2. About the National Health Policy

The National Health Policy (NHP) is a comprehensive framework that outlines the government's vision, goals, and strategies for addressing healthcare challenges and improving the health outcomes of the population. It serves as a guiding document for healthcare planning, resource allocation, and implementation of health programs and initiatives.

Key components of a National Health Policy typically include

• The NHP articulates the government's vision for the healthcare system and sets specific goals and targets to be achieved over a defined period. These goals often encompass areas such as improving access to healthcare services, enhancing the quality of care, reducing health inequalities, and promoting health and well-being.
• It outlines strategies for organizing and delivering healthcare services, including the development of infrastructure, human resources, and healthcare facilities. This may involve expanding healthcare coverage, strengthening primary healthcare services, and integrating various levels of care within the health system.
• The NHP addresses mechanisms for financing healthcare services, including public funding, health insurance schemes, and other financial instruments. It may outline strategies for increasing public spending on health, mobilizing resources, and ensuring equitable access to affordable healthcare for all segments of the population.
• The policy emphasizes the importance of health promotion, disease prevention, and public health interventions to improve population health outcomes. This may include initiatives to promote healthy lifestyles, prevent communicable and non-communicable diseases, and address social determinants of health.
• It establishes regulatory frameworks and standards for healthcare delivery, quality assurance, and patient safety. This may involve licensing and accreditation of healthcare facilities, regulation of healthcare professionals, and monitoring of healthcare quality and outcomes.
• The NHP recognizes the importance of partnerships and collaboration between government agencies, healthcare providers, civil society organizations, and other stakeholders to achieve its goals. It may involve engaging multiple sectors beyond healthcare, such as education, agriculture, and urban planning, to address health determinants comprehensively.
• The policy includes mechanisms for monitoring and evaluating progress towards its goals and objectives. This may involve the development of health indicators, data collection systems, and periodic assessments to track performance, identify gaps, and inform policy adjustments.

3. What is Primary healthcare?

Primary healthcare refers to essential health services that are universally accessible to individuals and communities. It is typically the first point of contact with the healthcare system for most people and plays a crucial role in promoting health, preventing diseases, and managing common health problems.

Key characteristics of primary healthcare include

• Primary healthcare services are geographically and financially accessible to all members of the community, regardless of their socioeconomic status, location, or background. This accessibility ensures that individuals can seek care when needed without encountering barriers related to distance or cost.
• Primary healthcare addresses a wide range of health needs across the lifespan, including preventive care, health promotion, treatment of common illnesses, management of chronic conditions, and referral to specialized services when necessary. It emphasizes holistic and patient-centered care that considers the physical, mental, and social aspects of health.
• Primary healthcare services are integrated across different levels of care, from individual clinics and health centres to community-based programs and outreach services. This integration fosters coordination and continuity of care, ensuring seamless transitions between different healthcare providers and settings.
• Primary healthcare empowers individuals and communities to take control of their health and well-being through health education, counselling, and community engagement. It promotes active participation and self-management, empowering individuals to make informed decisions about their health and lifestyle choices.
• Primary healthcare strives to address health inequalities and disparities by ensuring that healthcare services are distributed fairly and reach underserved populations, including marginalized groups, rural communities, and vulnerable populations. It promotes equity in access to healthcare and health outcomes for all individuals, regardless of their background or circumstances.
• Primary healthcare involves collaboration and teamwork among different healthcare professionals, including doctors, nurses, midwives, pharmacists, community health workers, and allied health professionals. This interdisciplinary approach allows for a comprehensive and holistic response to the diverse health needs of individuals and communities.

4. What is out-of-pocket expenditure?

Out-of-pocket expenditure (OOP) refers to the direct payments made by individuals or households for healthcare goods and services at the point of receiving care. These expenses are typically paid for by individuals using their own funds rather than being covered by a third-party payer, such as government health insurance, private health insurance, or employer-sponsored health plans.

