UNIVERSITY GRANTS COMMISSION (UGC)
1. Context:
The University Grants Commission has introduced a new enrolment procedure for students seeking admission to open and distance learning (ODL) and online programmes from the academic year 2024-25
2. University Grants Commission (UGC)
The University Grants Commission (UGC) is a statutory body in India that was established to oversee and maintain the standards of higher education. It was formed in 1956 under the University Grants Commission Act of 1956 and operates under the Ministry of Education, Government of India
The primary functions of the UGC include:
- Allocating funds to universities and colleges.
- Formulating and implementing academic standards for higher education institutions.
- Monitoring and maintaining the quality of teaching, research, and examinations in universities.
- Providing guidance and coordination among universities and colleges in the country.
- Supporting and promoting innovations and improvements in the education system
3. Appointment, Tenure, Eligibility
University Grants Commission (UGC) Appointment, Tenure, and Eligibility
| Position | Appointment Method | Tenure | Minimum Eligibility |
|---|---|---|---|
| Chairperson | Appointed by the President of India | 5 years, extendable for another 5 years (subject to review) | Distinguished academician with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in a University system or 10 years in equivalent position at a reputed research/academic administrative organization. * Eminence in higher education. * No connection with the concerned university or its colleges. |
| Member | Appointed by the President of India | 5 years, extendable for another 5 years (subject to review) | Renowned scholar/expert with: * Proven track record in teaching/research/administration in relevant field. * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor/equivalent in a University/College/Institute of national importance. * Demonstrated commitment to higher education development. |
| Vice-Chancellor (University) | Appointed by Executive Council of the University | 5 years, extendable for another 5 years | Distinguished academician with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in a University system or 10 years in equivalent position at a reputed research/academic administrative organization. * Eminence in the sphere of higher education. * No connection with the concerned university or its colleges. |
| Dean (Faculty) or Director (School/Institute) | Appointed by Executive Council of the University/Governing Council of the Institute | 5 years, extendable for another 5 years | Eminent scholar with: * Minimum 10 years of experience as Professor in relevant field. * Exceptional research record and contributions to the discipline. * Strong administrative and leadership skills. |
| Professor | Through Selection Committee constituted by the University | Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review | Ph.D. in relevant subject with: * Proven track record of research publications in peer-reviewed journals. * Significant contribution to the discipline. * Experience in research supervision. |
| Associate Professor | Through Selection Committee constituted by the University | Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review | Ph.D. in relevant subject with: * Good academic record and publications. * Minimum 8 years of teaching/research experience in relevant field. |
| Assistant Professor | Through Selection Committee constituted by the University | Up to 5 years (initially), extendable based on performance review | Master's degree with at least 55% marks and Ph.D. in relevant/allied/cognate discipline OR Master's degree with NET/SLET/SET qualification. |
4. University Grants Commission - Statutory Provisions
The University Grants Commission (UGC) operates under statutory provisions outlined primarily in the University Grants Commission Act, 1956. Here are some of the key statutory provisions governing the UGC:
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University Grants Commission Act, 1956: This is the primary legislation that established the UGC. It defines the roles, functions, powers, and responsibilities of the Commission. It also outlines the composition of the UGC, appointment procedures, and its authority to allocate funds to universities and colleges.
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UGC (Institutions Deemed to be Universities) Regulations, 2016: These regulations provide guidelines for institutions seeking the status of "Deemed to be University." They specify the criteria, application process, and conditions for granting this status.
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UGC (Minimum Standards of Instruction for the Grant of the First Degree through Non-formal/Distance Education) Regulations, 2017: These regulations specify the minimum standards for offering programs through distance education mode, ensuring quality education delivery.
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UGC (Open and Distance Learning) Regulations, 2017: These regulations govern the standards and norms for open and distance learning programs offered by universities and institutions in India.
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UGC (Establishment and Maintenance of Standards in Private Universities) Regulations, 2003: These regulations outline the norms and standards for the establishment and functioning of private universities, ensuring quality education.
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UGC (Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal of Sexual Harassment of Women Employees and Students in Higher Educational Institutions) Regulations, 2015: These regulations mandate higher educational institutions to establish mechanisms for preventing and addressing sexual harassment.
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UGC (Promotion of Equity in Higher Educational Institutions) Regulations, 2012: These regulations aim to promote equity in higher education, focusing on providing opportunities to disadvantaged sections of society.
5. University Grants Commission - Powers and Functions
The University Grants Commission (UGC) in India is entrusted with several powers and functions aimed at promoting and regulating higher education in the country.
