H5N1
1. Context
2. Avian Influenza
- Avian Influenza, also known as Avian or Bird Flu, is a form of influenza caused by a virus found in birds.
- Avian Flu is similar to variants found in animals and humans – caused strains of influenza that have adapted to specific hosts.
3. Avian Influenza Type A viruses
- Type A viruses are classified based on two proteins on their surfaces – Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA). There are about 18 HA subtypes and 11 NA subtypes.
- Several combinations of these two proteins are possible e.g., H5N1, H7N2, H9N6, H17N10, H18N11, etc.
- All known subtypes of influenza A viruses can infect birds, except subtypes H17N10 and H18N11, which have only been found in bats.
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4. Effect on Birds
- Although avian influenza has different subtypes, H5N1 is a highly pathogenic subtype that causes mortality in birds.
- Since 2022, the virus has infected over 100 million birds across the globe, resulting in the deaths of over 50 million and the culling of millions of poultry.
- Unlike previous outbreaks of highly pathogenic subtypes of avian influenza, H5N1 is heavily impacting wild bird species, including many which were on the verge of extinction.
- While it is difficult to ascertain how many wild birds have been affected by the virus, a significant impact has been seen in eagles, pelicans, geese, waterfowl, gulls, falcons, and shorebirds, in addition to the highest possible impact on poultry seen till date, at least in the U.S.
- The impact of H5N1 on wild bird populations has varied depending on several factors, such as the level of exposure, geographical locations, and migratory patterns of the affected species.
- High mortality in wild birds due to the virus could lead to significant ecological consequences, including the vulnerability of predators and alterations in species composition in affected ecosystems, and therefore a possible impact on biodiversity not just limited to avian species.
- It has raised concerns regarding the spread of the virus among critically endangered avian populations.
5. Spreading to animals
- The highly contagious H5N1 virus can also occasionally spill over from birds to animals through direct or indirect contact with infected birds or their droppings.
- Worryingly, there have been several reports on the spillover of H5N1 to mammals during the current outbreak from different countries, infecting species such as sea lions, minks, foxes, wild bears, and skunks, apart from domestic animals such as dogs and cats.
- In 2023 alone, H5N1 caused the deaths of over 3,000 sea lions in Peru. In a recent yet to be peer reviewed study, scientists found that the virus could efficiently spread between ferrets in the laboratory.
- The only known cases of the virus spreading between mammals were reported in minks that were raised in close confinement on a farm in Spain.
- The transmission of H5N1 from birds to mammals is rare, but when it does occur, it can be a cause for concern, as the virus could accumulate mutations and acquire the ability to potentially initiate human outbreaks.
- H5N1 has a high mortality rate of over 60% in humans and is primarily transmitted to humans through close contact with infected birds or animals, either through handling infected poultry or exposure to contaminated environments.
6. Enhanced Measures
- As the current H5N1 outbreak continues unabated with devastating impact on the avian population globally, and with significant ecological and economic consequences, the time has never been better to initiate efforts for preparedness towards building better, more efficient vaccines for avians and humans.
- Genomic surveillance should be done to map the continued evolution of the virus.
- Moreover, enhanced biosecurity measures are required to protect both animal and public health.
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For Prelims: Avian influenza H5N1, Bird Flu, Hemagglutinin (HA) and Neuraminidase (NA), influenza A viruses, Genomic surveillance, Pathogens, and Viruses.
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Previous year Questions
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1. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with reference to which one of the following diseases? (UPSC 2015) A. AIDS Answer: D 2. Consider the following statements : (UPSC 2010) 1. Every individual in the population is an equally susceptible host for Swine Flu. 2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu. 3. To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 and 2 only B. 2 only C. 2 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 3. Which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2013) 1. Viruses lack enzymes necessary for the generation of energy. 2. Viruses can be cultured in any synthetic medium. 3. Viruses are transmitted from one organism to another by biological vectors only. Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 only C. 1 and 3 only D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A |
MICRO SMALL MEDIUM ENTERPRISES (MSME)
The definition of MSME varies from country to country. In India, an MSME is defined as a business with:
- Micro enterprise: Up to 10 employees and an investment of up to INR 1 crore (approximately USD 130,000)
- Small enterprise: Up to 50 employees and an investment of up to INR 10 crore (approximately USD 1.3 million)
- Medium enterprise: Up to 200 employees and an investment of up to INR 50 crore (approximately USD 6.5 million)
The importance of MSMEs in an economy includes:
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Employment Generation: MSMEs are significant contributors to employment, especially in economies with limited opportunities for large-scale industrial employment.