Key characteristics of out-of-pocket expenditure include

• OOP expenses are incurred by individuals or households at the time they receive healthcare services. This may include payments for doctor's visits, hospital stays, prescription medications, diagnostic tests, medical procedures, and other healthcare-related expenses.
• OOP expenses are incurred when healthcare services are not fully covered by health insurance or other third-party payers. They represent the portion of healthcare costs that individuals are responsible for paying themselves, either because they do not have insurance coverage or because their insurance plan requires them to pay deductibles, copayments, coinsurance, or other cost-sharing amounts.
• OOP expenses can vary widely depending on factors such as the type and severity of the health condition, the type of healthcare provider or facility visited, the location of services, and the individual's insurance coverage. Some healthcare services may be relatively inexpensive, while others may involve significant out-of-pocket costs, especially for specialized or high-cost treatments.
• OOP expenses can impose a significant financial burden on individuals and households, particularly those with limited financial resources or those facing high healthcare costs. In some cases, out-of-pocket spending on healthcare can lead to financial hardship, medical debt, or barriers to accessing necessary care, especially for vulnerable or marginalized populations.
• High levels of out-of-pocket spending can deter individuals from seeking timely and appropriate healthcare services, leading to delays in diagnosis and treatment, underutilization of preventive services, and poorer health outcomes. This is particularly relevant in low- and middle-income countries where healthcare costs may represent a substantial proportion of household income.
• Policymakers often seek to reduce out-of-pocket spending on healthcare by implementing measures to expand health insurance coverage, increase financial protection, and improve access to affordable healthcare services. This may include initiatives such as universal health coverage, social health insurance schemes, subsidies for health insurance premiums, or waivers for certain categories of patients.

5. How non-communicable diseases (NCDs) has become a challenge for India?

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) have become a significant challenge for India due to several interrelated factors

• India is experiencing a rapid epidemiological transition characterized by a shift from communicable diseases to non-communicable diseases. Lifestyle changes, urbanization, sedentary lifestyles, unhealthy diets, tobacco use, and increasing life expectancy have contributed to the rising prevalence of NCDs such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, and chronic respiratory diseases.
• NCDs account for a substantial burden of morbidity, mortality, and disability in India. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), NCDs are responsible for more than 60% of all deaths in India. Cardiovascular diseases alone contribute to nearly one-fourth of all deaths, followed by chronic respiratory diseases, cancer, and diabetes.
• NCDs impose a significant economic burden on individuals, households, and the healthcare system. High out-of-pocket expenditures for NCD treatment and management can lead to financial hardship, impoverishment, and barriers to accessing healthcare services, particularly for low-income populations. The economic costs of NCDs include direct medical expenses, indirect costs related to productivity losses and disability, and intangible costs associated with pain and suffering.
• NCDs disproportionately affect vulnerable and marginalized populations, exacerbating existing health inequities and disparities. Socioeconomic factors such as poverty, inadequate access to healthcare, limited health literacy, and environmental factors contribute to disparities in NCD risk factors, prevalence, and outcomes across different population groups.
• India's healthcare system faces challenges in addressing the growing burden of NCDs, including inadequate infrastructure, limited human resources, fragmented healthcare delivery, and gaps in prevention, diagnosis, and management services. There is a need for strengthening primary healthcare, integrating NCD services into existing health programs, and improving access to essential medicines and technologies for NCD prevention and control.
• NCD risk factors such as tobacco use, unhealthy diets, physical inactivity, harmful use of alcohol, and air pollution are highly prevalent in India. Efforts to address NCDs require multi-sectoral collaboration and population-wide interventions to promote healthy lifestyles, reduce exposure to risk factors, and create supportive environments for health.
• India's demographic transition, characterized by an ageing population and increasing life expectancy, contributes to the rising burden of NCDs. Older adults are at higher risk of developing NCDs and often require long-term care and management, placing additional strain on healthcare resources and services.

6. The status of health insurance in India

The status of health insurance in India has been evolving rapidly in recent years, with significant growth in coverage, awareness, and innovation.  As of 2021, only around 37% of the Indian population has health insurance, with a significant gap between urban and rural areas.

Several factors contribute to the current status of health insurance in India

• The Government of India has implemented several health insurance schemes to improve access to healthcare and provide financial protection to vulnerable populations. These include schemes such as Ayushman Bharat - Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY), Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana (RSBY), and various state-sponsored health insurance programs. These schemes aim to cover economically disadvantaged individuals and families, offering cashless treatment for a range of medical services.
• The private health insurance sector in India has experienced significant growth in recent years, driven by increasing demand for healthcare coverage and rising healthcare costs. Private health insurance companies offer a wide range of health insurance products tailored to the needs and preferences of different segments of the population. These include individual health insurance plans, family floater plans, group health insurance for employees, and specialized products for critical illness, maternity, and senior citizens.
• The coverage of health insurance in India has expanded significantly in recent years, with more individuals and families opting for health insurance coverage. Government initiatives, employer-sponsored schemes, and individual purchasing decisions have contributed to the growth in health insurance coverage across urban and rural areas. However, there are still significant gaps in coverage, especially among low-income and informal sector workers.
• Health insurance companies in India are increasingly offering innovative products and services to meet the evolving needs of consumers. This includes value-added services such as telemedicine consultations, wellness programs, health check-ups, and digital platforms for policy management and claims processing. Insurers are also leveraging technology, data analytics, and artificial intelligence to enhance customer experience, improve risk assessment, and prevent fraud.
• Despite progress, there are several challenges facing the health insurance sector in India, including low awareness, affordability issues, inadequate regulatory oversight, fraudulent practices, and the need for capacity building in insurance infrastructure and human resources. However, there are also opportunities for further expansion and improvement, including increasing coverage among underserved populations, enhancing product affordability and transparency, strengthening regulatory frameworks, and promoting innovation and competition in the sector.