Some of its key powers and functions include:
- UGC allocates funds to universities and colleges for their development, improvement, and maintenance
- Provides financial assistance to encourage and support research activities in various academic disciplines
- UGC establishes and maintains academic standards in higher education to ensure quality across universities and colleges
- Develops frameworks and guidelines for curriculum development in different academic programs
- UGC recognizes universities in India and provides approval for the establishment of new universities
- Monitors the quality of education, teaching, research, and examinations in universities to ensure adherence to set standards
- UGC promotes and supports research activities by providing grants, fellowships, and scholarships to students and faculty members
- Facilitates coordination and cooperation among universities and other higher educational institutions
- Advises the Central and State governments on matters related to higher education policies, regulations, and development
- Provides guidance, assistance, and recommendations to universities for enhancing their academic and research standards
- Conducts assessments and accredits higher education institutions to ensure and improve quality
- Undertakes periodic reviews and assessments to maintain and enhance the quality of education
- Implements programs and initiatives to promote access to higher education for underprivileged and marginalized sections of society
- Develops and revises regulations and guidelines governing various aspects of higher education, such as distance education, deemed universities, private universities, etc
- Collects, analyzes, and maintains data related to higher education for policy formulation and decision-making purposes
6.Institutions which grant Degree
In India, degrees are granted by various types of institutions that are recognized and authorized to award them.
These institutions include:
- Central Universities: Established by an Act of Parliament and are under the purview of the central government.
- State Universities: Established by state governments within their respective states.
- Deemed Universities: Granted the status of "Deemed to be University" by the University Grants Commission (UGC)
- Many colleges are affiliated with universities and offer undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The degrees awarded by these colleges are conferred by the affiliated university
- Some colleges have been granted autonomy by the University Grants Commission or the respective university. These colleges have the authority to design their curriculum and conduct examinations, and they award degrees on their own
- Certain institutes, like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), National Institutes of Technology (NITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), and others designated as Institutes of National Importance, have the authority to award degrees
- Institutions like Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) and others recognized by the Distance Education Bureau (DEB) offer distance education programs and award degrees
These institutions adhere to the guidelines and regulations set by regulatory bodies like the University Grants Commission (UGC), All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), Bar Council of India (BCI), Medical Council of India (MCI), and others to maintain the quality and standards of education while awarding degrees in their respective fields of expertise
7. Challenges regarding the University Grants Commission
The University Grants Commission (UGC) in India, despite its significant role in regulating and fostering higher education, faces several challenges:
Insufficient Funding: The allocated funds might not always meet the growing needs of universities and colleges, impacting infrastructure development, research, and educational quality
Ensuring Quality: Maintaining and assuring consistent quality across a diverse range of institutions, especially in rapidly evolving fields, can be challenging.
Accreditation Processes: Some institutions struggle to meet accreditation criteria, impacting their ability to offer recognized degrees
Rapid Changes in Education: Keeping regulations updated and aligned with the evolving educational landscape, including emerging technologies and global standards, poses a challenge
Global Rankings: Enhancing the global competitiveness of Indian higher education institutions in terms of rankings and international collaborations is an ongoing challenge
Industry-Relevant Skills: Aligning educational programs with industry needs to enhance employability requires continuous curriculum updates and industry collaboration
8. University Grants Commission - Historical Background
The University Grants Commission (UGC) in India has a rich historical background that traces back to the pre-independence era and has evolved significantly over time:
Pre-Independence Era:
- 1920s-1940s: Before India gained independence, the idea of a body to oversee and promote higher education emerged. The need for such an institution was discussed during the 1920s and 1930s.
Post-Independence Formation:
- 1947: After India gained independence in 1947, discussions intensified regarding the establishment of a commission to oversee higher education and allocate funds to universities and colleges.
- 1950: The UGC was initially set up as an ad-hoc committee to oversee the allocation of grants to universities and colleges.
- 1956: The University Grants Commission Act was passed on December 28, 1956, establishing the UGC as a statutory body. This formalized its role in overseeing and promoting higher education.
Evolution and Functions:
- Early Years: Initially, the UGC focused on disbursing grants and fostering the development of universities and colleges.
- Expanding Role: Over time, the UGC's role expanded to encompass setting academic standards, promoting research, and advising the government on higher education policies.
- Regulatory Functions: It started playing a more regulatory role by formulating guidelines and regulations for various aspects of higher education.
Milestones and Amendments:
- 1960s-1970s: The UGC underwent amendments to accommodate changes in the higher education landscape and to enhance its effectiveness.
- Subsequent Decades: The UGC continued to evolve, adapting to the changing needs of higher education, introducing reforms, and addressing emerging challenges.
