• The Chief Election Commissioner and Other Election Commissioners (Appointment, Conditions of Service, and Term of Office) Bill, 2023, was introduced in Rajya Sabha on August 10, 2023.  It repeals the Election Commission (Conditions of Service of Election Commissioners and Transaction of Business) Act, 1991.

• Election Commission: As per Article 324 of the Constitution, the Election Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and such number of other Election Commissioners (ECs), as the President may decide.  The CEC and other ECs are appointed by the President.  The Bill specifies the same composition of the Election Commission.  It adds that the CEC and other ECs will be appointed by the President on the recommendation of a Selection Committee.

• Selection Committee: The Selection Committee will consist of (i) the Prime Minister as Chairperson, (ii) the Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha as a member, and (iii) a Union Cabinet Minister nominated by the Prime Minister as a member.  If the Leader of the Opposition in Lok Sabha has not been recognized, the leader of the single largest opposition party in Lok Sabha will assume the role.

• Search Committee: A Search Committee will prepare a panel of five persons for the consideration of the Selection Committee.  The Search Committee will be headed by the Cabinet Secretary.  It will have two other members, not below the rank of Secretary to the central government, having knowledge and experience in matters related to elections.  The Selection Committee may also consider candidates who have not been included in the panel prepared by the Search Committee.

• Qualification of CEC and ECs: Persons who are holding or have held posts equivalent to the rank of Secretary to the central government will be eligible to be appointed as CEC and ECs.   Such persons must have expertise in managing and conducting elections.

• Salary and allowances: The 1991 Act provides that the salary of the ECs will be equal to that of a Supreme Court judge.  The Bill provides that the salary, allowance, and service conditions of the CEC and other ECs will be the same as that of the Cabinet Secretary.

• Term of office: The 1991 Act mandates that the CEC and other ECs will hold office for a term of six years or until they reach the age of 65 years, whichever is earlier.  If an EC is appointed as the CEC, his total term cannot exceed six years.  The Bill retains the same tenure.  Further, under the Bill, the CEC and other ECs will not be eligible for re-appointment.

• Conduct of business: All business of the Election Commission is to be conducted unanimously.  In case of a difference of opinion between the CEC and the other ECs on any matter, it shall be decided through the majority.

• Removal and resignation: Under Article 324 of the Constitution, the CEC can only be removed from his office in a manner similar to that of a Supreme Court judge.  This is done through an order of the President, based on a motion passed by both Houses of Parliament in the same session. The motion for removal must be adopted with (i) majority support of total membership of each House, and (ii) at least two-thirds support from members present and voting.  An EC can only be removed from office on the recommendation of the CEC.  The Bill retains this removal procedure.

• Further, the 1991 Act provides that the CEC and other ECs may submit their resignation to the President.  The Bill has the same provision. 

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is an autonomous constitutional authority responsible for administering election processes in India at both the national and state levels. Its primary functions are to conduct free and fair elections to the Lok Sabha (House of the People), Rajya Sabha (Council of States), State Legislative Assemblies, and State Legislative Councils. Here are some key points about the Election Commission of India:

• Constitutional Body: The Election Commission of India is a constitutional body established under Article 324 of the Indian Constitution. It was set up in 1950.
• Independence: The Election Commission is designed to be an independent and impartial body. The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and other Election Commissioners are appointed by the President of India and can only be removed through impeachment by the Parliament.
• Composition: The Election Commission consists of a Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) and a maximum of two Election Commissioners, although it can function with just the CEC.
• Election Management: The ECI is responsible for overseeing all aspects of election management, including voter registration, candidate nominations, the conduct of elections, and the counting of votes.
• Electoral Rolls: It maintains and updates the electoral rolls (voter lists) for all elections in the country. Ensuring the accuracy of these rolls is essential for fair elections.
• EVMs and VVPATs: The ECI oversees the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs) to ensure transparency and accuracy in the voting process.
• Code of Conduct: It enforces the Model Code of Conduct during elections, which sets ethical standards and guidelines for political parties and candidates during the election period.
• Delimitation: The ECI is responsible for delimitation (redefining) of constituencies, which is done periodically to ensure equitable representation.
• Election Observers: The ECI appoints election observers to monitor the conduct of elections and report any violations.
• Educational Programs: It conducts voter education and awareness programs to encourage voter participation and inform citizens about the electoral process.
• Advisory Role: The ECI provides advice to the President of India and the Governors of States on matters related to disqualification of members of Parliament and State Legislatures.
• Regulatory Functions: The ECI also registers political parties and allocates symbols to them. It monitors campaign finance and enforces rules related to political donations and expenditures.
• Transparency: The ECI strives to ensure transparency, fairness, and integrity in the electoral process to uphold the principles of democracy in India.