7. Government health expenditure in primary, secondary, and tertiary care

Government health expenditure in primary, secondary, and tertiary care refers to the allocation of public funds towards healthcare services at different levels of the healthcare system. 

Primary Care

• Primary care includes essential healthcare services provided at the community level, typically through primary health centres (PHCs), health sub-centers, and other primary care facilities. These services focus on preventive care, health promotion, early detection, and basic treatment of common health problems.
• Government health expenditure in primary care encompasses funding for infrastructure development, staff salaries, medical supplies, equipment, preventive health programs, and outreach activities.
• Examples of primary care services funded by the government include immunization programs, maternal and child health services, family planning, nutrition programs, and communicable disease control initiatives.

Secondary Care

• Secondary care refers to specialized medical services provided by district hospitals, community health centres (CHCs), and other secondary care facilities. These services include diagnostic services, emergency care, specialist consultations, surgeries, and inpatient care for more complex health conditions.
• Government health expenditure in secondary care includes funding for the operation and maintenance of secondary care facilities, staffing of medical and paramedical personnel, medical equipment and technology, medicines and supplies, and support for specialized health programs.
• Examples of secondary care services funded by the government include obstetric care, surgical services, management of chronic diseases, diagnostic imaging, laboratory testing, and emergency medical services.

Tertiary Care

• Tertiary care refers to highly specialized medical services provided by tertiary care hospitals, medical colleges, teaching hospitals, and other advanced healthcare facilities. These services are typically delivered by specialized medical professionals, advanced medical technologies, and multidisciplinary teams.
• Government health expenditure in tertiary care includes funding for the operation and maintenance of tertiary care institutions, staffing of specialized healthcare professionals, procurement of advanced medical equipment and technology, research and training programs, and support for specialized treatment and rehabilitation services.
• Examples of tertiary care services funded by the government include organ transplantation, cancer treatment, cardiac surgery, neurosurgery, intensive care, rehabilitation services, and medical education and research.

8. How does India fare with other countries in terms of GDP expenditure of the health sector?

Accessing real-time data to make a definitive comparison is challenging, but here's some information to help you understand India's standing on health sector expenditure compared to other countries. According to the Economic Survey 2022-23, the central and state governments' budgeted expenditure on healthcare reached 2.1% of GDP in FY23.  This indicates an increase from previous years.

Global Comparison Challenges

• There can be discrepancies in how different countries define and measure health expenditure. This makes direct comparisons challenging.
• Some countries might have a lower public health expenditure but a high private health insurance penetration, leading to a higher overall health expenditure.
• World Bank Open Data provides data on health expenditure as a percentage of GDP for various countries.
• WHO Global Health Observatory offers health expenditure data by country. While it might not have the most recent information, it can be a helpful starting point for comparisons. 

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

ETHANOL BLENDING

 

1. Context

India has billed its ambitious push for E20 petrol — 20 per cent ethanol blended fuel — and a progressive move towards E27 to be a green leap forward. For car owners, especially those driving older models, the transition is proving to be a leap of faith instead, amid growing concerns around falling mileage and potential engine damage

 

2. Ethanol

• Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a type of alcohol commonly used as a biofuel and a key ingredient in alcoholic beverages.
• It is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and a slightly sweet taste.
• Ethanol has a wide range of applications and is produced through the fermentation of sugars by yeast or other microorganisms.

3. Ethanol Blending

• Ethanol blending refers to the practice of mixing ethanol with gasoline or other fuels to create a blended fuel.
• Ethanol is a biofuel derived from renewable sources such as sugarcane, corn, or other plant materials.
• It is commonly used as an additive to gasoline in various parts of the world to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote cleaner fuel options.
• In the context of transportation, the most common form of ethanol blending is with gasoline, creating a blend known as ethanol-gasoline blend or gasohol.
• The most common ethanol-gasoline blends are E10 and E15, indicating the percentage of ethanol in the mixture. For example, E10 contains 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline, while E15 contains 15% ethanol and 85% gasoline.

