WILDFIRES
1. Context
2. About Wildfires
- Wildfires, also referred to as bushfires, vegetation fires, or forest fires, epitomize the uncontrolled and non-prescribed combustion of plants within natural environments like forests, grasslands, brushlands, or tundras.
- These fires, ignited by various factors, consume natural fuels and propagate based on prevailing environmental conditions such as wind patterns and terrain features.
- Three pivotal elements must converge for a wildfire to thrive: Fuel, Oxygen, and a Heat source.
2.1. Origins and Causes
Natural Causes: Many wildfires stem from natural triggers, with lightning strikes being a prominent initiator. These lightning-induced fires often ignite trees, yet the subsequent rainfall tends to douse the flames, minimizing damage. Elevated atmospheric temperatures and aridity, characterized by low humidity levels, create propitious conditions for fire ignition and spread.
Man-made Causes: Human activities constitute a significant driver of forest fires. Fires ignite when a fire source be it an exposed flame, a discarded cigarette or bidi, an electric spark, or any ignition source interacts with inflammable materials. Such anthropogenic incidents can swiftly transform into destructive conflagrations.
2.2. Classification
Surface Fires: wildfires can primarily manifest as surface fires, advancing across the forest floor's surface layer, encompassing senescent leaves, twigs, and parched grass. The propagating flames embrace the surface litter, leading to a rapid spread.
Underground Fires: Underground fires, are characterized by low intensity, smoulder within the organic matter beneath the surface and the forest floor's litter. Often concealed, these fires extend several meters below the ground, challenging detection and control efforts. These covert fires, lingering for months, inflict substantial harm to vegetative cover.
Ground Fires: Ground fires, infiltrating the sub-surface organic fuels, transcend boundaries, involving duff layers beneath forest stands, Arctic tundra, taiga, and organic soils of swamps or bogs. The distinction between underground and ground fires isn't clear-cut, as smouldering underground fires can metamorphose into ground fires. These fires ravage the herbaceous growth on the forest floor alongside decaying organic layers, potentially annihilating vegetation. Ground fires simmer below the surface via smouldering combustion, frequently sparked by surface fires.
Image Source: CNN
2.3. Impact
Wildfires can have a significant impact on ecosystems. They can destroy vegetation, kill wildlife, and pollute the air and water. However, they can also have some positive effects, such as clearing out deadwood and creating new growth opportunities.
2.3.1. Negative impacts of wildfires
2.3.2. Positive Impacts of Wildfires
3. The Historical Significance of Maui and Lahaina
- Maui is a popular tourist destination known for its beautiful beaches and lush rainforests.
- Lahaina was the capital of the Hawaiian kingdom from 1820 to 1845.
- The town is home to many historical landmarks, including the Waiola Church, which was built in 1832.
- The fires have caused extensive damage to Lahaina, including the destruction of many historic buildings.
4. Reasons for the Fires in Hawaii Been So Devastating
5. Measures that can be taken to prevent wildfires
For Prelims: Wildfires, Hawaii, USA, climate change, soil degradation, vegetation,
For Mains:
1. Explain the causes and factors that contribute to the severity of wildfires. Discuss the positive and negative impacts of wildfires on ecosystems. (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Comprehension (SSC CHSL 2020)
Direction: In the following passage some words have been deleted. Fill in the blanks with the help of the alternatives given. Select the most appropriate option for each blank. Forest fire always (1) ______ by one of two reasons-naturally caused or human-caused. Natural fire is generally (2) ______ by lightning, with a very small percentage (3) ______ by spontaneous combustion of dry fuel such as sawdust and leaves. (4) ______, human-caused fire can happen (5) ______ any number of reasons.
Select the most appropriate option for blank No. 1.
A. takes up B. happens C. causes D. creates
Answer: B
2. Match List - I with List - II and select the correct answer from the codes given below the lists: (UPSC CAPF 2015)
List - I (Volcano type) List – II (Location)
A. Shield Volcano 1. Indonesia
B. Composite Volcano 2. India
C. Caldera 3. Hawaii
D. Flood Basalt Provinces 4. Phillippines
1. A-2, B-4, C-1, D-3
2. A-2, B-1, C-4, D-3
3. A-3, B-1, C-4, D-2
4. A-3, B-4, C-1, D-2
Answer: 4
3. Recently, the USA decided to support India's membership in multilateral export control regimes called the "Australia Group" and the "Wassenaar Arrangement". What is the difference between them? (UPSC 2011)
1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.