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Local Economic Development: MSMEs often operate at a local level, contributing to the development of local communities and economies.
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Innovation and Entrepreneurship: Many innovative ideas and entrepreneurial ventures start as MSMEs. They have the flexibility to adapt quickly to changing market demands and experiment with new business models.
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Diversity and Resilience: A diverse ecosystem of MSMEs can contribute to a more resilient economy by reducing dependence on a few large corporations.
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Contributions to GDP: The combined contributions of MSMEs to a country's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) can be significant, even if individual businesses are relatively small.
The new criteria for the classification of micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) in India was notified by the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME) on June 1, 2020. The new criteria are based on the investment in plant and machinery or equipment and the annual turnover of the enterprise.
The following are the new criteria for the classification of MSMEs:
- Micro enterprise: An enterprise with:
- Investment in plant and machinery or equipment not more than Rs.1 crore (approximately USD 130,000)
- Annual turnover not more than Rs. 5 crore (approximately USD 650,000)
- Small enterprise: An enterprise with:
- Investment in plant and machinery or equipment not more than Rs.10 crore (approximately USD 1.3 million)
- Annual turnover not more than Rs. 50 crore (approximately USD 6.5 million)
- Medium enterprise: An enterprise with:
- Investment in plant and machinery or equipment not more than Rs.50 crore (approximately USD 6.5 million)
- Annual turnover not more than Rs. 250 crore (approximately USD 3.25 million)
Micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs) play a vital role in the Indian economy, accounting for over 90% of all enterprises and employing over 40% of the workforce. However, MSMEs face a number of challenges, including:
- Access to finance: MSMEs often find it difficult to obtain loans from banks and other financial institutions due to their lack of collateral and track record. This can make it difficult for them to expand their businesses or invest in new technologies.
- Lack of skills: MSMEs often lack the skills and knowledge needed to compete in the global market. This can make it difficult for them to develop new products and services, or to adopt new technologies.
- Competition from large businesses: MSMEs often face competition from large businesses, which have more resources and economies of scale. This can make it difficult for MSMEs to compete on price or quality.
- Bureaucracy: MSMEs often face a number of bureaucratic hurdles, such as obtaining licenses and permits. This can be time-consuming and costly, and can discourage entrepreneurs from starting or expanding their businesses.
- Infrastructure constraints: MSMEs often face infrastructure constraints, such as poor roads and electricity supply. This can make it difficult for them to transport their goods and services, or to operate their businesses efficiently.
- Unstable government policies: MSMEs are often affected by unstable government policies, such as changes in tax rates or import duties. This can make it difficult for them to plan for the future and make investment decisions.
Here are some of the prominent schemes and programs for MSMEs by the Union Government of India:
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Micro Units Development and Refinance Agency (MUDRA) Yojana:
- MUDRA Yojana aims to provide financial support to small and micro enterprises by offering loans through various financial institutions. It consists of three categories: Shishu, Kishor, and Tarun, based on the loan amount.
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Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY):
- PMMY is a scheme to provide financial assistance for the establishment, expansion, and modernization of MSMEs. It offers loans without collateral security up to a certain limit.
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Credit Linked Capital Subsidy Scheme (CLCSS):
- CLCSS provides capital subsidy to MSMEs for technology upgradation, modernization, and replacement of their plant and machinery to improve competitiveness.
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Zero Defect Zero Effect (ZED) Certification Scheme:
- ZED certification encourages MSMEs to adopt best practices and quality standards to enhance product quality while minimizing environmental impact.
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Make in India Initiative:
- The Make in India campaign encourages domestic and foreign companies to manufacture products in India, fostering the growth of the manufacturing sector and MSMEs.
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Stand Up India Scheme:
- This scheme aims to promote entrepreneurship among women and Scheduled Caste/Scheduled Tribe communities by providing loans for starting new enterprises.
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Technology Upgradation Support for MSMEs (TEQUP):
- TEQUP focuses on supporting MSMEs in adopting modern technology and upgrading their production processes to improve quality and competitiveness.
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National Manufacturing Competitiveness Programme (NMCP):
- NMCP includes various components such as Lean Manufacturing Competitiveness Scheme, Design Clinic Scheme, and more, aimed at enhancing the competitiveness of the manufacturing sector, including MSMEs.
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Entrepreneurial and Managerial Development of SMEs (EMD-SME):
- EMD-SME focuses on providing training, capacity-building, and skill development to entrepreneurs and managers of MSMEs.
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Skill India Initiative:
- While not exclusively for MSMEs, the Skill India program aims to provide skill training to individuals, including those in the MSME sector, to improve employability and entrepreneurship.