4. Benefits of Ethanol blending

• Ethanol is considered a renewable fuel because it is derived from plant materials that absorb carbon dioxide during their growth. When blended with gasoline, ethanol can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, as it emits fewer greenhouse gases compared to pure gasoline.
• By blending ethanol with gasoline, countries can reduce their reliance on imported fossil fuels and promote energy security.
• Ethanol has a higher octane rating than gasoline, which can improve engine performance and increase fuel efficiency.
• Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, providing economic benefits to farmers and rural communities.
• Ethanol-gasoline blends can help reduce harmful pollutants such as carbon monoxide and volatile organic compounds, contributing to improved air quality.
• Mixing 20 percent ethanol in petrol can potentially reduce the auto fuel import bill by a yearly $4 billion, or Rs 30,000 crore. 
• Another major benefit of ethanol blending is the extra income it gives to farmers. Ethanol is derived from sugarcane and also foodgrains. Hence, farmers can earn extra income by selling their surplus produce to ethanol blend manufacturers.

5. What is E20 Fuel?

• E20 fuel is a type of blended fuel that contains 20% ethanol and 80% gasoline.
• It is an ethanol-gasoline blend, similar to other common blends like E10 (10% ethanol) and E15 (15% ethanol).
• The percentage of ethanol in the blend is denoted by the "E" followed by the percentage of ethanol content.
• E20 fuel is considered a higher ethanol blend compared to E10 and E15, which are more widely available in various countries.
• The use of E20 is part of efforts to promote renewable fuels and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector.

6. Significance of E20 fuel

• Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Ethanol is derived from renewable plant sources, and blending it with gasoline can help reduce the carbon footprint of transportation fuels, contributing to efforts to combat climate change.
• Energy Security: By using more domestically produced ethanol, countries can reduce their dependence on imported fossil fuels and enhance energy security.
• Improved Engine Performance: Ethanol's higher octane rating can enhance engine performance and increase fuel efficiency in certain vehicles.
• Support for Agriculture: Ethanol production often relies on agricultural feedstocks, supporting farmers and rural economies.

7. Challenges in Ethanol Blending Programme

While ethanol blending in transportation fuels offers various benefits, there are several challenges that countries may face in implementing and sustaining a successful ethanol blending program. Some of these challenges include:

• Infrastructure and Distribution: Establishing the necessary infrastructure for blending and distributing ethanol-gasoline blends can be a significant challenge. This includes ensuring that fuel stations have the proper storage facilities and compatible pumps to dispense blended fuels.
• Compatibility with Vehicles: Not all vehicles are designed to run on high ethanol blends like E20 or E85. Older vehicles or vehicles from certain manufacturers may not be compatible with these blends, leading to potential engine damage or decreased performance.
• Fuel Quality and Standards: Maintaining consistent fuel quality is essential to prevent engine damage and ensure consumer confidence. Governments and fuel suppliers must adhere to strict quality standards and monitor the blending process to avoid issues with fuel performance.
• Feedstock Availability and Cost: The production of ethanol relies on agricultural feedstocks, such as corn, sugarcane, or other biomass. The availability and cost of these feedstocks can vary, affecting the overall cost of ethanol production and blending.
• Land Use and Food Security Concerns: Utilizing agricultural land for ethanol production can raise concerns about competing with food production and potentially impacting food security in some regions.
• Competing Uses for Ethanol: Ethanol has various applications beyond fuel blending, such as in the production of alcoholic beverages, pharmaceuticals, and industrial chemicals. Competing uses can influence the availability and cost of ethanol for blending.

8. National Biofuel Policy

• India has a National Policy on Biofuels, which was first introduced in 2009 and later revised in 2018.  The policy aims to promote the use of biofuels to reduce the country's dependence on fossil fuels, enhance energy security, promote sustainable development, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
• The policy encourages the blending of biofuels with conventional fossil fuels to create biofuel blends. It focuses on the production and utilization of first-generation biofuels like ethanol and biodiesel, as well as advanced biofuels made from non-food feedstock.
• The policy sets targets for blending biofuels with conventional fuels in the transportation sector. For instance, the policy aimed for a 20% ethanol blending in petrol and a 5% biodiesel blending in diesel by 2030.
• The policy emphasizes the development and promotion of second-generation biofuels, which are produced from non-food feedstock, such as agricultural residues, waste, and non-edible oils. This helps avoid competition with food crops and ensures sustainability.
• The policy supports research and development initiatives in the biofuels sector, aimed at improving production processes, enhancing feedstock availability, and developing cost-effective technologies for biofuel production.
• The policy focuses on creating a robust supply chain for biofuels, from feedstock cultivation and collection to biofuel production, distribution, and marketing. This helps in ensuring a smooth and efficient supply of biofuels across the country.