2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only B. 2 only C. Both 1 and 2 D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: D
4. In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated with which of the following? (UPSC 2014)
1. Terrace cultivation
2. Deforestation
3. Tropical climate
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: B
5. The vegetation of savannah consists of grassland with scattered small trees, but extensive areas have no trees. The forest development in such areas is generally kept in check by one or more or a combination of some conditions. Which of the following are such conditions? (UPSC 2021)
1. Burrowing animals and termites
2. Fire
3. Grazing herbivores
4. Seasonal rainfall
5. Soil properties
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
A. 1 and 2 B. 4 and 5 C, 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 3 and 5
Answer: C
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UNIFORM CIVIL CODE (UCC)
- Underlining that the Uniform Civil Code is “neither necessary nor desirable at this stage”, the 21st Law Commission of India, in 2018, argued for reform of family laws of every religion through amendments and codification of certain aspects so as to make them gender-just
- In its ‘Consultation Paper on Family Law Reforms’, the Law Commission took a stand in favour of “equality ‘within communities’ between men and women” (personal law reform), “rather than ‘equality between’ communities” (UCC)
- According to the 22nd Law Commission Cultural diversity cannot be compromised to the extent that our urge for uniformity itself becomes a reason for threat to the territorial integrity of the nation
- women must be guaranteed their freedom of faith without any compromise on their right to equality
- A UCC would provide for one law for the entire country, applicable to all religious communities, in their personal matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, adoption etc
- Currently, Indian personal law is fairly complex, with each religion adhering to its own specific laws
- Separate laws govern Hindus including Sikhs, Jains and Buddhist, Muslims, Christians, and followers of other religions
- Moreover, there is diversity even within communities. All Hindus of the country are not governed by one law, nor are all Muslims or all Christians
- For instance, in the Northeast, there are more than 200 tribes with their own varied customary laws
- The Constitution itself protects local customs in Nagaland. Similar protections are enjoyed by Meghalaya and Mizoram. Even reformed Hindu law, in spite of codification, protects customary practices
- The exception to this rule is the state of Goa, where all religions have a common law regarding marriages, divorces, and adoption
- Article 44 of the Constitution lays down that the state shall endeavour to secure a UCC for citizens throughout the territory of India
- Article 44 is among the Directive Principles of State Policy. Directive Principles are not enforceable by court, but are supposed to inform and guide governance
- However, in some senses, Article 44 is unique in this manner. While Article 44 uses the words “state shall endeavour”, other Articles in the ‘Directive Principles’ chapter use words such as “in particular strive”; “shall in particular direct its policy”; “shall be obligation of the state
- The phrase “by suitable legislation” is absent in Article 44. All this implies that the duty of the state is greater in other directive principles than in Article 44
For Prelims: Unifrom Civil Code (UCC), DPSP, Fundamental rights, Law Commission
For Mains: 1. What is the Uniform Civil Code? What are the challenges in implementing a Uniform Civil Code in a diverse country like India?
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Previous Year Questions
Q1. Consider the following provisions under the Directive Principles of State Policy as enshrined in the Constitution of India: (2012)
Which of the above are the Gandhian Principles that are reflected in the Directive Principles of State Policy? (a) 1, 2 and 4 only Answer (b) 2. A legislation that confers on the executive or administrative authority an unguided and uncontrolled discretionary power in the matter of the application of law violates which one of the following Articles of the Constitution of India? Answer (a) Mains 1.Discuss the possible factors that inhibit India from enacting for its citizens a uniform civil code as provided for in the Directive Principles of State Policy. (2015) |
ANTIVENOMS
- Antivenoms, also known as antivenins, are critical medicines designed to treat snakebites. They are developed by introducing small doses of venom into animals, typically horses, which stimulate the production of antibodies as part of their immune reaction. These antibodies are then used to create antivenoms.
- Snake venom is among nature’s most potent weapons, consisting of a highly specialized mix of toxic proteins evolved to immobilize, and sometimes digest, prey or defend against threats.