9. Way forward
Throughout its history, the UGC has adapted to the changing educational scenario in India, expanding its functions and responsibilities to meet the evolving needs of higher education. It remains a key institution in the Indian education system, contributing significantly to the development and enhancement of higher education across the country
Source: The Hindu
UNIFORM CIVIL CODE (UCC)
1. Context
In his 11th successive Independence Day address from the ramparts of the Red Fort, Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Thursday gave a renewed push to the BJP’s ideological aim of a Uniform Civil Code (UCC), reframing the idea as a “secular civil code” enshrined in the Constitution and a way of ensuring equality before the law for all
2. 22nd law commission on UCC
- Underlining that the Uniform Civil Code is “neither necessary nor desirable at this stage”, the 21st Law Commission of India, in 2018, argued for reform of family laws of every religion through amendments and codification of certain aspects so as to make them gender-just
- In its ‘Consultation Paper on Family Law Reforms’, the Law Commission took a stand in favour of “equality ‘within communities’ between men and women” (personal law reform), “rather than ‘equality between’ communities” (UCC)
- According to the 22nd Law Commission Cultural diversity cannot be compromised to the extent that our urge for uniformity itself becomes a reason for threat to the territorial integrity of the nation
- women must be guaranteed their freedom of faith without any compromise on their right to equality
3. What is the Uniform Civil Code
- A UCC would provide for one law for the entire country, applicable to all religious communities, in their personal matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption etc
- Currently, Indian personal law is fairly complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws
- Separate laws govern Hindus including Sikhs, Jains and Buddhist, Muslims, Christians, and followers of other religions
- Moreover, there is diversity even within communities. All Hindus of the country are not governed by one law, nor are all Muslims or all Christians
- For instance, in the Northeast, there are more than 200 tribes with their own varied customary laws
- The Constitution itself protects local customs in Nagaland. Similar protections are enjoyed by Meghalaya and Mizoram. Even reformed Hindu law, in spite of codification, protects customary practices
- The exception to this rule is the state of Goa, where all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption
4. Constitution on UCC
- Article 44 of the Constitution lays down that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for citizens throughout the territory of India
- Article 44 is among the Directive Principles of State Policy. Directive Principles are not enforceable by court, but are supposed to inform and guide governance
- However, in some senses, Article 44 is unique in this manner. While Article 44 uses the words “state shall endeavour”, other Articles in the ‘Directive Principles’ chapter use words such as “in particular strive”; “shall in particular direct its policy”; “shall be obligation of the state
- The phrase “by suitable legislation” is absent in Article 44. All this implies that the duty of the state is greater in other directive principles than in Article 44
5. Uniform Code for Personal Law
Article 25 lays down an individual’s fundamental right to religion; Article 26(b) upholds the right of each religious denomination or any section thereof to “manage its own affairs in matters of religion”
Article 29 defines the right to conserve distinctive culture
An individual’s freedom of religion under Article 25 is subject to “public order, health, morality” and other provisions relating to fundamental rights, but a group’s freedom under Article 26 has not been subjected to other fundamental rights
6. Way forward
Over the next 30 days, the Law Commission will receive views of the public and stakeholders
The notice said the stakeholders concerned are at liberty to make submissions in the form of consultation/discussion/working papers on any of the issues pertaining to the UCC to the Member Secretary, Law Commission of India
After reviewing the submissions, the Law Commission will again make observations/recommendations regarding a UCC, which may or may not differ from the previous Commission’s observations
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For Prelims: Unifrom Civil Code (UCC), DPSP, Fundamental rights, Law Commission
For Mains: 1. What is the Uniform Civil Code? What are the challenges in implementing a Uniform Civil Code in a diverse country like India?
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Previous Year Questions
Q1. Consider the following provisions under the Directive Principles of State Policy as enshrined in the Constitution of India: (2012)
Which of the above are the Gandhian Principles that are reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy? (a) 1, 2 and 4 only Answer (b) 2. A legislation that confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled discretionary power in the matter of the application of law violates which one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India? Answer (a) Mains 1.Discuss the possible factors that inhibit India from enacting for its citizens a uniform civil code as provided for in the Directive Principles of State Policy. (2015) |
Source: indianexpress
MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE
1. Context
Farmers at many places in Punjab and Haryana on Thursday held tractor marches on the occasion of 78th Independence Day to press the Centre to accept its demands that includes a legal guarantee on MSP for crops
2. What is Minimum Support Price (MSP)?
- MSP is the minimum price a farmer must be paid for their food grains as guaranteed by the government. They are recommended by the Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP) and approved by the Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs.
- The CACP submits its recommendations to the government in the form of Price Policy Reports every year.
- After considering the report and views of the state governments and also keeping in view the overall demand and supply situation in the country, the central government takes the final decision.
- Food Corporation of India (FCI) is the nodal agency for procurement along with State agencies, at the beginning of the sowing season.
The minimum support price (MSP) is set for 23 crops every year. They include:
- 7 cereals (paddy, wheat, maize, bajra, jowar, ragi, and barley)
- 5 pulses (chana, tur/arhar, moong, urad, and Masur)
- 7 oilseeds (rapeseed-mustard, groundnut, soya bean, sunflower, sesamum, safflower, and nigerseed) and
- 4 commercial crops (sugarcane, cotton, copra, and raw jute).