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Export Promotion Capital Goods (EPCG) Scheme:
- The EPCG scheme allows MSMEs to import capital goods for the purpose of upgrading technology and enhancing export competitiveness with certain duty benefits.
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Udyog Aadhaar Registration:
- The Udyog Aadhaar registration process simplifies the process of registering and obtaining various benefits for MSMEs, such as easier access to credit and government schemes.
Previous year Questions1. Consider the following statements with reference to India: (UPSC 2023)
1. According to the 'Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006', the 'medium enterprises' are those with investments in plant and machinery between Rs. 15 crore and Rs. 25 crore.
2. All bank loans to the Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises qualify under the priority sector.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2
Answer: B
2. Which of the following can aid in furthering the Government's objective of inclusive growth? (UPSC 2011)
1. Promoting Self-Help Groups
2. Promoting Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises
3. Implementing the Right to Education Act
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
A. 1 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer: D
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KATCHATHEEVU ISLAND
2. Location of Katchatheevu Island
Katchatheevu is a small, uninhabited island covering 285 acres situated in the Palk Strait, positioned between India and Sri Lanka. It measures approximately 1.6 kilometres in length and slightly over 300 meters wide at its widest point.
- The island is located northeast of Rameswaram, around 33 kilometres from the Indian coastline. It is situated approximately 62 kilometres southwest of Jaffna, which is at the northern tip of Sri Lanka. Moreover, Katchatheevu is about 24 kilometres away from Delft Island, an inhabited island that belongs to Sri Lanka.
- The notable feature on Katchatheevu Island is the St. Anthony’s Church, built in the early 20th century. This Catholic shrine holds cultural and religious importance, especially during its annual festival. Christian priests from both India and Sri Lanka conduct services during this festival, attracting devotees from both countries who make pilgrimages to the island. In 2023, around 2,500 Indians travelled from Rameswaram to participate in this significant event.
- Despite its religious and cultural significance, Katchatheevu is not suitable for permanent human settlement due to the absence of a reliable source of drinking water on the island. This limitation restricts any long-term habitation on the island, making it primarily a site for occasional religious gatherings and pilgrimages.
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3. Historical Background of Katchatheevu Island
Katchatheevu Island, formed as a result of a volcanic eruption in the 14th century, holds a relatively recent place in the geological timeline.
- During the early medieval period, Katchatheevu was under the control of the Jaffna kingdom of Sri Lanka. However, by the 17th century, control shifted to the Ramnad Zamindari, which was based in Ramanathapuram, approximately 55 kilometres northwest of Rameswaram.
- With the advent of colonial rule, Katchatheevu became part of the Madras Presidency under the British administration. In 1921, both India and Sri Lanka, then British colonies, laid claim to Katchatheevu to delineate fishing boundaries in the region.
- A survey conducted during this period marked Katchatheevu as part of Sri Lanka. However, a British delegation from India contested this claim, asserting ownership of the island by the Ramnad kingdom.
- The dispute over the ownership of Katchatheevu persisted until 1974 when a final resolution was reached. This resolution marked a significant milestone in clarifying the status of the island and delineating the maritime boundaries between India and Sri Lanka.
4. Indo-Sri Lankan Maritime Agreement and Fishing Rights
In 1974, efforts were made by then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to resolve the maritime border dispute between India and Sri Lanka permanently. This initiative led to the establishment of the 'Indo-Sri Lankan Maritime Agreement,' which resulted in the cession of Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka by India.
- Under the agreement, Indira Gandhi decided to "cede" Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka, perceiving the island to hold little strategic value for India. This move was intended to strengthen diplomatic ties between the two neighbouring countries.
- Despite ceding the island, Indian fishermen were granted continued access to Katchatheevu as per the agreement, maintaining their traditional fishing practices in the region. However, the agreement did not explicitly address the issue of fishing rights, leading to subsequent challenges and differing interpretations.
- Sri Lanka interpreted Indian fishermen's access to Katchatheevu as limited to activities such as resting, drying nets, and visiting the Catholic shrine, without requiring a visa. This interpretation created ambiguity regarding the extent of fishing rights granted to Indian fishermen in the waters surrounding Katchatheevu.
- In 1976, another agreement during India's Emergency period further complicated matters by prohibiting both countries from fishing in each other's Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). However, Katchatheevu lies at the boundary of both countries' EEZs, adding to the uncertainty surrounding fishing rights and activities in the region.