The Election Commission plays a crucial role in the functioning of Indian democracy by ensuring that elections are conducted fairly and that the voice of the people is accurately represented in government.

4. Powers and Functions

The Election Commission of India (ECI) is vested with a wide range of powers and functions to ensure the conduct of free and fair elections in India. These powers and functions are outlined in the Indian Constitution and various election-related laws. Here are the key powers and functions of the Election Commission of India:

• Conducting Elections: The ECI is responsible for conducting elections to the Lok Sabha (House of the People), Rajya Sabha (Council of States), State Legislative Assemblies, and State Legislative Councils.
• Electoral Rolls: The ECI prepares and maintains the electoral rolls (voter lists) for all elections in India. It ensures the accuracy and completeness of these rolls.
• Delimitation: The ECI conducts delimitation exercises to define the boundaries and constituencies of electoral areas to ensure equitable representation.
• Election Schedule: It determines the schedule for elections, including the dates for filing nominations, polling, and vote counting.
• Model Code of Conduct: The ECI enforces the Model Code of Conduct (MCC) during elections, which sets ethical standards and guidelines for political parties and candidates during the election period.
• Registration of Political Parties: The ECI registers political parties and allocates symbols to them. It also monitors compliance with the rules and regulations governing political parties.
• Campaign Finance: It monitors and regulates campaign finance, including political donations, election expenditure, and the submission of audited financial reports by political parties.
• Election Observers: The ECI appoints election observers to monitor the conduct of elections, report any violations, and ensure the smooth functioning of the electoral process.
• EVMs and VVPATs: The ECI is responsible for the deployment and maintenance of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) and Voter Verified Paper Audit Trails (VVPATs) to ensure transparency and accuracy in the voting process.
• Voter Education: It conducts voter education and awareness programs to educate citizens about the importance of voting, the electoral process, and their voting rights.
• Disqualification of Members: The ECI advises the President of India and the Governors of States on matters related to the disqualification of members of Parliament and State Legislatures.
• Advisory Role: The ECI provides advice and recommendations to the President and Governors on various electoral matters and issues related to the election process.
• Monitoring and Enforcement: The ECI monitors political activities, party campaigns, and the conduct of elections to ensure compliance with electoral laws and regulations.
• Transparency and Accountability: It ensures transparency and accountability in the electoral process to maintain public confidence in the integrity of elections.
• Overseeing By-Elections: The ECI conducts by-elections (also known as bye-elections) to fill vacant seats in legislatures.
• Counting and Declaration of Results: The ECI oversees the counting of votes and the declaration of election results, ensuring transparency and accuracy.
• Redressal of Election-related Disputes: The ECI also plays a role in the adjudication of election disputes, along with other competent authorities.

These powers and functions empower the Election Commission of India to fulfill its crucial role in upholding the principles of democracy and ensuring that elections are conducted in a fair, transparent, and impartial manner in the world's largest democracy.

VOLCANOES

 

 

1. Context

Lava flows from a volcano in Iceland were slowing down on Wednesday (December 20), although new vents could open at short notice, according to the Icelandic Meteorological Office. The volcano, which is known as Fagradalsfjall and located on the Reykjanes peninsula in southwest Iceland, erupted on Monday (December 18) after weeks of intense earthquakes and tremors.

 

2. Merapi volcano in West Sumatra and “Ring of Fire”

The Marapi volcano, located in West Sumatra, Indonesia, is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The Ring of Fire is a horseshoe-shaped area in the Pacific Ocean basin where a large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur. It's characterized by active tectonic plate boundaries, including subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is forced beneath another.

Marapi is one of Indonesia's most active volcanoes and stands about 2,891 meters (9,485 feet) tall. It's situated near the city of Bukittinggi and has a history of frequent eruptions. While some of its eruptions have been relatively small and non-explosive, it has occasionally produced more significant eruptions with ash plumes and pyroclastic flows.