3. How MSP is Cauclated?
- MSP, presently, is based on a formula of 1.5 times the production costs.
- The CACP projects three kinds of production costs for every crop, both at state and all-India average levels.
- A2 covers all paid-out costs directly incurred by the farmer — in cash and kind — on seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, hired labor, leased-in land, fuel, irrigation, etc.
- A2+FL includes A2 plus an imputed value of unpaid family labor.
- C2: Estimated land rent and the cost of interest on the money taken for farming are added to A2 and FL.
- Farm unions are demanding that a comprehensive cost calculation (C2) must also include capital assets and the rentals and interest forgone on owned land, as recommended by the National Commission for Farmers.
4. The issue with the calculation of MSP
- To calculate MSP, the government uses A2+FL cost. The criticism of A2+FL is that it doesn’t cover all costs and that a more representative measure, C2, needs to be used.
- For example, in the 2017-18 rabi season, CACP data shows that C2 for wheat was 54% higher than A2+FL.
- The Swaminathan Commission also stated that the MSP should be based on the comprehensive cost of production, which is the C2 method.
5. Key Points about the Farmer's Demand
- After the recent decision to repeal three contentious farm laws, protesting farmer unions are now pressing for their demand of the legalization of the Minimum Support Price (MSP).
- They want a legal guarantee for the MSP, which at present is just an indicative or a desired price.
- Legalising MSP would put the government under a legal obligation to buy every grain of the crops for which MSPs have been announced.
- At present, the PM has announced the formation of a committee to make MSP more transparent, as well as to change crop patterns and to promote zero-budget agriculture which would reduce the cost of production.
- The entire issue of enforcing MSP legally is a tricky, complicated, and multidimensional one, involving lots of factors.
- Core demand: MSP based on a C2+50% formula should be made a legal entitlement for all agricultural produce. This would mean a 34% increase in the latest MSP for paddy and a 13% increase for wheat. MSP should also be extended to fruit and vegetable farmers who have been excluded from benefits so far.
6. The rationale behind the demand for legislation of MSP
- Farmers receive less than MSP: In most crops grown across much of India, the prices received by farmers, especially during harvest time, are well below the officially-declared MSPs. And since MSPs have no statutory backing, they cannot demand these as a matter of right.
- Limited procurement by the Govt: Also, the actual procurement at MSP by the Govt. is confined to only about a third of wheat and rice crops (of which half is bought in Punjab and Haryana alone), and 10%-20% of select pulses and oilseeds. According to the Shanta Kumar Committee’s 2015 report, only 6% of the farm households sell wheat and rice to the government at the MSP rates.
7. Why has the committee been set up?
- It has been constituted by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare as a follow-up to an announcement by the Prime Minister when he declared the government’s intention to withdraw the three farm laws.
- The protesting farm unions had demanded a legal guarantee on MSP based on the Swaminathan Commission’s ‘C2+50% formula’ (C2 is a type of cost incurred by farmers;). This was in addition to their demand for repeal of the three farm laws.
8. Committee on MSP, Natural Farming and Crop Diversification
On Minimum Support Price (MSP)
- To suggest measures to make MSP available to farmers by making the systems more effective and transparent,
- Give more autonomy to Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP).
On Natural Farming: To make suggestions for programs and schemes for value chain development, protocol validation, and research for future needs and support for area expansion under the Indian Natural Farming System.
On Crop diversification: ​
To provide suggestions related to crop diversification including
- Mapping of existing cropping patterns of agro-ecological zones of producer and consumer states,
- Strategy for diversification policy to change the cropping pattern according to the changing needs of the country and
- A system to ensure remunerative prices for the sale of new crops.
9. Why have the protesting farm unions opposed this committee?
- Firstly, this committee includes members who supported the now-repeated farm laws.
- Secondly, the terms and references of the committee do not mention the legal guarantee to MSP. Instead, it mentions making MSP more effective and transparent.
10. Challenges associated with MSP
- Protest by Farmers: Farm unions have been protesting for more than six months on Delhi's outskirts, demanding legislation to guarantee MSP for all farmers for all crops and a repeal of three contentious farm reforms laws.
- MSP and Inflation: When announcing the MSP, inflation should be taken into account. But often the price is not increased up to the mark. For example, this time MSP for Maize has not even considered inflation then how it will benefit farmers! Also, frequent increases in the MSPs can lead to inflation too.
- High Input Costs: The input costs have been rising faster than sale prices, squeezing the meager income of the small farmers and driving them into debt.
- Lack of Mechanism: There is no mechanism that guarantees that every farmer can get at least the MSP as the floor price in the market. So proper mechanisms need to be fixed for all times to come.