- The agreements made in the 1970s regarding Katchatheevu and fishing rights have left unresolved issues, contributing to periodic tensions and disputes between Indian fishermen and Sri Lankan authorities. The lack of clear delineation and mutual understanding regarding fishing access around Katchatheevu continues to be a contentious issue between India and Sri Lanka.
5. Impact of the Sri Lankan Civil War on Katchatheevu
The period between 1983 and 2009 was marked by the Sri Lankan Civil War, during which the border dispute involving Katchatheevu took a back seat amidst the intense conflict.
- During the civil war, Sri Lankan naval forces were primarily focused on combating the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) based in Jaffna. This preoccupation allowed Indian fishermen to venture deep into Sri Lankan waters without significant repercussions. Incursions by Indian fishermen, especially using larger trawlers, became common during this time. These activities led to tensions as they not only overfished but also caused damage to Sri Lankan fishing equipment and vessels.
- The end of the civil war in 2009 brought about significant changes. Sri Lanka bolstered its maritime defences and shifted its attention to issues such as illegal fishing activities by Indian fishermen.
- Indian fishermen, facing resource depletion in Indian waters, continued to venture into Sri Lankan waters as they had done for years. However, with increased surveillance and stricter enforcement post-civil war, they began facing arrests and other consequences by the Sri Lankan navy.
- To this day, the Sri Lankan navy regularly apprehends Indian fishermen for illegal fishing activities in Sri Lankan waters. Incidents of alleged custodial torture and deaths have also been reported, further complicating the situation. Each such incident reignites demands to revisit the issue of Katchatheevu and its impact on fishing rights and maritime boundaries between India and Sri Lanka. The historical context of the island's ownership and fishing rights continues to be a source of contention and debate between the two nations.
6. Tamil Nadu's Stance on Katchatheevu
The issue of Katchatheevu holds significant political and emotional weight in Tamil Nadu, with successive governments and leaders advocating for its retrieval and the restoration of fishing rights for Tamil fishermen.
- The decision to "cede" Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka in 1974 without consulting the Tamil Nadu state assembly sparked immediate protests. This decision was seen as infringing on traditional fishing rights and livelihoods of Indian Tamil fishermen, given the historical ties of the Ramnad Zamindari to the island.
- The Tamil Nadu Assembly has consistently demanded the retrieval of Katchatheevu and the restoration of fishing rights. Leaders like J Jayalalitha and MK Stalin, among others, have actively pursued this agenda through legal and diplomatic channels.
- In 2008, Jayalalitha filed a petition arguing that ceding Katchatheevu required a constitutional amendment and had adversely affected fishermen's rights. Similar efforts were made by other leaders, including appeals to the Supreme Court.
- Despite Tamil Nadu's persistent demands, the Union government's stance has remained unchanged. It asserts that since Katchatheevu has been under dispute historically, no territorial or sovereignty claims were ceded.
- While there is vocal demand for Katchatheevu's retrieval, practical challenges hinder such efforts. The Union government has pointed out that revisiting Katchatheevu's status would require drastic measures, potentially leading to diplomatic complexities or conflict.
7. The Way Forward
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For Prelims: India-Sri Lanka, Katchatheevu island, LTTE, Sri Lanka Civil War, Exclusive Economic Zones
For Mains:
1. The Katchatheevu dispute highlights the complexities of maritime border demarcation. How can India ensure the security of its fishermen and promote sustainable fishing practices in the Palk Strait? (250 words)
2. You are a senior diplomat tasked with finding a solution to the Katchatheevu dispute. Outline a framework for negotiations that considers the historical, economic, and social aspects of the issue. (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Katchatheevu Island was ceded by India to which Country in 1974 (SSC CPO 2017)
A. Sri Lanka B.Maldives C.Indonesia D.Myanmar
2. With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2022)
1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.
2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.
3. The Exclusive Economic zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
A.1 and 2 only B.2 and 3 only C.1 and 3 only D.1, 2 and 3
Answers: 1-A, 2-D
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2. Women's Participation in the Labour Force
- In the recently released India Employment Report for 2024 by the Institute for Human Development and the International Labour Organization, a significant focus is placed on the participation of women in the labour force.
- Despite improvements in key metrics, such as the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), the female LFPR remains considerably lower compared to their male counterparts.
- In 2023, while the male LFPR stood at 78.5, the female LFPR was recorded at a mere 37. This gap is stark when compared to the global average female LFPR of 49, according to World Bank data.
- The report notes a consistent decline in female LFPR since 2000, touching a low of 24.5 in 2019, before showing slight increments, particularly in rural areas. However, the authors emphasize that despite these marginal improvements, employment conditions for women continue to be challenging.
