’s Iron Age, extensive excavations have been carried out by the State Archaeology Department, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), and other institutions at locations such as Sivagalai, Adichanallur, Kilnamandi, and Mayiladumparai. Based on these findings, the Iron Age in Tamil Nadu has been dated between 3,345 BCE and 2,953 BCE
4. Sequence of the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age
Human history is broadly divided into different ages based on the materials used for tools and technology. The three major prehistoric periods—Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age—mark significant advancements in human civilization.
1. Stone Age (Prehistoric - c. 3300 BCE)
The Stone Age is the earliest known period of human history, during which stone was the primary material used for tools and weapons. It is further divided into three phases:
- Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): Characterized by hunter-gatherer societies, simple stone tools, and the discovery of fire.
- Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age): A transitional period with refined tools and early domestication of plants and animals.
- Neolithic (New Stone Age): Marked by agriculture, permanent settlements, pottery, and more advanced stone tools.
The Stone Age ended with the advent of metallurgy, leading to the next phase—the Bronze Age.
2. Bronze Age (c. 3300 BCE – 1200 BCE)
The Bronze Age began when humans discovered how to smelt and mix copper with tin to create bronze, a much stronger metal than stone. This period saw the rise of early civilizations, urbanization, trade, and written records. Notable Bronze Age civilizations include the Indus Valley Civilization, Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, and the Shang Dynasty in China.
The Bronze Age ended when iron metallurgy advanced, leading to the Iron Age.
3. Iron Age (c. 1200 BCE – onwards)
The Iron Age began when iron replaced bronze as the dominant material for tools and weapons. Iron was more durable and widely available, making it a crucial advancement. This period saw the rise of large empires, advanced warfare, improved agriculture, and widespread trade networks. Civilizations like the Mauryan Empire in India, the Roman Empire, and various Chinese dynasties flourished during this time.
The Iron Age gradually transitioned into historical periods with the rise of written records and organized states, leading to the classical civilizations of antiquity.
Thus, the sequence of ages follows the Stone Age → Bronze Age → Iron Age, each representing a milestone in human progress and technological development
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For Prelims: Indus Valley Civilisation, Pre-Harappan Phase from 7000 to 3300 BCE, Early Harappan Phase from 3300 to 2600 BCE, Mature Harappan Phase from 2600 to 1900 BCE, and Late Harappan Phase from 1900 to 1300 BCE, Lothal, Sutkagendor, Allahdino, Balakot, Kuntasi.
For Mains: Discuss the phases of the Indus Valley Civilisation and explain the Political and Social life during the Indus Valley civilization. (250 Words).
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Previous year Questions
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1. Regarding the Indus Valley Civilization, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2011)
1. It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present, did not dominate the scene.
2. During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: C
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Source: The Hindu