- Restriction in Europe: Even after producing surplus grains, every year a huge portion of these grains gets rotten. This is due to the restrictions under WTO norms, that grain stocks with the FCI (being heavily subsidized due to MSP) cannot be exported.
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For Prelims: Minimum Support Price (MSP), World Trade Organisation (WTO), Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (CACP), Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs, Food Corporation of India (FCI).
For Mains: 1. The Minimum Support Price (MSP) scheme protects farmers from price fluctuations and market imperfections. In light of the given statement, critically analyze the efficacy of the MSP. (250 Words)
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| Previous year Question
1. Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2020)
1. In the case of all cereals, pulses, and oil seeds, the procurement at Minimum Support Price (MSP) is unlimited in any State/UT of India.
2. In the case of cereals and pulses, the MSP is fixed in any State/UT at a level to which the market price will never rise.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
2.Which of the following factors/policies were affecting the price of rice in India in the recent past? (UPSC CSE, 2020)
(1) Minimum Support Price (2) Government’s trading (3) Government’s stockpiling (4) Consumer subsidies Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 Answer (d)
3.In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? (UPSC GS1, 2020)
(1) Fixing Minimum Support Price for agricultural produce of all crops (2) Computerization of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (3) Social Capital development (4) Free electricity supply to farmers (5) Waiver of agricultural loans by the banking system (6) Setting up of cold storage facilities by the governments. In India, which of the following can be considered as public investment in agriculture? Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 5 only (b) 1, 3, 4 and 5 only (c) 2, 3 and 6 only (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Answer (c)
4.The Fair and Remunerative Price (FRP) of sugarcane is approved by the (UPSC CSE, 2015)
(a) Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs (b) Commission for Agricultural Costs and Prices (c) Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Ministry of Agriculture (d) Agricultural Produce Market Committee Answer (a)
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Source: The Indian Express
CITIZENSHIP AMENDMENT ACT (CAA)
1. Context
At least 400 people, mostly from Afghanistan and Pakistan, were granted Indian citizenship under the Citizenship (Amendment) Act (CAA) of 2019 before Bangladesh-born Dulon Das
2. About the Citizenship Amendment Act 2019
The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 is a controversial piece of legislation enacted by the Government of India on December 12, 2019. The act amends the Citizenship Act of 1955 to provide a pathway to Indian citizenship for certain religious minorities from neighbouring countries.
Key features of the Citizenship Amendment Act include
- Eligibility Criteria: The CAA grants eligibility for Indian citizenship to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi, and Christian migrants who arrived in India from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan on or before December 31, 2014, and have faced religious persecution on their home countries.
- Exclusion of Muslims: Notably, the CAA excludes Muslims from its purview, leading to criticisms of religious discrimination and accusations of violating the secular principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution.
- Criticism and Protests: The Citizenship Amendment Act sparked widespread protests across India, with critics arguing that the act undermines the secular fabric of the nation and discriminates against Muslims. Protesters also raised concerns about the potential marginalisation of Muslim communities and the exclusionary nature of the legislation.
- Support from Government: The government defended the Citizenship Amendment Act, asserting that it aims to provide refuge and protection to persecuted religious minorities from neighbouring countries. The government argued that the act does not infringe upon the rights of Indian Muslims and is in line with the country's secular ethos.
- Legal Challenges: Several petitions challenging the constitutional validity of the Citizenship Amendment Act were filed in the Supreme Court of India. The court has heard arguments from both sides and is expected to deliver its judgment on the matter.
3. The current status of the Citizenship Amendment Act, of 2019
- The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) on March 11 notified the Citizenship Amendment Rules, 2024 that would enable the implementation of the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) passed by the Parliament in 2019.
- Though the legislation facilitates citizenship to undocumented people belonging to Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Parsi, Christian and Jain communities from Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan, the rules state that the applicants will have to provide six types of documents and specify “date of entry” in India.
4. The concerns associated with the Citizenship Amendment Act, of 2019
The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 has sparked various concerns and criticisms, both domestically within India and internationally.
- One of the primary concerns regarding the CAA is its exclusion of Muslims from the list of religious minorities eligible for citizenship under the act. Critics argue that this selective approach based on religion goes against the secular principles enshrined in India's constitution and promotes religious discrimination.
- The CAA's focus on granting citizenship based on religious identity raises concerns about the secular nature of India's democracy. Critics argue that the act undermines the inclusive and pluralistic ethos of the country by favouring specific religious communities.
- Opponents of the CAA fear that the act, coupled with other proposed policies like the National Register of Citizens (NRC) and National Population Register (NPR), could have implications for the demographic composition of India. They raise concerns about the marginalisation and exclusion of certain communities, particularly Muslims, and the potential for statelessness among vulnerable populations.
- The constitutionality of the Citizenship Amendment Act has been challenged in the Supreme Court of India. Critics argue that the act violates the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Indian Constitution, including the right to equality and non-discrimination.
