LANDSLIDES

1. Context

• The recent cases of land subsidence in Joshimath, Uttarakhand, captured the spotlight.
• On June 29, 2022, at least 79 people were killed in a landslide in the Noney district of Manipur.
• The risk analysis in the report was based on the density of human and livestock populations, which indicates the impacts on people due to these landslides.
• The disaster in Kedaranath in 2013 and the landslides caused by the devastating Sikkim earthquake in 2011 are also included in this atlas.

• Globally, landslides rank third in terms of deaths among natural disasters.
• However, deforestation due to unplanned urbanisation and human greed increases the risk of such incidents.
• In 2006, about 4 million people were affected by landslides, including a large number of Indians.
• India is among the four major countries where the risk of landslides is the highest; it added. If we look at the figures, about 0.42 million square kilometres in the country are prone to landslides, which is 12.6 per cent of the total land area of the country.
• However, the figure does not include snow-covered areas. Around 0.18 million sq km of landslide-prone areas in the country are in North East Himalayas, including Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas.
• Of the rest, 0.14 million sq km falls in North West Himalaya (Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir); 90, 000 sq km in the Western Ghats and Konkan hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra) and 10, 000 sq km in Eastern Ghats of Aruku in Andhra Pradesh.

4. Reasons for landslides

• Sudden heavy rains due to climate change are also increasing landslides. Around 73 per cent of landslides in the Himalayan region are attributed to heavy rains and reduced water-absorbing capacity of the soil.
• Global climate change is causing heavy rainfall that erodes steep slopes with loose soil found in a 2020 study by the Indian Institute of Technology in Delhi.
• Therefore, the increasing number of landslides can no longer be termed as just natural disasters, as human actions have also played a major role in it.

• Uttakarkhand, Kerala, Jammu and Kashmir, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh reported the highest number of landslides during 1998 – 2022
• Mizoram topped the list, recording 12,385 landslide events in the past 25 years, of which 8,926 were recorded in 2017 alone
• Likewise, 2,071 events of the total 2,132 landslides reported in Nagaland during this period occurred during the 2017 monsoon season
• Manipur, too, showed a similar trend, wherein 4,559 out of 5,494 landslide events were experienced during the rainy season of 2017, Of the total 690, Tamil Nadu suffered 603 landslide events in 2018 alone
• Among all these states, an alarming situation is emerging from Uttarakhand and Kerala

• While Uttarakhand’s fragility was recently exposed during the land subsidence events reported from Joshimath since January, this Himalayan state has experienced the second highest number (11,219) of landslides since 1998, all events since occurring post 2000
• The year-wise number of landslide events in the state is: 2003 (32), 2010 (307), 2012 (473), 2013 (6,610), 2017 (1), 2021 (329) and 2022 (1)
• The number of districts with the maximum landslide exposure are in Arunachal Pradesh (16), Kerala (14), Uttarakhand and Jammu and Kashmir (13 each), Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Maharashtra (11 each), Mizoram (8) and Nagaland (7)
• Kerala has been consistently reporting massive landslides since it suffered the century’s worst floods in 2018
• The year-wise landslide events here are 2018 (5,191), 2019 (756), 2020 (9) and 2021 (29).
• From the events and images obtained, the NRSC ranked Rudraprayag in Uttarakhand at the top of 147 vulnerable districts
• It has the highest landslide density in the country, along with having the highest exposure to total population and number of houses

For Prelims & Mains

Previous year questions

Source: The Down to Earth

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR ORGANISATION (ILO)

• The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency whose mandate is to advance social and economic justice by setting international labour standards. Founded in October 1919 under the League of Nations, it is one of the first and oldest specialised agencies of the UN
• The ILO has 187 member states: 186 out of 193 UN member states plus the Cook Islands. It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, with around 40 field offices around the world, and employs some 3,381 staff across 107 nations, of whom 1,698 work in technical cooperation programmes and project
• Unlike other United Nations specialized agencies, the International Labour Organization (ILO) has a tripartite governing structure that brings together governments, employers, and workers of 187 member States, to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men.
• The structure is intended to ensure the views of all three groups are reflected in ILO labour standards, policies, and programmes, though governments have twice as many representatives as the other two groups