- When a snakebite delivers a significant amount of venom, its toxins can cause severe damage to the human body. Haemotoxins attack blood cells and disrupt coagulation, neurotoxins interfere with nerve signals and induce paralysis, and cytotoxins break down tissue around the bite. Without timely medical care, these effects can often be fatal.
- Antivenoms play a crucial role in countering venom’s effects. They neutralize venom toxins by binding to them, enabling the body’s natural systems to safely eliminate the toxins over time. However, for treatment to be effective, it is essential to identify the snake species responsible for the bite and estimate the venom’s quantity.
- In India, polyvalent antivenoms (PVAs) are used to target multiple snake species. However, their effectiveness can vary against rarer species. Advancing treatment options requires a deeper understanding of venom’s complexity and the processes involved in producing antibodies
- The creation of antivenom showcases a blend of human innovation, the resilience of animals, and the principles of immunology, tracing its origins to the groundbreaking work of French physician Albert Calmette in the 1890s. Calmette pioneered the use of horses in antivenom production, a method still in practice today.
- The process begins with trained experts capturing healthy, mature venomous snakes from the wild and extracting their venom through a procedure known as “milking.” This venom is then used to immunize horses by administering gradually increasing doses over several weeks.
- The amount of venom injected is carefully regulated: insufficient doses elicit a weak immune response, while excessive doses may harm the horse.
- As the horses' immune systems respond, they produce antibodies specifically designed to neutralize the toxins in the venom. These antibodies are highly specialized, akin to a lock-and-key mechanism, targeting the exact toxins introduced.
- This process is similar to how humans build immunity to familiar pathogens, such as those causing the flu or common colds, through repeated exposure or vaccination. Once the horses have developed a strong immune response, the antibodies are extracted from their blood, purified, and formulated into antivenom.
- In India, several companies, including Bharat Serums and Vaccines, Haffkine Bio-pharmaceutical Corporation, and ViNS Bioproducts, produce antivenom using this method. A vital part of this process is the contribution of the Irula tribe in Tamil Nadu.
- Renowned for their expertise in safely capturing snakes and extracting venom in controlled conditions, the Irular people provide a reliable supply of high-quality venom. Their skills are indispensable to the antivenom production chain, ensuring its continuity and effectiveness
- India is home to over 300 snake species, with more than 60 of them being venomous, varying from mildly to highly toxic. The "Big Four" snakes — the Indian cobra (Naja naja), common krait (Bungarus caeruleus), Russell’s viper (Daboia russelii), and saw-scaled viper (genus Echis) — are responsible for the majority of snakebite fatalities. Venom from these four species is used in the production of polyvalent antivenoms (PVAs) in India.
- However, this approach leaves other venomous species, such as the king cobra, monocled cobra, banded krait, Sochurek’s saw-scaled viper, hump-nosed viper, and various pit vipers, uncovered by existing PVAs. This gap means that victims bitten by these snakes often receive ineffective treatment, leading to severe or even fatal outcomes.
- A pivotal 2020 study conducted by researchers from Canada, India, and the U.K. estimated that between 2001 and 2014, India experienced a staggering 1.2 million deaths and three times as many cases of permanent disability due to snakebites. The study also revealed that one in 250 Indians is at risk of succumbing to a snakebite before turning 70.
- These alarming statistics highlight a complex interplay of ecological, social, and systemic issues. Rural communities, particularly agricultural workers, face the greatest risk, especially during the monsoon season when snake activity increases.
- Additionally, rapid and often unregulated urbanization, inadequate waste management, and urban flooding have heightened human-snake encounters, leaving even urban populations increasingly vulnerable
Why are antivenoms hard to get?
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- Future advancements in antivenom production offer significant promise. Researchers are leveraging recombinant DNA technology to develop lab-engineered, synthetic antivenoms that are free of animal-derived proteins, enhancing both safety and efficacy.
- Additionally, computer-designed proteins are speeding up the development process by enabling researchers to optimize antibodies for specific clinical applications.
- For instance, on January 15, a team of researchers from Denmark, the U.K., and the U.S., led by 2024 Nobel laureate David Baker, successfully utilized Artificial Intelligence (AI) to design synthetic antivenoms.