The region surrounding Marapi and much of Indonesia, in general, is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire due to the complex tectonic activity in the area. The Indo-Australian Plate is subducting beneath the Eurasian Plate, leading to seismic and volcanic activity along the Sumatran Fault and other associated fault lines.

The Pacific Ring of Fire is known for its high seismic and volcanic activity, housing a majority of the world's active volcanoes and experiencing a large number of earthquakes. This area's geological dynamics make it prone to geological hazards, but it also provides valuable insights into plate tectonics and volcanic activity for scientific research

3. Volcanoes and Volcanic Landforms

Volcanoes are natural features on Earth's surface that form when magma (molten rock beneath the Earth's crust) erupts through openings or vents. The erupted materials, including lava, ash, gases, and pyroclastic flows, accumulate around the vent, building up and forming various volcanic landforms. Here are some key volcanic landforms:

Shield Volcanoes: These are broad, gently sloping volcanoes characterized by their low viscosity lava, which flows easily. They're built up by numerous eruptions of thin, runny lava. Examples include Mauna Loa in Hawaii and the Galápagos Islands' volcanoes.

Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes): These are steep-sided, conical volcanoes built by multiple layers of lava, ash, and volcanic rocks. They are often associated with explosive eruptions due to their viscous lava. Famous examples include Mount St. Helens in the United States, Mount Fuji in Japan, and Mount Vesuvius in Italy.

Cinder Cone Volcanoes: These are small, steep-sided volcanoes formed from ejected lava fragments that pile up around the vent. They usually have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit. Paricutin in Mexico is a well-known cinder cone volcano.

Calderas: These are large, basin-shaped depressions formed after massive eruptions, where the volcano's summit collapses into the emptied magma chamber. Crater Lake in Oregon, USA, is a prime example of a caldera.

Lava Plateaus: These are vast flat areas created by successive lava flows that cover large areas of land. The Deccan Plateau in India and the Columbia River Plateau in the United States are examples of lava plateaus.

Volcanic Islands: Many islands around the world, like Hawaii, Japan, and the Philippines, were formed by volcanic activity. These islands were created as volcanoes erupted underwater and gradually built up above sea level.

Volcanic Craters: Formed at the summit of some volcanoes, these bowl-shaped depressions are created either by explosions or the collapse of the volcano's summit following an eruption.

Volcanic landforms vary based on factors like the type of eruption, the composition of the lava, and the frequency of eruptions. They contribute significantly to the Earth's landscape and often provide fertile soils and valuable resources, while also posing risks to nearby populations due to potential eruptions and associated hazards

4. Types of Volcanoes

Volcanoes come in various types, each formed by different eruptive processes and materials. Here are the main types of volcanoes:

Shield Volcanoes: These volcanoes have broad, gentle slopes due to the relatively fluid lava (low viscosity) they produce. Eruptions from shield volcanoes tend to be non-explosive and result in the flowing of lava over large distances. Examples include Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea in Hawaii.

Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes): Stratovolcanoes are tall, steep-sided cones formed by alternating layers of lava, ash, and volcanic rocks. They often produce explosive eruptions due to the higher viscosity of their lava. Mount St. Helens in the United States and Mount Fuji in Japan are examples of stratovolcanoes.

Cinder Cone Volcanoes: These small, steep-sided volcanoes are formed from the accumulation of pyroclastic material (such as ash, cinders, and volcanic rocks) ejected during eruptions. They usually have a bowl-shaped crater at the summit. Paricutin in Mexico is a famous cinder cone volcano.

Lava Domes: Lava domes are created by the slow extrusion of highly viscous lava. They form rounded mounds often found within the craters of larger volcanoes. Lava domes, such as Mount St. Helens' post-eruption dome, can be highly unstable and prone to collapse.

Complex Volcanoes: These are composite volcanoes that exhibit multiple vents and overlapping cones. They're formed by the accumulation of materials from various eruptions over time. Mount Rainier in the United States is an example of a complex volcano.

Submarine Volcanoes: Found underwater, these volcanoes create seamounts or volcanic islands. They can form chains, like the Hawaiian-Emperor seamount chain, as tectonic plates move over hotspots beneath the Earth's crust.