- The light on the trend points out that the rise in female labour force participation has predominantly occurred in rural areas and has been primarily driven by self-employment, often characterized by unpaid work. This uptick in participation can be attributed to economic distress preceding the COVID-19 pandemic and the pandemic itself.
- While various hypotheses exist regarding the causes of this trend, such as improvements in measuring women's work and increased non-farm employment for men leading to women substituting in agriculture definitive evidence on the exact cause(s) remains elusive.
3. Women's Employment Trends
- The India Employment Report underscores that women play a significant role in the surge of self-employment and unpaid family work.
- According to the report, nearly two-thirds of the newly generated employment post-2019 consists of self-employed individuals, with women comprising a significant portion of unpaid family workers within this category.
- Concurrently, the proportion of regular employment, which had been on a steady incline since 2000, started to decline after 2018.
- Additionally, the global rate of youth not engaged in employment, education, or training has consistently been highest in South Asia, averaging 29.2% between 2010 and 2019, according to the International Labour Organization (ILO).
- India mirrors this trend, with a notable portion of its youth falling into this category, particularly among young women, surpassing the rates for young men.
4. Factors Contributing to Low Women's Participation in the Labor Force
- Various economists and women's rights experts highlight a multitude of barriers that hinder women's participation in the workforce. These obstacles range from a dearth of job opportunities and the burden of caregiving responsibilities, including household chores and cooking, to inadequate wages, patriarchal attitudes, and safety concerns.
- The Disastrous Economic Fallout of the COVID-19 Pandemic in India," discusses the significant decline in women's labour participation from 2004 to 2018.
- A portion of this decline to increased involvement in education, particularly among the 15 to 19 age group.
- However, as participation rates dropped across all age groups, a broader phenomenon globally of women being pushed out of employment due to a scarcity of paid work.
- The decline in women's LFPR can be attributed to both supply and demand-side factors. On the demand side, India's growth trajectory has not been sufficiently job-intensive.
- Coupled with societal norms that confine women to caregiving roles and limit their mobility, this restricts their ability to pursue available opportunities.
- Moreover, concerns regarding public safety and transportation constraints further constrain women to seek employment within proximity to their homes, limiting their options.
- The various factors influence the supply and demand for female labour. These factors include women's ability to balance paid work and family obligations, decisions related to education and childcare, technological advancements, legal frameworks, and societal norms.
- The women's choices have historically been constrained by marital status and responsibilities for household and family, a trend observed not only in the U.S. but also in many other countries, including India.
5. Addressing the Challenges
- Economists emphasize the necessity for interventions on both the demand and supply sides of the labour market.
- The importance of policies geared towards promoting labour-intensive sectors, encompassing both manufacturing and higher-productivity services.
- A critical need for public investments in safety and transportation infrastructure, along with affordable child and elderly care services.
- These interventions are crucial in enabling women to participate in the workforce beyond their household responsibilities and to access better-paying employment opportunities.
- By implementing such measures, societies can foster an environment where women can fully engage in the labour market and contribute to economic growth and development.
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For Prelims: Women Empowerment, India Employment Report, Institute for Human Development, the International Labour Organization, Labour Force Participation Rate, the Workforce Participation Rate
For Mains:
1. The COVID-19 pandemic has disproportionately impacted women's employment globally. Discuss the specific challenges faced by women in India's labour market due to the pandemic. How can the government design policies to promote women's workforce re-entry in the post-pandemic era? (250 words)
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Previous Year Questions
1.Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020)
1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India
2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector
3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
A. 1 Only
B. 1 and 2 Only
C. 1 and 3 Only
D. 1, 2 and 3
Answer (B)
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The recent global chip shortage, triggered by pandemic disruptions and geopolitical tensions, has highlighted the vulnerability of relying on a limited number of regions for semiconductor manufacturing. Recognizing this critical need for self-reliance, India has taken steps to boost its domestic chip manufacturing capabilities.
Leading the charge is the TATA group, which has partnered with Taiwan's Powerchip Semiconductor Manufacturing Corporation (PSMC) to establish a state-of-the-art 300mm wafer fabrication plant in Gujarat. This facility is expected to produce its first 28nm chip in 2026. Additionally, the Indian government has recently approved the construction of two assembly and test plants in Gujarat and Assam, further strengthening the domestic chip ecosystem.
2. About Semiconductor Chips and their Manufacturing Process
- A semiconductor chip, also known simply as a chip or integrated circuit, is a crucial component in modern electronics.
- Semiconductors possess properties that lie between those of conductors, which readily conduct electricity, and insulators, which do not.