• The late 18th and 19th centuries saw the rise of the Industrial Revolution, which brought about profound changes in the nature of work. While industrialization led to economic growth, it also resulted in poor working conditions, long hours, child labor, and inadequate wages for workers. The social consequences of these changes highlighted the need for labor reform.
• By the late 19th century, labor movements and social reformers across Europe and North America were advocating for better working conditions, workers' rights, and social justice. These movements were influential in shaping public opinion and policy towards labor issues.
•  Before the ILO's establishment, there were several international congresses and conferences focused on labor issues. For instance, the International Association for Labour Legislation was founded in 1900, aiming to harmonize labor laws across countries. These early efforts demonstrated a growing recognition of the need for international cooperation on labor standards.
• The First World War (1914-1918) had devastating social and economic effects, exacerbating labor issues and highlighting the interconnectedness of nations. The war underscored the importance of international cooperation in promoting peace and social stability.
• Following the end of World War I, the Versailles Peace Conference was convened in 1919 to negotiate the terms of peace and to address the causes of conflict. One of the key issues recognized was the need for improved labor conditions to ensure lasting peace.

• Treaty of Versailles: The ILO was established as part of the Treaty of Versailles, which formally ended World War I. The inclusion of labor provisions in the treaty reflected the recognition that social justice and decent working conditions were essential for international peace and stability.

• Founding Principles: The ILO's Constitution, included in the Treaty of Versailles, was based on the belief that universal peace can only be established if it is based on social justice. It set forth several key principles:

  • Labor should not be regarded merely as a commodity or article of commerce.
  • The right to association and the right to collective bargaining should be recognized.
  • Working conditions should be humane, ensuring adequate living wages, reasonable hours, and protection against sickness, disease, and injury.
  • Special protection should be afforded to children, young persons, and women.

4. What is the Organisational Structure of ILO?

 

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has a distinctive organizational structure designed to ensure representation and participation from governments, employers, and workers. This tripartite structure is central to its functioning and decision-making processes. Here's a detailed overview of the ILO's organizational structure:

International Labour Conference (ILC)

• Role: The ILC is the ILO's supreme decision-making body, often referred to as the "world parliament of labour."
• Functions: It meets annually to set the broad policies of the ILO, adopt international labor standards (Conventions and Recommendations), and approve the ILO's work program and budget.
• Composition: The ILC is composed of representatives from each member state, with a tripartite delegation:
  • Government Delegates: Two representatives per member state.
  • Employer Delegates: One representative per member state.
  • Worker Delegates: One representative per member state.

5. What are the Functions of the ILO?

 

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) performs a wide range of functions aimed at promoting social justice and internationally recognized human and labour rights.

 

Here are the key functions of the ILO:

• The ILO develops and adopts international labour standards in the form of Conventions and Recommendations. These standards cover a wide array of labour issues, including workers' rights, working conditions, social protection, and occupational safety and health.
• Member states can ratify these Conventions, committing themselves to adhere to the standards. The ILO monitors compliance and provides guidance on implementation.
• The ILO promotes fundamental principles and rights at work, such as freedom of association, the right to collective bargaining, the elimination of forced and child labour, and the elimination of discrimination in employment.
• It provides technical assistance to countries to help them create and enforce laws and policies that uphold these rights.
• The ILO supports initiatives aimed at creating more and better jobs, especially for vulnerable groups such as youth, women, and persons with disabilities
• It promotes vocational training and skills development to enhance employability and adaptability in the labor market
• Encourages entrepreneurship and the development of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) as a means to generate employment.

6.What are the Core Conventions of the ILO?