- The implementation of the CAA has led to social and political polarization within India. The act has become a contentious issue, leading to protests, debates, and divisions along religious and ideological lines.
- The CAA has also attracted international attention and scrutiny, with concerns raised by human rights organizations and foreign governments regarding religious freedom, minority rights, and the potential impact on vulnerable communities.
5. The Indian ideas and rules of citizenship in the Constitution before the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA), 2019
Before the enactment of the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) in 2019, the principles and rules of citizenship in India were primarily governed by the Constitution of India, which came into effect on January 26, 1950. The Constitution lays down the framework for citizenship and enshrines certain fundamental rights and principles related to citizenship.
- Citizenship by Birth: According to Article 5 of the Indian Constitution, any person born in India on or after January 26, 1950, but before July 1, 1987, was automatically considered a citizen of India by birth, regardless of the nationality of their parents.
- Citizenship by Descent: Individuals born outside India on or after January 26, 1950, but before July 1, 1987, were eligible for Indian citizenship if either of their parents was a citizen of India at the time of their birth.
- Citizenship by Registration: The Constitution provides provisions for certain categories of persons to acquire Indian citizenship through registration. This includes persons of Indian origin who have resided in India for a specified period and meet other criteria prescribed by law.
- Citizenship by Naturalization: Foreigners who have resided in India for a specified period and fulfilled other conditions prescribed by law were eligible to apply for Indian citizenship through naturalization.
- Citizenship by Incorporation of Territory: Any territory that became part of India through accession or merger automatically conferred Indian citizenship on its inhabitants as per the provisions of the Constitution.
- Fundamental Rights: The Constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights to all citizens of India, regardless of their religion, ethnicity, or place of birth. These rights include the right to equality, freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion, and the right to life and personal liberty.
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Citizenship Act, 1955: This act, enacted based on the Constitution's provisions, outlined ways to acquire Indian citizenship. Here are the main routes:
- Birth: Being born in India (with some limitations) granted citizenship.
- Descent: Children born to Indian parents abroad could become citizens.
- Registration: People of Indian origin residing in India for seven years could register.
- Naturalization: Foreigners meeting specific residency requirements could apply for naturalization.
The Indian Constitution before the Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 outlined principles of citizenship that were based on inclusivity, equality, and non-discrimination, with provisions for acquiring citizenship through birth, descent, registration, naturalization, and territorial incorporation. The CAA introduced amendments to these principles, particularly regarding eligibility for citizenship based on religious identity.
6. Section 6A of the Citizenship Act
Section 6A is a special provision inserted into the Indian Citizenship Act, 1955, in 1985, as part of the Assam Accord. It deals with the citizenship of people who migrated to Assam from Bangladesh:
- It applies to people who entered Assam on or after January 1, 1966, but before March 25, 1971.
- It grants citizenship to these people if they can prove that they were "ordinarily resident" in Assam on March 24, 1971.
- People who claim citizenship under Section 6A must apply to a Foreigners Tribunal. The Tribunal will then decide whether or not to grant them citizenship based on the evidence they provide.
7. What does NRC mean?
- NRC stands for the National Register of Citizens. It is a register maintained by the Government of India containing names and certain relevant information for the identification of Indian citizens in the state of Assam.
- The purpose of the NRC is to create a list of genuine Indian citizens residing in Assam and identify individuals who are not legal residents of the state.
- The NRC process in Assam has its origins in the Assam Accord of 1985, which aimed to address the issue of illegal immigration from Bangladesh and determine the citizenship status of individuals living in Assam.
- The NRC process requires individuals to provide documentary evidence to prove their citizenship based on criteria set by the government.
- The NRC process involves extensive documentation and verification to establish citizenship status, and it has been a contentious issue due to its impact on individuals' rights and concerns about exclusion and discrimination.
- The implementation of the NRC in Assam has led to debates, legal challenges, and social tensions regarding citizenship and immigration issues in India.
8. What is NPR?
- NPR stands for the National Population Register. It is a register of usual residents of India, which includes both citizens and non-citizens who have resided in a local area for at least six months or intend to stay for the next six months or more.
- The NPR is prepared at the local, sub-district, district, state, and national levels under the provisions of the Citizenship Act, 1955, and the Citizenship (Registration of Citizens and Issue of National Identity Cards) Rules, 2003.
- The main purpose of the NPR is to create a comprehensive identity database of residents in India. It collects demographic and biometric information to establish the identity of individuals and households.
- The data collected in the NPR includes details such as name, age, gender, marital status, occupation, educational qualification, address, and other relevant information.
- The NPR process involves house-to-house enumeration and collection of data by government officials or designated enumerators. The data collected is used for various purposes, including government planning, policy formulation, and social welfare schemes.