- In their purest form, semiconductors exhibit minimal electrical conductivity. However, this conductivity can be modified by introducing small amounts of specific substances known as "dopants."
- The manufacturing process of semiconductor chips involves intricate techniques aimed at precisely altering the electrical properties of semiconductor materials.
- By carefully injecting specific parts of a pure semiconductor with dopants, complex circuits can be effectively "printed" onto the semiconductor substrate.This process can be likened to creating detailed artwork on paper or a wall using stencils and spray paints of various colours.
- In the semiconductor industry, the stencils are referred to as "masks," while the dopants serve as the equivalent of paint. Through the meticulous application of masks and dopants, semiconductor manufacturers can fabricate intricate circuitry essential for the functioning of electronic devices.
3. About Transistors
- A transistor stands as one of the earliest electronic components crafted using semiconductor materials, showcasing remarkable versatility in its applications.
- In its most prevalent form, a transistor operates as an electronic switch, capable of controlling the flow of electrical current.
- Within a typical semiconductor chip, millions or even billions of interconnected transistors collaborate to execute various logical and computational tasks.
- Beyond its role as a switch, a transistor can also serve as an amplifier, enhancing weak signals such as those received by cell phones.
- Moreover, transistors play a crucial role in circuits involved in generating and processing high-frequency signals, essential for wireless communication technologies.
- Today, these diverse functionalities of transistors are routinely integrated into a single semiconductor chip, exemplified by the WiFi chip found in mobile devices.
- The invention of the transistor demonstrated how a solitary device could be fashioned from a semiconductor material, marking a significant advancement in electronics.
- Subsequently, the ability to "print" multiple devices onto a single semiconductor substrate to construct entire circuits represented the next leap forward.
- Both of these breakthroughs laid the groundwork for the semiconductor revolution and have been duly recognized by Nobel Prizes, awarded in 1956 and 2000, respectively.
4. Fabrication Technology in Semiconductor Manufacturing
- Fabrication technology in semiconductor manufacturing refers to the processes and techniques used to create semiconductor chips with increasingly advanced features and capabilities.
- Over the past six decades since the inception of semiconductor chips, technological advancements have propelled the industry forward at a relentless pace, introducing newer manufacturing technologies at regular intervals.
- One significant aspect of fabrication technology is the level of miniaturization achieved in semiconductor chips.
- This advancement is akin to the analogy of using stencils to etch smaller and more intricate patterns.
- The miniaturization of semiconductor components, such as transistors, has increased by orders of magnitude. This progress is accompanied by impressive gains in the switching capability of transistors, enabling faster switching speeds and lower power consumption.
- Manufacturing technologies are often denoted by labels like '45nm,' '28nm,' and '16nm,' with 'nm' representing nanometers, an extremely small unit of length equal to one billionth of a meter.
- These numbers signify the level of miniaturization achievable using a particular technology, with smaller numbers indicating finer features.
- While traditionally electronic circuits have been laid out flat on semiconductor substrates, researchers are increasingly exploring the use of the third dimension (height) to enhance performance.
- As the dimensions of individual transistors decrease, increasing their height can help ensure reliable operation.
- Additionally, stacking entire circuits on top of one another is another approach to further reduce semiconductor chip sizes and enhance functionality.
5. Wafer in Semiconductor Manufacturing
- In the realm of semiconductor manufacturing, a wafer is akin to a crucial canvas on which semiconductor chips are created.
- Drawing an analogy to the production of postage stamps, semiconductor chips are crafted on a wafer much like stamps are printed on a sheet of paper and then individually cut out.
- Typically, an array of chips, numbering around 300-400, is printed on a circular piece of semiconductor material, referred to as a wafer within the industry. Subsequently, the wafer is diced into individual chips.
- The size of the wafer plays a pivotal role in the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of chip production.
- Larger wafer sizes facilitate the printing of more chips on a single wafer, thereby accelerating chip production while simultaneously reducing costs.
- Over time, wafer sizes utilized in the industry have steadily increased. Presently, the state-of-the-art standard is a 300mm wafer, roughly equivalent to 12 inches in diameter.
- Ongoing efforts aim to transition towards utilizing 450mm wafer sizes. While transitioning to larger wafer sizes poses technical challenges and capital expenses, it ultimately proves to be economically advantageous in the long run.
- Following the dicing of the wafer into individual chips, each chip undergoes packaging wherein it is encased in a protective covering.
- Furthermore, intricate wiring is meticulously routed from the device to the periphery of the package. These wires serve various functions, including power supply and signal transmission.
- Subsequently, each chip undergoes rigorous testing procedures, including functionality verification and stress testing, to ensure reliability throughout its operational lifespan. These assembly and test processes are carried out in specialized assembly and test plants.