 

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) has identified eight Conventions as "fundamental" or "core" Conventions. These Conventions cover fundamental principles and rights at work and are considered crucial for ensuring decent work and social justice. The ILO's core Conventions are:

Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)

• Adoption: 1948
• Purpose: Protects the right of workers and employers to form and join organizations of their own choosing without prior authorization.
• Key Provisions: Ensures that workers and employers can organize freely and prohibits interference by public authorities.

2Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98)

• Adoption: 1949
• Purpose: Provides protection against anti-union discrimination and promotes collective bargaining.
• Key Provisions: Protects workers from dismissal or prejudice due to union membership and activities, and promotes voluntary negotiation between employers and workers' organizations.

Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29)

• Adoption: 1930
• Purpose: Aims to suppress the use of forced or compulsory labor in all its forms.
• Key Provisions: Requires the abolition of all forms of forced or compulsory labor, with exceptions for military service, normal civic obligations, and certain emergencies.

Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105)

• Adoption: 1957
• Purpose: Complements Convention No. 29 by prohibiting the use of any form of forced labor as a means of political coercion, labor discipline, punishment for participation in strikes, or discrimination.
• Key Provisions: Mandates the elimination of forced labor for political purposes, economic development, labor discipline, punishment for strikes, and racial, social, national, or religious discrimination.

Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)

• Adoption: 1973
• Purpose: Establishes a minimum age for admission to employment to ensure that children are not employed in work that is harmful to their health or development.
• Key Provisions: Sets the general minimum age for employment at not less than the age of completion of compulsory schooling and, in any case, not less than 15 years (13 for light work, 18 for hazardous work).

Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)

• Adoption: 1999
• Purpose: Urges immediate and effective measures to prohibit and eliminate the worst forms of child labor.
• Key Provisions: Defines the worst forms of child labor, including slavery, trafficking, forced labor, prostitution, and involvement in armed conflict. Calls for urgent action to eliminate these practices.

Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (No. 100)

• Adoption: 1951
• Purpose: Promotes equal remuneration for men and women workers for work of equal value.
• Key Provisions: Mandates the principle of equal pay for equal work, requiring member states to ensure that wage discrimination based on sex is eliminated.

Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111)

• Adoption: 1958
• Purpose: Aims to eliminate discrimination in employment and occupation.
• Key Provisions: Prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction, or social origin, and promotes equal opportunity and treatment in employment.

 

 

For Prelims: GS III- Economy, ILO For Mains: GS-III: Economy

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

FASTER ADOPTION AND MANUFACTURING OF (HYBRID &) ELECTRICAL VEHICLES (FAME-II)

 

 

 

 

1. Context

The Centre is expected to finalise the third phase of its flagship electric mobility adoption scheme FAME in a month or two.FAME 3 will replace the temporary Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme (EMPS) 2024, which is set to expire in September

 

 

2. Objective

The main objective of the scheme is to encourage Faster adoption of Electric and hybrid vehicle by way of offering upfront Incentive on purchase of Electric vehicles and also by way of establishing a necessary charging Infrastructure for electric vehicles. The scheme will help in addressing the issue of environmental pollution and fuel security.

2. About FAME-II

• The total fund requirement for this scheme is Rs. 10,000 crores over three years from 2019-20 to 2021-22.
• The scheme with a total outlay of Rs 10000 Crores over the period of three years will be implemented with effect from 1st April 2019.
• This scheme is the expanded version of the present scheme titled 'FAME India1 which was launched on 1st April 2015, with a total outlay of Rs. 895 crores

• The FAME India scheme has been successful in promoting the adoption of electric and hybrid vehicles in India.
• In the first phase of the scheme, over 1.5 lakh (150,000) electric vehicles were sold. In the second phase, the sale of electric vehicles is expected to increase significantly.
• The FAME India scheme is one of the government of India's initiatives to promote clean energy and reduce pollution.
• The scheme is expected to help India achieve its target of 30% electric vehicle sales by 2030