- It's important to note that the NPR is distinct from the National Register of Citizens (NRC). While the NPR focuses on creating a comprehensive database of residents, the NRC specifically deals with determining the citizenship status of individuals, particularly in the state of Assam, based on documentary evidence.
- The NPR has been a topic of discussion and debate in India, with concerns raised about privacy, data security, and potential misuse of information.
9. The difference between the NRC, NPR and CAA
| Term | Description | Purpose | Focus |
| NRC (National Register of Citizens) | Register of Indian citizens in Assam | Identify legal residents and non-citizens | Citizenship status in Assam |
| NPR (National Population Register) | Register of usual residents (citizens and non-citizens) | Create a comprehensive identity database | Residents of India for planning purposes |
| CAA (Citizenship Amendment Act) | Law providing path to citizenship for religious minorities | Grant citizenship based on religion and persecution |
Specific religious minorities facing persecution |
10. Is NPR connected to NRC?
11. Who are ‘Citizens’?
In general terms, citizens are individuals who hold citizenship in a particular country. Citizenship is a legal status that grants individuals certain rights, privileges, and responsibilities within the nation-state to which they belong. The concept of citizenship varies across different countries, but some common characteristics of citizenship include.
- Legal Recognition: Citizens are legally recognized members of a country or state. They are entitled to the protection of the state and have access to its legal system.
- Rights and Privileges: Citizens typically enjoy certain rights and privileges that non-citizens may not have, such as the right to vote, the right to work and reside in the country, access to social services, and the right to participate in the political process.
- Responsibilities: Along with rights and privileges, citizenship also entails certain responsibilities, such as obeying the laws of the country, paying taxes, serving on juries if called upon, and sometimes participating in military service.
- National Identity: Citizenship often involves a sense of national identity and belonging to a particular community or nation. This can include shared cultural, historical, and linguistic ties that bind citizens together.
- Acquisition and Loss: Citizenship can be acquired through birth (jus soli or jus sanguinis), naturalization, or descent from a citizen parent. It can also be lost or renounced voluntarily or involuntarily, depending on the laws of the country.
12. The Way Forward
By adopting the strategies, stakeholders can work towards addressing concerns related to the Citizenship Amendment Act, promoting inclusivity, protecting minority rights, and upholding democratic values in India's citizenship policies and practices.
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For Prelims: Citizenship Amendment Act, Minorities, Secularism, NPR, NRC,
For Mains:
1. The Citizenship Amendment Act (CAA) of 2019 has sparked significant controversy in India. Critically examine the Act's provisions, highlighting the key concerns and potential implications. In your opinion, does the CAA violate the secular principles enshrined in the Indian Constitution? (250 words)
2. Considering the debates surrounding the CAA, critically analyze the concept of citizenship in India. How has the concept evolved, and what are the challenges in defining and managing citizenship in a diverse democracy like India? (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
Consider the following statements: (2018) 1. Aadhaar card can be used as a proof of citizenship or domicile.
2. Once issued, the Aadhaar number cannot be deactivated or omitted by the Issuing Authority.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. What is the position of the Right to Property in India? (UPSC 2021) (a) Legal right available to citizens only
(b) Legal right available to any person
(c) Fundamental Rights available to citizens only
(d) Neither Fundamental Right nor legal right
3. With reference to the Delimitation Commission, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2012)
1. The orders of the Delimitation Commission cannot be challenged in a Court of Law.
2. When the orders of the Delimitation Commission are laid before the Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly, they cannot effect any modifications in the orders.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
4. Barak Valley in Assam is famous for which among the following? (MSTET 2019)
A. Bamboo Industry
B. Petroleum Production
C. Cottage Industries
D. Tea Cultivation
5. Which one of the following is an important crop of the Barak Valley? (Karnataka Civil Police Constable 2019)
A. Sugarcane B. Jute C. Tea D. Cotton
6. Under Assam Accord of 1985, foreigners who had entered Assam before March 25, _____ were to be given citizenship. (DSSSB JE & Section Officer 2022)
A. 1954 B. 1971 C. 1981 D. 1966
Answers: 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D, 5-B, 6-B
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Source: The Indian Express
NATIONAL MEDICAL COMMISSION
1. Context
The National Medical Commission (NMC) has proposed that the pay scale structure of the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Delhi be adopted for interns, postgraduate and super-specialty students, and medical college teachers to ensure equity and fairness in compensation, promote job satisfaction and attract high-quality faculty and students
2. About the National Medical Commission
- The National Medical Commission (NMC) is a statutory body in India that regulates medical education and medical professionals.
- It was established by the National Medical Commission Act, 2019, which came into force on 25 September 2020.
- The NMC replaced the Medical Council of India (MCI), which had been criticized for corruption and inefficiency.
- The NMC is composed of 25 members, including doctors, medical educators, and government officials.