For Prelims: Ethanol Blending, E20 fuel, Greenhouse Gas Emission, National Policy on Biofuels, Food Security, and Gasoline. For Mains: 1. Discuss the benefits and challenges of ethanol blending in transportation fuels as a strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote renewable energy sources. (250 Words).

 

Previous year Question 1. According to India's National Policy on Biofuels, which of the following can be used as raw materials for the production of biofuels? (UPSC 2020) 1. Cassava 2. Damaged wheat grains 3. Groundnut seeds 4. Horse gram 5. Rotten potatoes 6. Sugar beet Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2, 5, and 6 only B. 1, 3, 4, and 6 only C. 2, 3, 4, and 5 only D. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 Answer: A

Source: The Indian Express

 

 

SATELLITE INTERNET 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

In today’s increasingly digitised world, internet connectivity is an absolute necessity, across both military and civilian domains. With Elon Musk’s Starlink about to make its debut very soon in India, internet infrastructure is going to fundamentally change.

 

 

2. Necessity of Satellite internet

 

 

• Ground-based internet systems, relying on cables and towers, remain the primary method of connectivity in densely populated cities. Yet, their dependence on extensive physical infrastructure makes them costly in sparsely inhabited areas and prone to damage from natural calamities like earthquakes or floods.
• They also fall short in delivering reliable service for mobile connectivity in isolated regions or temporary setups.
• Satellite internet addresses these shortcomings by offering wide-reaching, dependable coverage that operates independently of local terrain or ground infrastructure.
• It can be swiftly deployed to meet sudden spikes in demand and ensures seamless access for moving vehicles such as aircraft, as well as remote sites like offshore platforms.
• Far from being just a contingency option, satellite internet represents a transformative capability with significant implications for the global digital economy, public infrastructure, and defense strategies

 

3. Features of Satellite Internet

 

 

• The rise of satellite mega-constellations like Starlink marks the beginning of a new chapter in space-based internet services. These systems consist of hundreds or even thousands of satellites positioned just a few hundred kilometres above the Earth.
• Often described as “internet in the sky,” they have diverse applications spanning military operations, disaster relief, healthcare, agriculture, and transportation.
• However, their dual-use capability—serving both civilian and defence purposes—introduces complex security challenges.
• Recent events highlight the transformative potential of this technology. In 2017, Hurricane Harvey destroyed around 70% of cell towers along the Texas coast, making Viasat’s satellite internet essential for coordinating rescue efforts.
• In the ongoing Russia–Ukraine conflict, SpaceX’s Starlink has been critical to Ukrainian defence, enabling troop coordination, medical evacuations, and drone missions. Ukrainian forces have even mounted Starlink units on drones to counter Russian jamming.
• Likewise, the Indian Army’s deployment of satellite internet at the Siachen Glacier demonstrates its value in remote conflict zones.
• Yet, the technology’s global reach can also be exploited for illicit activities. Indian security agencies have intercepted smuggled Starlink devices used by insurgents and drug traffickers.
• Such developments illustrate that control over satellite internet systems is emerging as a strategic element of national power

 

4. How does satellite internet work?

 

• A satellite internet system comprises two main parts: the space segment and the ground segment. The space segment refers to the satellites operating in orbit, while the ground segment includes all Earth-based infrastructure that interacts with them.
• Satellites form the most expensive element of the system, equipped with communication payloads to transmit data and typically functioning for five to twenty years.
• Their placement demands precise planning, particularly regarding orbital altitude, which directly influences their performance and coverage.
• These satellites are generally positioned in one of three primary orbital zones: Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO), Medium Earth Orbit (MEO), or Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

 

5. Different satellites in different Orbits

 

 

• Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) satellites operate about 35,786 km above the equator, moving in sync with Earth’s rotation so they remain fixed over a single point on the surface. From this altitude, one GEO satellite can cover nearly a third of the planet—though the polar regions remain outside its reach.
• Viasat’s Global Xpress (GX) is a well-known example. Typically large in size, GEO satellites function as “bent-pipes,” relaying signals without processing them.
• Their major drawback is high signal latency due to the vast distance involved, making them unsuitable for activities that require real-time interaction, such as video conferencing or instant financial transactions.
• Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites are positioned between 2,000 km and 35,786 km above Earth, offering a middle ground between GEO and Low Earth Orbit (LEO) systems.
• They have lower latency than GEO satellites but still require a constellation for full global coverage.
• For example, the O3b MEO network consists of 20 satellites. However, their latency still limits their effectiveness for many time-critical applications, and like GEO satellites, they are relatively large and expensive to launch.
• Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites operate below 2,000 km, which allows for very low latency. Smaller in size—often comparable to a tabletop—they are cheaper and faster to deploy. Their key limitation is limited coverage; a single Starlink LEO satellite covers an area roughly the size of a large Indian city.
• To provide worldwide service, LEO networks form vast “mega-constellations” of hundreds or thousands of satellites. Starlink currently has over 7,000 satellites in orbit, with plans to expand to as many as 42,000

 

6. How does mega-constellation work?

 

• LEO mega-constellations use their large numbers to turn inherent drawbacks into advantages. These smaller satellites are equipped with on-board signal processing capabilities, which boost data transmission efficiency, enhance signal quality, and provide greater operational flexibility.
• This built-in intelligence reduces the complexity of ground-based user terminals, making them smaller, more affordable, and accessible for individual households.
• A major breakthrough in these systems is the adoption of optical inter-satellite links, enabling satellites to communicate directly with each other in space.
• This forms a fully interconnected “internet in the sky,” capable of routing data across the globe with minimal dependence on ground stations, thereby lowering latency and improving overall performance.
• Nonetheless, maintaining a constant connection poses challenges. Travelling at speeds of around 27,000 km/h, LEO satellites remain in a user’s line of sight for only a few minutes.
• Continuous service is achieved by seamlessly transferring the connection from one satellite to another, a process made possible by steerable antennas that can simultaneously track multiple users and ground stations—similar to moving spotlights following performers on a stage

 

7. Applications of Satellite Internet

 

 

• For end-users, modern LEO satellite internet represents a significant leap forward. The user equipment is now compact, easy to install, and requires no professional assistance.
• Despite being costlier than terrestrial broadband—terminals priced at roughly $500 and monthly plans starting near $50—the expense is often worthwhile for people in remote regions or industries where constant connectivity is essential.
• Looking ahead, accessibility is set to improve further. Companies such as AST SpaceMobile and Starlink are experimenting with direct-to-smartphone connectivity, which could eliminate the need for separate terminals altogether.
• As adoption grows, the necessary hardware may eventually be built directly into devices like smartphones and laptops.
• The potential applications are both wide-ranging and transformative. In communications, satellite internet can connect underserved regions and enable the Internet of Everything (IoE).
• In transport, it promises better navigation, support for autonomous vehicles, and enhanced logistics. In governance and disaster management, it can strengthen smart city infrastructure, issue early warnings, and coordinate relief operations.
• Healthcare can benefit from telemedicine and remote patient monitoring, while agriculture can use it for precision farming and crop health assessment. Additional uses span environmental tracking, energy exploration, tourism, and defence.
• However, alongside these opportunities come significant security and regulatory challenges. Nations increasingly view satellite internet as a strategic domain of power. For India, it is vital to create a robust strategy for integrating this technology into national resilience frameworks, using it to close the digital divide and boost economic growth.
• Moreover, active involvement in shaping global governance will be essential, as mega-constellations are set to define the future of worldwide connectivity and strategic influence

 

 

 

 

For Prelims: Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites, Starlink    For Mains: GS II & III - Governance, Cybersecurity and National Security

 

 

Previous Year Questions 1. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only B. 2 and 3 C. 1 and 2 D. 3 only Answer: A   2.A low earth orbit satellite can provide large signal strength at an earth station because: (ESE Electronics 2011) A. Path loss is low B. These orbits are immune to noise C. Large solar power can be generated at these orbits D. Lower microwave frequencies in s-band can be used   Answer-A

Source: The Hindu

 

BARRIERS FOR WOMEN'S WORKFORCE PARTICIPATION

 

 

 

 

1. Context

 

As India celebrates the 79th Independence Day this week, it is also a moment to reflect on the country’s journey towards inclusive growth. Over the years, women’s participation in the workforce has evolved. However, data shows that their participation varies across regions (such as rural and urban), types of work (such as blue- and grey-collar jobs and gig-based employment), etc.