3.Key features of FAME India Phase II

• The scheme provides financial incentives for the purchase of electric and hybrid vehicles, including:
  • Demand Incentive - This is a one-time incentive given to the buyer of an electric or hybrid vehicle. The amount of the incentive depends on the type of vehicle and its battery capacity.
  • Production Linked Incentive (PLI) - This is an incentive given to manufacturers of electric vehicles and components. The incentive is based on the number of vehicles and components manufactured.
• The scheme also provides incentives for the development of charging infrastructure, including:
  • Infrastructure Development Charge (IDC) - This is a one-time incentive given to the developer of a charging station. The amount of the incentive depends on the capacity of the charging station.
  • Fast Charging Corridors - This is an incentive given to the developer of a network of fast charging stations. The incentive is based on the number of stations and their capacity.
• The scheme also provides incentives for research and development in the field of electric vehicles, including:
  • R&D Subsidy - This is an incentive given to companies that are developing new technologies for electric vehicles. The incentive is based on the amount of research and development expenditure incurred.

4. Impact of FAME India

• The FAME India scheme has had a positive impact on the adoption of electric vehicles in India. In the first phase of the scheme, over 1.5 lakh (150,000) electric vehicles were sold. In the second phase, the sale of electric vehicles is expected to increase significantly.
• The FAME India scheme has also helped to create jobs in the electric vehicle manufacturing and charging infrastructure sectors. According to a study by the National Institute of Electric Vehicles, the FAME India scheme has created over 100,000 jobs in the electric vehicle sector.
• The FAME India scheme is expected to help India achieve its target of 30% electric vehicle sales by 2030
• The government of India is working to address these challenges. For example, the government is providing subsidies to reduce the cost of electric vehicles. The government is also working to increase the number of charging stations in the country

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Choose the correct option regarding FAME Scheme? A.To promote the manufacturing of electric and hybrid vehicle technology B.FAME stands for Faster adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric vehicles C.FAME India is part of the National Electric mobility Mission Plan D. All of the above   Answer -D

 

Source:pib

 

PRODUCTION LINKED INCENTIVE (PLI) SCHEME

 

 

 

1. Context

 

The government is actively considering expanding the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme for textiles, pharmaceuticals and solar PV (photovoltaic) sectors by including more products that would be eligible for sops and extending the scheme period by one year for all three sectors

 

 

2. About Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme

 

The Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme is an initiative by the Indian government to boost domestic manufacturing in specific sectors. It incentivizes companies, both domestic and foreign, to set up or expand production facilities in India by offering financial rewards based on incremental sales achieved over a set period.

• The government announces a PLI scheme for a particular sector with specific targets for production and sales.
• Companies apply for the scheme and submit their production plans.
• If selected, companies receive a percentage of their incremental sales (over a base year) as an incentive.
• The incentive amount varies depending on the sector and the level of incremental sales achieved.
• The scheme typically runs for several years, providing companies with long-term financial support.

 

3. Sectors with Current PLI Schemes

 

• Mobile phone manufacturing and specified electronic components have been successful in attracting major players like Apple and Samsung to set up production in India.
• Large-scale electronics manufacturing to boost domestic production of TVs, laptops, and other electronics products.
• High-efficiency solar PV modules to make India a global leader in solar energy production.
• Automobiles and auto components incentivize the production of electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, and advanced auto components.
• Man-made fibre (MMF) apparel and textiles to boost domestic production of high-quality MMF textiles.
• White goods (air conditioners, refrigerators, etc.) to make India a global hub for white goods manufacturing.

 

4. Sectors Likely to See PLI Schemes in the Future

 

• The pharmaceuticals and medical devices sector is crucial for national health security and has the potential for significant growth.
• Green hydrogen and ammonia fuels are essential for achieving climate goals and could benefit from PLI support.
• Advanced manufacturing technologies include robotics, 3D printing, and artificial intelligence, which are crucial for future industries.
• The food processing sector has vast potential for value creation and job creation, and PLI could help address inefficiencies.