- The members are appointed by the central government for a term of four years.
3. The role of the National Medical Commission
The NMC has several important roles, including:
- The NMC sets the standards for medical colleges and courses and ensures that they are met. It also conducts regular inspections of medical colleges and takes action against those that do not meet the standards.
- The NMC conducts several medical examinations, including the National Eligibility cum Entrance Test (NEET) for undergraduate medical admissions and the National Eligibility Test (NET) for postgraduate medical admissions. It also issues medical licenses to qualified doctors.
- The NMC approves the establishment of new medical colleges and assesses existing ones. It evaluates the infrastructure, faculty, curriculum, and other essential criteria before granting recognition to medical institutions.
- The NMC assesses and accredits medical institutions and their programs to ensure they meet the prescribed standards for medical education. This process helps maintain and improve the quality of medical education.
- The NMC maintains a register of all medical professionals in India. This register helps to ensure that only qualified doctors are practising in the country.
- NMC supports and promotes research and innovation in the medical field. It encourages medical professionals to engage in research activities and contribute to advancing healthcare and medical knowledge.
- The commission serves as an advisory body to the central and state governments on various matters related to medical education, healthcare policies, and the regulation of the medical profession.
- The NMC enforces ethical standards in the medical profession. It also investigates complaints against medical professionals and takes disciplinary action against those who are found to have violated the ethical code.
- The NMC redresses grievances from patients and medical professionals. It also provides information and guidance on medical education and practice.
4. Universal Health Coverage (UHC)
- Universal health coverage (UHC) is the vision that all people have access to quality health services, where and when they need them, without financial hardship.
- It is about ensuring that everyone can obtain the health care they need, without going broke.
- UHC is a fundamental human right, and it is essential for sustainable development.
- It is also a key component of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which aim to achieve a more just and equitable world by 2030.
UHC has three key dimensions:
- Everyone who needs health services should get them, not only those who can pay for them.
- People should not fall into debt paying for treatment and care.
- Services should be adequate and effective.
To achieve UHC, countries need to have strong, efficient, and equitable health systems. This includes having a well-trained health workforce, accessible health facilities, and a reliable supply of essential medicines and vaccines.
5. The ratio of 100 MBBS seats for a 10 lakh population
- The ratio of 100 MBBS seats for a 10 lakh population means that there should be 100 MBBS seats for every 1 million people.
- This ratio was recommended by the National Medical Commission (NMC) in India in 2023 to ensure that there are enough doctors to meet the needs of the population.
- The NMC's recommendation is based on the World Health Organization's (WHO) recommendation of 1 doctor per 1,000 people.
- However, the WHO also acknowledges that this ratio may vary depending on the specific needs of a country or region.
- In India, the current ratio of doctors to population is about 0.8 per 1,000 people.
- This is below the WHO's recommended ratio, and it is also below the ratio of 100 MBBS seats per 1 million people.
6. The new guidelines by the National Medical Commission (NMC)
The NMC has released several new regulations, such as the National Medical Commission Registered Medical Practitioner (Professional Conduct) Regulations, 2023. These regulations set out the standards of professional conduct that medical practitioners in India must adhere to.
- The NMC has introduced a new competency-based medical curriculum, which will be implemented in all medical colleges in India from the academic year 2023-24.
- The new curriculum is focused on developing the skills and knowledge that doctors need to provide high-quality care to patients.
- The NMC has streamlined the process for obtaining a medical license. Doctors can now apply for a license online, and the processing time has been reduced.
- The NMC has established an online portal for medical professionals to register and renew their licenses. The portal also provides information on medical education and practice.
- The NMC has increased the number of medical seats in India by 10%. This will help to increase the number of doctors in the country and improve the quality of healthcare.
- The NMC has taken several steps to improve the quality of medical education and research in India. This includes conducting regular inspections of medical colleges and taking action against those that do not meet the standards. The NMC has also increased funding for medical research.
- These guidelines outline the ethical standards that medical practitioners are expected to uphold in their practice.
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For Prelims: National Medical Commission, National Medical Commission Registered Medical Practitioner (Professional Conduct) Regulations, 2023, Sustainable Development Goals, Universal Health Care, NET, NEET, Medical Council of India,
For Mains:
1. Discuss the role of the National Medical Commission in regulating medical education and practice in India. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions 1. Consider the following statements (UPSC CSE 2016)
1. The Sustainable Development Goals were first proposed in 1972 by a global think tank called the 'Club of Rome
2. Sustainable Development goals has to be achieved by the year 2030
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct
A. 1 Only B. 2 Only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 Nor 2
Answer: B
2. With reference to Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2022) 1. Private and public hospitals must adopt it.
2. As it aims to achieve universal health coverage, every citizen of India should be part of it ultimately.
3. It has seamless portability across the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only B. 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
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Source: indianexpress