6. India's Semiconductor Ecosystem
- India's semiconductor ecosystem has witnessed significant growth, particularly in chip design, since the 1990s.
- Leveraging the capabilities of computer-aided design (CAD), semiconductor chips can be designed entirely using software tools. This process involves specifying the chip's functionality, translating it into electronic circuits, validating the circuits, and optimizing for factors such as speed, power consumption, and size all achievable by skilled engineers working at their desktops.
- The final chip design is abstracted into a file format and sent to a fabrication plant for manufacturing, resembling the process of creating and publishing a graphic novel entirely on a laptop.
- India's venture into semiconductor manufacturing stands to benefit from its well-established ecosystem for chip design, driven by a steady influx of electronics and computer engineers.
- Given that semiconductor manufacturing is inherently interdisciplinary, there are opportunities for professionals from various fields to contribute meaningfully to this industry.
- This includes process and control engineers, data scientists, material scientists, physicists, and chemical engineers, who can collaborate to advance semiconductor manufacturing capabilities in the country.
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For Prelims: Semiconductor, Transistors, Fabrication Technology
For Mains:
1. Discuss the recent global chip shortage and its implications for India's semiconductor industry. What steps has India taken to enhance its domestic chip manufacturing capabilities? (250 Words)
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Previous Year Questions
1. Which of the following fabrication techniques is ideally suited for digital ICs?
(KVS TGT WET 2017)
A. Monolithic B. Thin film C. Hybrid D. Thin film and hybrid
Answer: A
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DUAL CITIZENSHIP
Dual citizenship, also known as dual nationality, is a status in which an individual is a citizen of two countries at the same time. This means the individual holds legal rights and obligations in both countries, including the right to vote, work, and own property, as well as the obligation to pay taxes.
The rules regarding dual citizenship vary between countries. Some countries allow their citizens to hold citizenship of another country simultaneously, while others may restrict or even prohibit it. Additionally, the acquisition or retention of dual citizenship can depend on factors such as birthplace, ancestry, marriage, and the laws of the countries involved.
Having dual citizenship can offer several advantages, such as greater freedom to travel, work, and live in multiple countries, as well as access to more extensive social and economic benefits. However, it can also entail complexities, such as navigating potentially conflicting legal obligations and responsibilities between the two countries.
Overall, dual citizenship is a legal status that allows individuals to maintain ties to multiple countries and enjoy the benefits of belonging to more than one nation
3.Benefits of A Dual Citizenship
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Freedom of Movement: Dual citizens can travel freely between their two countries of citizenship without the need for visas or other travel restrictions. This can make international travel more convenient and less bureaucratic.
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Residency and Work Rights: Dual citizenship often grants individuals the right to live and work in both countries without needing to obtain separate permits or visas. This can provide greater flexibility for career opportunities and lifestyle choices.
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Access to Social Services: Dual citizens may be eligible for social services, such as healthcare, education, and social security benefits, in both countries. This can be particularly advantageous in countries with robust social welfare systems.
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Property Ownership: Dual citizenship can facilitate property ownership in both countries, allowing individuals to invest in real estate markets and take advantage of property rights and opportunities in each country.
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Political Rights: Dual citizens typically have the right to participate in the political process of both countries, including voting in elections and running for office. This allows them to have a voice and influence in the governance of both nations.
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Cultural and Personal Connections: Dual citizenship can help individuals maintain and strengthen their cultural ties and connections to both countries, including language, heritage, and familial relationships.
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Security and Stability: Holding citizenship in two countries can provide a sense of security and stability, as individuals have options for living, working, and establishing roots in different places, reducing their vulnerability to political or economic instability in any single country.
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Education Opportunities: Dual citizenship may provide access to education opportunities, such as scholarships or reduced tuition fees, in both countries. This can be beneficial for individuals seeking to pursue higher education or professional development abroad
The eligibility for dual citizenship varies depending on the laws and regulations of the countries involved.
However, there are several common scenarios in which individuals may be eligible for dual citizenship:
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Birthright Citizenship: In some countries, individuals automatically acquire citizenship at birth based on factors such as place of birth, parentage, or ancestry. If a person is born in a country that grants citizenship based on birth within its territory (jus soli) or to citizens of that country (jus sanguinis), they may be eligible for dual citizenship if the laws of their parents' country also confer citizenship.
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Naturalization: Many countries allow individuals to become citizens through a process of naturalization after meeting certain residency requirements, language proficiency tests, and demonstrating good character. If a person acquires citizenship through naturalization in a country that allows dual citizenship, they may retain their original citizenship and become a dual citizen.