 

5. Benefits of the PLI Scheme

 

• PLI attracts investment and encourages companies to manufacture in India, reducing dependence on imports.
• New manufacturing units and increased production lead to job creation in various sectors.
• PLI attracts global companies with advanced technology, leading to knowledge transfer and skill development in India.
• Increased domestic production can lead to higher exports and strengthen the Indian economy.

 

6. Challenges in the PLI Scheme

 

• Companies need significant upfront investment to set up new production facilities, which can be a deterrent for some.
• The application and approval process for PLI schemes can be lengthy and complex, discouraging some companies.
• The government needs to ensure the long-term sustainability of PLI schemes to avoid dependence on subsidies.

 

7. The Way Forward

 

The PLI scheme is a promising initiative with the potential to transform India's manufacturing landscape. By addressing the challenges and continuously improving its design, the government can further incentivize domestic production and boost India's economic growth.

 

For Prelims: Production Linked Incentive scheme,  industrial policy For Mains:  1. Discuss the role of the government in promoting domestic manufacturing. Should the focus be on incentives like the Production Linked Incentive scheme or on creating a conducive business environment? (250 Words)

 

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Consider, the following statements : (UPSC 2023) Statement-I : India accounts for 3.2% of global export of goods. Statement-II : Many local companies and some foreign companies operating in India have taken advantage of India's ‘Production-linked Incentive’ scheme. Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements? (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct Answer: D

 

Source: The Indian Express

BASIC STRUCTURE OF INDIAN CONSTITUTION

 

1. Context

On November 26, 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted the Constitution of India. It came into effect on January 26, 1950, which we celebrate as Republic Day. This year, we are celebrating the 75th anniversary of adopting the Constitution. In 2015, the Government of India declared November 26 — hitherto known as National Law Day — as Constitution Day

2. What is the Basic Structure Doctrine?

• The Doctrine of Basic Structure is a form of judicial review that is used to test the legality of any legislation by the courts.
• The doctrine was evolved by the Supreme Court in the 1973 landmark ruling in Kesavananda Bharati v State of Kerala. In a 7-6 verdict, a 13-judge Constitution Bench ruled that the ‘basic structure’ of the Constitution is inviolable, and could not be amended by Parliament. 
• If a law is found to “damage or destroy” the “basic features of the Constitution”, the Court declares it unconstitutional.
• The test is applied to constitutional amendments to ensure the amendment does not dilute the fundamentals of the Constitutional itself. 

3. Evolution of Basic Structure Doctrine

3.1 Shankari Prasad Case, 1951

• SC opined that the power of the parliament to amend the constitution under Article 368 also includes the power to amend Fundamental Rights.
• It based its judgment on the logic that the word ‘law’ mentioned in Article 13 includes only ordinary laws and not constitutional amendment acts.

3.2 Golaknath Case, 1967

• SC overruled its judgment. It ruled in this that- Fundamental Rights are given a transcendental and immutable position and hence the Parliament cannot abridge or take away any of these rights.
• It opined the constitutional amendment act is also a law under Art 13.
• Parliament reacted to this judgment by enacting 24^th amendment act which included a provision in Art 368 which declared that Parliament has power to take away any of the fundamental rights.

3.3 Keshavananda Bharati Case, 1973

SC overruled its judgment in the Golaknath case. It upheld the validity of the 24^th amendment act and opined that parliament is empowered to take away or abridge any of the FRs. However, such changes should not alter the ‘basic structure’ of the constitution.

 

3.4 42nd CAA 1976

 

Amended Art. 368-no limitation on the constituent power of Parliament. Any amendment cannot be questioned in any court on any ground.

3.5 Minerva Mills Case, 1980

Parliament reacted to the above case by enacting 42nd amendment act which declared under article 368 that there is no limitation on the constituent power of Parliament and it barred the courts from questioning such amendments. This provision was invalidated by the SC stating that Parliament cannot take away the ‘judicial review’ power of the constitution since it is part of the ‘basic structure of the doctrine’.