 

 

2. Women's Participation in the Workforce

 

 

• Beyond age-related limitations, disabilities, and other circumstances that prevent working-age adults from joining the labour market, workforce participation in India also shows a pronounced gender disparity.
• Data from the 2022–2023 Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS), carried out by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, reveals that roughly 80% of men are engaged in the labour force, compared to only about 40% of women.
• India’s female labour force participation rate is still lower than that of several nations with similar income levels and stages of development, leading to a significant underrepresentation of women in economic activity. While many women do work, much of their contribution remains outside the formal economy and is not reflected in the country’s GDP.
• This gap is not limited to rural regions or to women with minimal education; a substantial proportion of urban women, including those holding graduate or postgraduate qualifications, are also absent from the formal workforce

 

3. Women in different colour jobs

 

 

• In most professions, the process of formalising and professionalising work tends to offer men greater job opportunities compared to women, a trend especially visible in blue- and grey-collar occupations.
• Data from the PLFS 2022–2023 shows that women’s share in such roles rose from 16% in FY 2020–21 to 19% in FY 2023–24. While this indicates some improvement, women’s presence in these jobs remains limited.
• Blue- and grey-collar positions generally involve manual or technical tasks across sectors such as construction, retail, logistics, manufacturing, transportation, and maintenance.
• These jobs often demand physical effort, technical know-how, or mechanical skills, typically acquired through vocational education or apprenticeships. The work environment is usually field-based, including factories, workshops, and construction sites.
• According to Indeed’s 2025 survey, women account for only about 20% of India’s blue- and grey-collar workforce.
• Likewise, the Udaiti Foundation, in collaboration with Quess Corp Ltd., in its report State of Women in the Blue-Grey Collar Workforce 2025, underlines persistent structural challenges in the sector and stresses the urgency of targeted policy action

 

4. Structural Barriers

 

 

• While laws grant women equal rights, real-world conditions still hinder their participation in the labour market. These challenges are largely structural in nature.
• Factors such as inflexible work timings, pay disparities, limited access to training and skill development, insufficient digital literacy, inadequate workplace safety standards, and the burden of household and childcare responsibilities significantly restrict women’s entry into and retention in the workforce—especially in blue- and grey-collar sectors.
• Many such jobs demand long, fixed shifts, and social attitudes within families often discourage women from pursuing them. The combination of unpaid domestic duties and paid employment further disadvantages women.
• Wage inequality is another persistent hurdle, with gender-based pay gaps compelling some women to withdraw from employment altogether. This disparity is a global concern, reflecting deep-seated inequities in labour markets.
• According to the Bureau of Labour Statistics, in 2024, women globally earned about $0.83 for every dollar earned by men—translating to a 17% pay gap

 

 

5. Gender as a general barrier

 

• The Udaiti Foundation’s findings show that women working in India’s blue- and grey-collar sectors earn only around 70% of what men receive for similar work. Half of these women are dissatisfied with their wages, and as many as 80% manage to save less than ₹2,000 per month—or, in many cases, nothing at all.
• Beyond lower earnings, issues such as poor work-life balance, male-dominated workplace environments, and a lack of respect and recognition drive many women to leave these jobs.
• The report notes that over half (52%) of women with less than a year of experience intend to resign within the next 12 months. Low wages, unsafe working conditions, and limited prospects offer women little reason to remain in such roles.
• However, the most significant obstacle remains gender bias. Many employers hold the view that women are incapable of performing physically demanding work. This perception, combined with assumptions that women prioritise domestic and childcare duties, discourages hiring.
• Additionally, reluctance to provide maternity benefits and other entitlements further reduces the willingness of employers to recruit women in these sectors

 

6. Rise of Gig Economy

 

• The growth of the gig-platform economy has also deepened gender inequalities in employment. Roles such as driving and delivery are largely dominated by men and are often considered unsafe or socially unacceptable for women, further reinforced by societal stigma.
• Research by economists like Uma Rani indicates that while gig platforms market themselves as offering flexibility and empowerment, they often reproduce pre-existing gender biases.
• Women are concentrated in lower-paying gig roles, such as domestic work or beauty services, while men dominate higher-paying segments like delivery and transportation.
• Women’s limited access to public spaces—especially after dark—adds another layer of restriction. Since platform work relies heavily on mobility, a factor that has historically limited Indian women’s workforce participation, these constraints are amplified.
• Studies also show that commuting experiences in urban settings are shaped by gender, influencing women’s employment choices and opportunities.
• Transport inequities are further compounded by caste and class, as women from marginalised communities often reside in peripheral areas with inadequate public transport, making access to such jobs even more difficult