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Marriage: Some countries grant citizenship to spouses of citizens, enabling them to become dual citizens through marriage. This often involves meeting certain residency and integration requirements and may vary depending on the specific laws of each country.
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Descent or Ancestry: Some countries grant citizenship to individuals with ancestral ties to that country, typically within a certain number of generations. If a person can prove ancestry or descent from a country that allows dual citizenship, they may be eligible to apply for citizenship based on these connections.
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Investment or Economic Citizenship: Some countries offer citizenship-by-investment programs, whereby individuals can acquire citizenship through making significant investments in the country's economy, such as purchasing property or making financial contributions. If a person obtains citizenship through such a program and their original country permits dual citizenship, they may become a dual citizen.
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Treaty or Bilateral Agreements: In some cases, countries have bilateral agreements or treaties that facilitate dual citizenship between them. Individuals from countries with such agreements may be eligible for dual citizenship based on the terms outlined in these agreements
Dual citizenship is not recognized under Indian law. The Constitution of India does not allow for dual citizenship. However, the Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) and Person of Indian Origin (PIO) schemes are available to individuals of Indian origin who hold citizenship of another country.
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OCI (Overseas Citizenship of India): The OCI scheme was introduced in 2005 to grant certain benefits to people of Indian origin. OCI cardholders are not considered Indian citizens, but they are granted lifelong visa-free travel to India, as well as certain rights such as the ability to own property and conduct business in India. However, OCI cardholders do not have voting rights or the ability to hold certain government positions.
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PIO (Person of Indian Origin): The PIO scheme was introduced in 1999 and later merged with the OCI scheme in 2015. PIO cardholders were entitled to similar benefits as OCI cardholders, but the PIO scheme has been phased out, and existing PIO cardholders were required to convert their PIO cards to OCI cards
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Previous Year Questions 1.With reference to India, consider the following statements: (UPSC CSE 2021)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only Answer: (a) |
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANISATION (NATO)
NATO, established on April 4, 1949, is a Western security alliance comprising 12 original members: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
The alliance was formed by signing the Washington Treaty, deriving its authority from Article 51 of the United Nations Charter, which upholds the inherent right of independent states to individual or collective defense.
Central to NATO is the principle of "collective security," where an attack on any member nation is viewed as an attack on all, necessitating collective response. This principle emerged from the Cold War context of the late 1940s, amid the rivalry between the USSR and the US over ideological and economic dominance. Article 5 of the Washington Treaty, addressing collective security, was introduced to counter the perceived threat of Soviet expansionism beyond Eastern Europe. In response, the USSR formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955, uniting socialist countries as allies.
However, invoking Article 5 does not mandate uniform military action by all member states. The extent of intervention is determined by each country "as it deems necessary." To date, the only instance of Article 5 being activated was in response to the September 11, 2001 attacks on the US, leading to NATO's deployment in Afghanistan for nearly two decades
3. Who are NATO’s members today?
In addition to the initial 12 members, subsequent additions to NATO's membership include Greece and Turkey in 1952, West Germany in 1955 (later recognized as Germany), Spain in 1982, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland in 1999, followed by Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia in 2004, Albania and Croatia in 2009, Montenegro in 2017, North Macedonia in 2020, Finland in 2023, and Sweden in 2024.
A surge of new members joined in 1999, a few years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, prompting concerns about the alliance's potential obsolescence due to the absence of its original purpose
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4.What challenges does NATO face today?
- During the 2019 commemoration of NATO's 70th anniversary, notable tensions arose among member nations.
- President Donald Trump of the United States emphasized the necessity for countries to increase their military expenditures.
- This call stemmed from a 2014 agreement among NATO members to allocate a minimum of 2 percent of their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to defense spending, a commitment made following Russia's annexation of Crimea.
- However, only a handful of nations met this threshold, prompting criticism from President Trump who deemed it unfair, particularly to countries such as the US that were fulfilling their spending obligations. By 2023, among the 30 member countries at the time, only 11 exceeded the stipulated limit.
- One significant catalyst for increased defense spending was the Russian invasion of Ukraine the preceding year. Even traditionally neutral countries in foreign policy, such as Finland and Sweden, found appeal in the concept of collective security in response to Russia's assertive actions.
- Despite NATO's "open door" policy toward membership, the admission of new applicants requires unanimous approval from all member states. Turkey hesitated to support the applications of Sweden and Finland due to past criticisms from their politicians regarding Turkey's human rights record. Turkey also accused these nations of harboring "terrorists"