- These breakthroughs signal the potential for greater effectiveness, wider availability, and a move away from the traditional century-old methods of antivenom production.
- Region-specific antivenoms also represent a promising direction. Research led by Karthik Sunagar at the Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, has highlighted the variations in venom composition across species and geographic regions.
- By mapping these toxin profiles, scientists are working toward creating tailored antivenoms for more precise treatments.
- Furthermore, innovations like portable venom-detection kits and rapid diagnostic tools are helping to ensure antivenoms are used more effectively. With sustained investment in research, public awareness, and infrastructure improvements, India can make significant strides in addressing its snakebite crisis, paving the way for a future where tragedies like Mayuri’s become a rarity
For Prelims: Snakebites, antivenom, non Communicable diseases
For Mains: GS III - Science & Technology
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WATER CYCLE
- The freshwater cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle, is the continuous movement and recycling of freshwater within the Earth's atmosphere, surface, and underground systems. It ensures that water is distributed across various ecosystems and supports life on Earth
- The water cycle refers to the continuous circulation of water in its three states—solid, liquid, and gas—on the Earth's surface, beneath it, and in the atmosphere.
- The cycle is primarily driven by solar energy and temperature changes. For example, water from surfaces such as land or bodies of water turns into water vapor through evaporation.
- Plants also play a role by absorbing water from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere as water vapor through transpiration.
- This vapor eventually condenses to form clouds, which later release water back to Earth as precipitation, such as rain or snow.
- Once precipitation occurs, water can accumulate in ice caps, oceans, lakes, rivers, or glaciers, be absorbed by plants, or infiltrate the soil and move deeper underground. The process then repeats itself
- Record-Breaking Temperatures: The year 2024 experienced unprecedented global temperatures, intensifying the water cycle and leading to severe weather events
- Increased Water-Related Disasters: There was a notable rise in the frequency and severity of water-related disasters, including flash floods, river floods, droughts, tropical cyclones, and landslides. These events resulted in over 8,700 fatalities, displaced 40 million people, and caused economic losses exceeding US $550 billion
- Impact of Climate Change: The report underscores that climate change is exacerbating water-related disasters. Rising temperatures, driven by fossil fuel consumption, are intensifying monsoons, cyclones, and other storm systems, leading to increased rainfall intensity and flooding
- Terrestrial Water Storage Variations: Dry regions worldwide continued to experience low terrestrial water storage levels. Conversely, areas in western, central, and eastern Africa saw significant increases in water storage
- Call to Action: The findings emphasize the urgent need for global leaders to prioritize addressing the water crisis. The report calls for transformative changes in water consumption practices, substantial investments in infrastructure, and the implementation of appropriate water pricing mechanisms to mitigate the escalating crisis
- Climate change is profoundly altering the water cycle, intensifying its processes and causing significant disruptions to natural water patterns worldwide. These changes are manifesting in various ways, leading to more extreme and unpredictable weather events that directly impact ecosystems, water availability, and human livelihoods.
- One of the most noticeable effects of climate change is the increase in global temperatures, which accelerates evaporation. As the planet warms, water from oceans, rivers, lakes, and soil evaporates at a faster rate.
- This results in higher levels of moisture in the atmosphere, which can fuel heavier and more intense precipitation events. Consequently, regions already prone to rainfall may experience severe flooding due to this intensified cycle.
- At the same time, the warming climate is causing glaciers, ice caps, and snowpacks to melt more rapidly. These frozen reserves of freshwater are critical for many regions, as they provide water for agriculture, drinking, and hydroelectric power during warmer months.
- As these ice reserves diminish, not only does this threaten seasonal water availability, but it also contributes to rising sea levels. This, in turn, leads to saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers, particularly in coastal areas, further reducing the availability of drinkable water.
- In other parts of the world, climate change is leading to prolonged periods of drought. High temperatures and reduced rainfall are intensifying dry conditions, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.
- These droughts disrupt agriculture, deplete drinking water supplies, and contribute to desertification, where fertile lands gradually transform into barren deserts. Such conditions are made worse by the over-extraction of groundwater during droughts, as aquifers are unable to recharge adequately due to the lack of consistent precipitation.