 

7. Regional identity-based variations

 

 

• Women’s workforce participation in India also varies by region and social identity. According to the PLFS, the unemployment rate among women has risen from 2.9% to 3.2%, with much of this increase driven by educated rural women unable to secure jobs in the blue- and grey-collar sectors.
• This is often due to gaps in digital literacy and vocational training. Historically, upper-caste women have exhibited lower participation in the labour market—particularly in manual or technical jobs—because such work is perceived as low in status, prompting families to discourage them from taking employment outside the home. Cultural restrictions similarly limit the participation of Muslim upper-caste women.
• By contrast, women from lower castes generally have higher participation rates, though mostly in informal, low-paying, and low-skilled jobs, reflecting their compounded social and economic vulnerabilities.
• These patterns have been studied extensively by sociologists and economists, including Mukesh Eswaran, Bharat Ramaswami, and Wilima Wadhwa in Status, Caste, and the Time Allocation of Women in Rural India (2013), and Muzna Fatima Alvi in Caste, Religion and the Labour Force Participation of Women: Evidence from India (2023).
• Further, research by Arun Kumar Bairwa and Jadhav Chakradhar in Caste Affiliation and Access to High-Authority Jobs in the Indian Service Sector (2024) reveals persistent disparities in access to senior-level positions between lower- and upper-caste groups

 

8. Possible solutions for all the challenges

 

 

• Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach that tackles structural, cultural, and economic barriers simultaneously. Enforcing and implementing a robust minimum wage framework can play a significant role in narrowing gender-based pay gaps.
• Employment policies must also account for childcare and maternity expenses to encourage greater female workforce participation.
• Workplace safety is another critical concern, as many job sites still lack essentials such as CCTV surveillance and proper lighting. Improving infrastructure by ensuring safe sanitation facilities, accessible childcare, and women-friendly amenities is essential.
• Providing transport and accommodation options for female employees can further boost retention rates.
• On the policy front, there needs to be a stronger focus on vocational and skills training for women—particularly in rural areas—paired with effective systems to connect skilled women to suitable employment opportunities.
• Additionally, many field-based jobs lack formal grievance redressal mechanisms. Establishing such systems would give women the confidence to report issues and trust that their complaints will be addressed.
• Increasing transparency in recruitment processes, instead of relying heavily on referrals or word-of-mouth—which often deters women from applying—would also help. Finally, strengthening and expanding labour laws, with provisions for formal contracts and social security, would reinforce these measures

 

 

 

For Prelims: Periodic Labour Force Survey, National Sample Survey Office, labour force participation rate, worker population ratio For Mains: 1. Examine the changing nature of employment in India, as reflected in the increasing share of self-employment and the declining proportion of regular salaried jobs. Discuss the implications of this shift for the quality and sustainability of employment. (250 Words)

 

Previous Year Questions 1. Given below are two statements, one is labeled as Assertion (A) and the other as Reason (R). (UPPSC 2019) Assertion (A): The labour force participation rate is falling sharply in recent years for females in India. Reason (R): The decline in labour force participation rate is due to improved family income and an increase in education. Select the correct answer from the codes given below: Codes: A. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A) B. Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the correct explanation of (A) C. (A) is true, but (R) is false D. (A) is false, but (R) is true     2. Which of the following statements about the employment situation in India according to the periodic Labour Force Survey 2017-18 is/are correct? (UPSC CAPF 2020) 1. Construction sector gave employment to nearly one-tenth of the urban male workforce in India 2. Nearly one-fourth of urban female workers in India were working in the manufacturing sector 3. One-fourth of rural female workers in India were engaged in the agriculture sector Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 2 only       B. 1 and 2 only            C. 1 and 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3     3. Disguised unemployment generally means (UPSC 2013) (a) large number of people remain unemployed (b) alternative employment is not available (c) marginal productivity of labour is zero (d) productivity of workers is low   4.  Assertion (A): Workers - population ratio in India is low in contrast to that in developed countries. Reason (R): Rapid growth of population, low female worker population rate and omission of unpaid family workers lead to low worker-population ratio. Choose the correct answer: (Telangana Police SI Mains 2018) A. (A) is true, but (R) is false. B. (A) is false, but (R) is true. C. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not a correct explanation of (A). D. Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is the correct explanation of (A). Answers: 1-C, 2-B, 3-C, 4-D Mains 1. Most of the unemployment in India is structural in nature. Examine the methodology adopted to compute unemployment in the country and suggest improvements. (UPSC 2023)

Source: The Indian Express