3.6 Waman Rao Case, 1981 

SC clarified that doctrine would be apply to constitutional amendments enacted after April 24, 1973 (Kesavananda Bharati case) (Including 9th schedule).

 

4. Basic Features of Indian Constitution 

 

In the Kesavananda ruling, the Supreme Court cited several aspects of the Constitution that could be identified as “basic features” of the document but added that it was not an exhaustive list.

• the supremacy of the Constitution,
• the rule of law,
• Independence of the judiciary,
• doctrine of separation of powers,
• sovereign democratic republic,
• the parliamentary system of government,
• the principle of free and fair elections,
• welfare state, etc.

5. Significance of Basic Structure

• The basic structure doctrine is a testimony to the theory of Constitutionalism to prevent the damage to essence of COI by brute majority of the ruling majority.
• The basic doctrine saved the Indian democracy as it acts as a limitation of constituent power or else unlimited power of parliament might have turned India into a totalitarian.
• It helps us to retain the basic tenets of our constitution so meticulously framed by the founding fathers of our Constitution.
• It strengthens our democracy by delineating a true separation of power where Judiciary is independent of other two organs. It has also given immense untold unbridled power to Supreme Court and made it the most powerful court in the world.
• By restraining the amending powers of legislative organ of State, it provided basic Rights to Citizens which no organ of State can overrule.
• Being dynamic in nature, it is more progressive and open to changes in time unlike the rigid nature of earlier judgements.

 For Prelims & Mains

 

For Prelims: Doctrine of Basic Structure, Shankari Prasad Case, Golaknath Case,  Keshavananda Bharati Case, 42nd CAA 1976, Minerva Mills Case, Waman Rao Case, 1981, 9th Schedule, Article 368. For Mains: 1. What is the Basic Structure Doctrine? Explain the evolution and significance of Basic Structure Doctrine?

 

Previous Year Questions 1.Consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE GS1, 2020) 1. The Constitution of India defines its ‘basic structure’ in terms of federalism, secularism, fundamental rights and democracy. 2. The Constitution of India provides for ‘judicial review’ to safeguard the citizens’ liberties and to preserve the ideals on which the Constitution is based. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2   1.“Parliament’s power to amend the constitution is limited power and it cannot be enlarged into absolute power”. In light of this statement, explain whether parliament under article 368 of the constitution can destroy the basic structure of the constitution by expanding its amending power? (UPSC GS2, 2019)

Source: The Indian Express

 

GENOME MAPPING

 

1. Context

The Gujarat Biotechnology Research Centre (GBRC) in Gandhinagar has published the only fully mapped genome of the Chandipura Vesiculovirus (CHPV) — the viral infection that caused at least a third of the encephalitis or brain swelling cases in Gujarat during the outbreak in July-August

2. Human Genome Project (HGP)

• One of the most comprehensive genome mapping projects in the world is the Human Genome Project (HGP), which began in 1990 and reached completion in 2003.
• The international project, which was coordinated by the National Institutes of Health and the US Department of Energy, was undertaken with the aim of sequencing the human genome and identifying the genes that contain it.
• The project was able to identify the locations of many human genes and provide information about their structure and organization.

3. Genome Mapping

• Gene mapping refers to the technique used to identify a gene's location and distance between genes.
• The distances between various sites inside a gene can also be described through gene mapping.
• Placing several molecular markers at specific locations on the genome is the fundamental element of all genome mapping.
• There are many types of molecular markers. When creating genome maps, genes can be observed as a particular class of genetic markers mapped similarly to other markers.

4. Types of Gene Mapping

• Genetic linkage maps and physical maps are the two main categories of "Maps" used in gene mapping.
• Both maps consist of genetic markers and gene loci. While physical maps involve actual physical distances, often measured in a number of base pairs, distances of genetic maps are based on genetic linkage information.
• There are many gene mapping methods, including comparative, physical, and genetic-linkage mapping. However, physical, and genetic-linkage mapping are more common.