- River systems are also undergoing significant changes. In some areas, reduced rainfall and increased evaporation are leading to lower river flows, while in others, glacial melt and heavy rains are causing excessive flows and frequent flooding. These altered patterns disrupt ecosystems that rely on consistent water availability and create challenges for human infrastructure, such as dams and irrigation systems.
- Moreover, the warming atmosphere can hold more water vapor, which intensifies the power of storms and cyclones. As a result, extreme weather events like hurricanes, typhoons, and monsoons are becoming more severe, leading to catastrophic damage in affected regions. These intensified storms also create feedback loops, where the water cycle's acceleration perpetuates even more extreme conditions.
- In essence, climate change is amplifying the natural variability of the water cycle. It is making wet regions wetter, dry regions drier, and weather patterns less predictable. This imbalance has far-reaching consequences, highlighting the urgent need for adaptation strategies, sustainable water management, and global efforts to mitigate climate change’s effects.
- Protecting water resources and ensuring their equitable distribution are critical to safeguarding the well-being of both people and ecosystems in the face of a rapidly changing climate
For Prelims: General issues on Environmental ecology, Bio-diversity and Climate Change – that do not require subject specialization
For Mains: General Studies III: Conservation, environmental pollution and degradation, environmental impact assessment
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PREAMBLE
- The Preamble originally adopted on November 26, 1949, proclaimed India as a sovereign, democratic, republic. The framers of the Constitution deliberately excluded the term ‘socialist,’ believing that embedding a specific economic ideology in the Preamble was inappropriate. They felt it was better for future generations to determine the economic framework best suited to their times and circumstances.
- Indian secularism, meanwhile, differs significantly from its Western counterpart. In Western secularism, there is a strict separation between state and religion, with the government refraining from interference in religious matters.
- Conversely, Indian secularism allows the state to regulate the economic, financial, political, and non-religious aspects of religious practices.
- It also empowers the state to implement social welfare measures and reforms within religious traditions.
- The Constitution upholds secular principles through provisions guaranteeing the right to freely practice any religion and prohibiting discrimination based on religion in state affairs. Consequently, the Constituent Assembly chose not to include the term ‘secular’ in the Preamble initially.
- In the Berubari case (1960), the Supreme Court ruled that the Preamble was not part of the Constitution and held no substantive legal authority.
- However, in the landmark Kesavananda Bharati case (1973), the Court overturned this view, affirming that the Preamble is indeed part of the Constitution and must be interpreted in line with its vision.
- Additionally, it held that the Preamble, like any constitutional provision, could be amended by Parliament. This led to the inclusion of the words ‘Socialist,’ ‘Secular,’ and ‘Integrity’ in the Preamble through the 42nd Constitutional Amendment in 1976
- The Preamble declares that the authority of the Constitution is derived from the people of India, emphasizing the principle of popular sovereignty
- It describes India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, and Democratic Republic, defining its essential characteristics:
- Sovereign: India is independent and free to make its own decisions without external interference.
- Socialist: Aimed at achieving social and economic equality.
- Secular: The state treats all religions equally and upholds religious freedom.
- Democratic: Power rests with the people, exercised through a system of representation.
- Republic: The head of state is elected, not hereditary
- The Preamble sets out the goals to be achieved by the Constitution:
- Justice: Social, economic, and political.
- Liberty: Of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship.
- Equality: Of status and opportunity.
- Fraternity: Promoting the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the nation.
- The Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution, as held by the Supreme Court in the Kesavananda Bharati case (1973). It can be amended but is subject to the basic structure doctrine, ensuring that its fundamental principles remain intact
- The Preamble acts as a prelude, encapsulating the fundamental values and guiding principles of the Constitution. It reflects the vision and aspirations of the people of India
- The Preamble was adopted on November 26, 1949, along with the rest of the Constitution, but came into effect on January 26, 1950
Text of Preamble
WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, JUSTICE, social, economic and political; FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, |
- The Preamble of the Indian Constitution reflects the core philosophy and foundational principles upon which the Constitution is built, offering a concise overview of its essence.
- As the heart and essence of the Constitution, it acts as a guiding framework for interpreting and implementing its various provisions.
- It serves as a beacon for governance, providing moral direction to policymakers and legislators by emphasizing the overarching objectives of justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity that should guide their actions and decisions.
- The Preamble also celebrates India's unity in diversity, acknowledging the rich plurality of its people, encompassing varied languages, cultures, religions, and traditions.
- Furthermore, it inspires citizens by highlighting their rights, duties, and responsibilities toward the nation. It fosters a sense of patriotism, civic responsibility, and dedication to the ideals of justice, equality, and fraternity among all individuals
Berubari Union Case (1960)
- Context: The question was whether the Preamble is a part of the Constitution and can be used as a source of power for the government.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court held that the Preamble is not a part of the Constitution and does not confer any substantive power. It was viewed only as a guiding principle for the Constitution's provisions.
- Significance: This case initially limited the scope of the Preamble’s role in interpreting the Constitution.
Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973)
- Context: The case challenged Parliament's power to amend the Constitution, including the Preamble.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court reversed its earlier opinion, ruling that the Preamble is an integral part of the Constitution and can be used to interpret its provisions. However, it does not confer any enforceable rights.
- Significance: The Court introduced the basic structure doctrine, stating that Parliament can amend the Constitution, but the basic structure, as reflected in the Preamble, cannot be altered
Minerva Mills Case (1980)
- Context: The case dealt with the scope of Parliament's power to amend the Constitution under Article 368.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court reaffirmed the basic structure doctrine and emphasized the Preamble’s significance. It ruled that the harmony between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles, as envisioned in the Preamble, is a part of the Constitution's basic structure.
- Significance: This case highlighted the importance of the Preamble as a guiding light for achieving justice, liberty, and equality.
SR Bommai Case (1994)
- Context: The case dealt with the dismissal of state governments under Article 356 and the secular nature of the Constitution.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court ruled that secularism, as mentioned in the Preamble, is part of the Constitution's basic structure. Any state action violating secular principles would be unconstitutional.
- Significance: It underscored the Preamble’s role in ensuring adherence to fundamental constitutional values, especially secularism
Union of India v. Naveen Jindal (2004)
- Context: The case addressed the fundamental right to fly the national flag.
- Judgment: The Supreme Court held that the Preamble symbolizes the aspirations of the people and can be referred to when interpreting constitutional rights.
- Significance: The Preamble was used to reinforce the idea of patriotism and unity, as reflected in the Constitution
For Prelims: Constitutional amendment, Simple Majority, Special Majority, Constitutional Conventions, Anti-defection law, National Commission for Backward Classes (NCBC), Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWSs), Goods and Services Tax (GST).
For Mains: 1. Discuss the significance and challenges associated with the process of amending the Constitution of India. (250 Words).
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Previous year Question1. Consider the following statements (2013) 1. An amendment to the Constitution of India can be initiated by an introduction of a bill in the Lok Sabha only.
2. If such an amendment seeks to make changes in the federal character of the Constitution, the amendment also requires to be ratified by the legislature of all the States of India.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: d 2. The Parliament of India acquires the power to legislate on any item in the State List in the national interest if a resolution to that effect is passed by the (UPSC 2016) A. Lok Sabha by a simple majority of its total membership B. Lok Sabha by a majority of not less than two-thirds of its total membership C. Rajya Sabha by a simple majority of its total membership D. Rajya Sabha by a simple majority of not less than two-thirds of its members present and voting Answer: D |
PARIS AGREEMENT
1. Context
2. What is Paris Agreement?
- Paris Agreement is a multinational agreement that was signed as part of the UNFCCC with the intention of reducing and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
- 196 nations ratified the climate change agreement at the Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris in December 2015. It is an international agreement that is binding on all parties involved.
- Achieving the long-term temperature goal was the purpose of the Paris Climate Accord. To attain a world without greenhouse gas emissions by the middle of the century, nations strive to peak global greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible.
- The Paris Climate Accord's major objective is to keep global warming well below 2° Celsius and ideally below 1.5° Celsius in comparison to pre-industrial levels.
- The Paris Agreement is a watershed moment in the multilateral climate change process because it brings all nations together for the first time in a binding agreement to undertake ambitious efforts to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.
3. COP21
- To keep the rise in the average world temperature to well under 2°C above pre-industrial levels. To continue making efforts to keep global warming to 1.5°C over pre-industrial levels, knowing that doing so would greatly lessen the dangers and effects of climate change.