5. What does genome mapping tell us?

• According to the Human Genome Project, there are estimated to be over 20,500 human genes.
• Genome refers to an organism's complete set of DNA, which includes all its genes, and mapping these genes simply means finding out the location of these genes in a chromosome.
• In humans, each cell consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes, which means that for 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell, there are roughly 20,500 genes located on them.
• Some of the genes are lined up in a row on each chromosome, while others are lined up quite close to one another and this arrangement might affect the way they are inherited.
• For Example, if the genes are placed sufficiently close together, there is a probability that they get inherited as a pair.
• Genome mapping, therefore, essentially means figuring out the location of a specific gene on a particular region of the chromosome and also determining the location of relative distances between other genes on that chromosome.
• Significantly, genome mapping enables scientists to gather evidence if a disease transmitted from the parent to the child is linked to one or more genes.
• Furthermore, mapping also helps in determining the particular chromosome which contains that gene and the location of that gene in the chromosome.
• According to the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), genome maps have been used to find out genes that are responsible for relatively rare, single-gene inherited disorders such as cystic fibrosis and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
• Genetic maps may also point out scientists to the genes that play a role in more common disorders and diseases such as asthma, cancer, and heart disease among others.

6. Why it is more important?

• A complete human genome makes it easier to study genetic variation between individuals or between populations.
• A genome refers to all of the genetic material in an organism, and the human genome is mostly the same in all people, but a very small part of the DNA does vary between one individual and another.
• By constructing a complete human genome, scientists can use it for reference while studying the genome of various individuals, which would help them understand which variations, if any, might be responsible for the disease.

7. What was missing?

• The genetic sequence made available in 2003 from the Human Genome Project, an international collaboration between 1990 and 2003, contained information from a region of the human genome known as the euchromatin.
• Here, the chromosome is rich in genes, and the DNA encodes for protein. The 8% that was left out was in the area called heterochromatin. This is a smaller portion of the genome and does not produce protein. 
• There were at least two key reasons why heterochromatin was given lower priority. This part of the genome was thought to be “junk DNA” because it had no clear function.
• Besides, the euchromatin contained more genes that were simpler to sequence with the tools available at the time.
• Now, the fully sequenced genome is the result of the efforts of a global collaboration called the Telomere-2- Telomere (T2T) project.
• The invention of new methods of DNA sequencing and computational analysis helped complete the reading of the remaining 8% of the genome. 

8. What is in the 8%?

• The new reference genome, called T2TCHM13, includes highly repetitive DNA sequences found in and around the telomeres (structures at the ends of chromosomes) and the centromeres (at the middle section of each chromosome).
• The new sequence also reveals long stretches of DNA that are duplicated in the genome and are known to play important roles in evolution and disease.
• The fact that the sequences are repetitive is enlightening. The findings have revealed a large number of genetic variations, and these variations appear in large part within these repeated sequences.
• A significant amount of human genetic material turns out to be long, repetitive sections that occur over and over.
• Although every human has some repeats, not everyone has the same number of them. And the difference in the number of repeats is where most of the human genetic variation is found,” the University of Connecticut said in a press release.
• Many of the newly revealed regions have important functions in the genome even if they do not include active genes. 

For Prelims: Genome mapping, Genome Sequencing, Human Genome Project (HGP), Indian Institute of Science (IISc), DNA, National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), Telomere-2- Telomere (T2T) project, T2TCHM13. For Mains: 1. What is India’s genome mapping project? Discuss its importance and potential benefits. (250 Words)

Previous year Question

1. With reference to agriculture in India, how can the technique of 'genome sequencing', often seen in the news, be used in the immediate future? (UPSC 2017) 1. Genome sequencing can be used to identify genetic markers for disease resistance and drought tolerance in various crop plants. 2. This technique helps in reducing the time required to develop new varieties of crop plants. 3. It can be used to decipher the host-pathogen relationships in crops. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D

 

Source: The Indian Express