- The Agreement also mentions achieving the global peaking of emissions by the middle of the century while taking into account the fact that developing nation Parties will have a longer peaking period.
4. What are NDCs
- At the Conference of the Parties (COP21) of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which took place in Paris in December 2015, nations from all over the world pledged to establish a new global climate agreement by that time.
- In advance of a new international agreement, nations have committed to publicly state their Intended Nationally Determined Contributions or the climate activities they plan to take after 2020.
- The 2015 agreement's ambitious goals and whether the world is put on a course toward a low-carbon, climate-resilient future will be largely determined by the INDCs.
- The Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of India has also been submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
- Countries communicate actions they will take to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet the Paris Agreement's goals in their NDCs.
- Countries also communicate actions they will take to build resilience to adapt to the effects of rising temperatures in their NDCs.
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5. Highlights of the report on the performance of the Paris Agreement
- After the signing of the Agreement, the last eight years (2015-2022) have consecutively been the warmest years on record globally.
- The situation could have been far worse if the La Nina weather event had not occurred in the past three years, which has a cooling effect on the weather system.
- Globally updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius have failed even to achieve a 2-degree Celsius target.
- The Paris Agreement has not been able to equitably phase out fossil fuels predominantly responsible for the climate crisis.
- Neither the NDCs nor the disaster risk reduction and climate risk management plans are in place to combat climate-induced extreme weather phenomena.
6. A series of climate records fell over in 2022, the report showed.
- Global mean temperature rising: The global mean temperature in 2022 was 1.15°C, ranging from 1.02°C to 1.28°C above the 1850–1900 average. This was the highest on record for the past eight years. The value is about 0.2°C higher than the statistic before 2015. The pre-industrialisation era is considered a benchmark as there was no significant anthropogenic emission at the time.
- Record melting of Antarctica ice: Sea ice in Antarctica dropped to an all-time low, 1.92 million square kilometres, on February 25, 2022. This was almost a million sq km below the mean of the last three decades till 2020.
- Greenhouse gases surged: The levels of three major greenhouse gases — carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide — continued to increase in 2022. The data shows that growth rates of all three gases have increased around 20 per cent compared to 2011-15 levels.
- Sea level rise doubled: Global mean sea level continued to rise in 2022. It has doubled to 4.62 millimetres per year during 2013–2022 from 2.27 mm recorded in the first decade of the satellite record (1993–2002). The rate of increase quickened after 2015. Ocean heat content, which measures this gain in energy, reached a new observed record.
- Record thinning of glaciers: Long-term observational data is available for glaciers, which were found to have thinned over 1.3 metres between October 2021 and October 2022. The loss is much larger than before. The cumulative thickness loss since 1970 amounts to almost 30 metres.
- More than half of the oceans saw marine heatwaves in 2022: Despite continuing La Nina conditions, 58 per cent of the ocean surface experienced at least one marine heatwave during 2022.
- Heatwaves killed 15,000 in Europe: Record-breaking heatwaves affected China and Europe during the summer, with excess deaths associated with the heat in Europe exceeding 15000. Casualties were reported across Spain, Germany, the United Kingdom, France and Portugal.
- 1,600 suffered deaths from weather extremes in India: India suffered from significant flooding at various stages during monsoon, particularly in the northeast in June, with over 700 deaths reported from flooding and landslides and a further 900 from lightning.
For Prelims: Paris Agreement, Conference of the Parties (COP 21), World Meteorological Organization (WMO), UNFCCC, Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
For Mains: 1. Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC 2021)
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Previous year Question1. With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016)
1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017. 2. The Agreement aims to limit greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. 3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility for global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries cope with climate change.
Select the correct answer using the code given below
A. 1 and 3 only
B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: B
2. The term ‘Intended Nationally Determined Contributions’ is sometimes seen in the news in the context of ( UPSC 2016)
A. pledges made by the European countries to rehabilitate refugees from the war-affected Middle East B. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world to combat climate change C. capital contributed by the member countries in the establishment of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank D. plan of action outlined by the countries of the world regarding Sustainable Development Goals Answer: B |
Source: Down to Earth