Supervolcanoes: These are rare but extremely powerful volcanoes capable of producing colossal eruptions. They form immense calderas after catastrophic explosions that empty the magma chamber. Yellowstone Caldera in the United States is an example of a supervolcano

5. Relation among Plate Tectonics, Volcanoes and Earthquake 

Plate tectonics, volcanoes, and earthquakes are interconnected and are all part of the Earth's dynamic processes.

Plate Tectonics: The Earth's lithosphere (the outermost layer) is divided into several large and small plates that float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them. These plates are in constant motion, driven by forces like mantle convection, and this movement is known as plate tectonics.

Volcanoes: Volcanoes are closely associated with plate boundaries, where tectonic plates interact. There are three primary types of plate boundaries:

• • Divergent Boundaries: At divergent boundaries, plates move away from each other. Magma from the mantle rises to fill the gap, solidifies, and creates new crust. This process forms mid-ocean ridges, where underwater volcanoes and volcanic activity occur.

  • Convergent Boundaries: At convergent boundaries, plates move toward each other. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental plate or another oceanic plate, the denser oceanic plate sinks beneath the lighter plate in a process called subduction. The sinking plate melts as it descends into the mantle, leading to the formation of magma that rises to the surface, resulting in explosive volcanoes. Examples include the Andes and the Cascades.

  • Transform Boundaries: At transform boundaries, plates slide past each other horizontally. While these boundaries are not associated with volcanic activity directly, the stress buildup and release along these boundaries often cause earthquakes.

Earthquakes: Earthquakes occur due to the movement and release of stress along faults, which are fractures in the Earth's crust. Tectonic plate movements generate enormous amounts of energy that cause the Earth's crust to crack along these faults, resulting in seismic waves, or vibrations, that we feel as earthquakes.

Thus, the movement and interaction of tectonic plates at plate boundaries create conditions conducive to both volcanic eruptions and seismic activity (earthquakes). The locations and types of volcanoes and earthquakes are influenced by the specific plate boundary and the nature of the plate movement at that boundary. Overall, plate tectonics serve as the underlying mechanism that connects the occurrence of volcanoes and earthquakes on Earth

6. How can volcanic eruptions affect the environment and natural ecosystem?

Volcanic eruptions can have significant impacts on the environment and natural ecosystems in several ways:

Air Quality: Eruptions release gases such as sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and others. These gases can contribute to air pollution, leading to acid rain formation, smog, and the potential for respiratory issues in humans and animals.

Climate Effects: Volcanic ash and gases can reach the upper atmosphere, where sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapor to form sulfuric acid aerosols. These aerosols can reflect sunlight, leading to a cooling effect on the Earth's surface. However, this effect is temporary and can be followed by a period of warming due to greenhouse gases emitted during the eruption.

Ash Fallout: Volcanic ash can blanket large areas, affecting vegetation by blocking sunlight, damaging crops, and contaminating water sources. Heavy ashfall can collapse roofs, disrupt transportation, and damage infrastructure.

Lahars and Mudflows: Eruptions can melt snow and ice on a volcano's slopes, generating lahars (volcanic mudflows) that carry debris, ash, and rocks downslope, potentially devastating nearby communities and ecosystems.

Ecosystem Disturbance: Volcanic eruptions can destroy habitats, vegetation, and animal populations. However, some ecosystems are adapted to volcanic activity and may even benefit from the nutrient-rich volcanic soils that support new growth over time.

Water Contamination: Ash and volcanic materials can contaminate water sources, affecting aquatic life and making water unsafe for consumption.

Global Effects: Major volcanic eruptions, especially so-called "supervolcano" eruptions, can release vast amounts of ash and gases into the atmosphere, potentially leading to short-term global climate effects, including temperature drops and altered weather patterns

 

 

For Prelims: Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World For Mains: General Studies I: Important Geophysical phenomena such as earthquakes, Tsunami, Volcanic activity, cyclone etc., geographical features and their location-changes in critical geographical features and in flora and fauna and the effects of such changes

 

Source: Indianexpress

XPOSAT MISSION 

 

 

1. Context

 

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is likely to usher in the New Year, with the launch of its first polarimetry mission XPoSat likely on January 1, according to persons in the know of the matter. It will become the country’s third space-based observatory after the recently launched solar mission Aditya-L1 and AstroSat launched in 2015.

 

2. What is India’s first polarimetry mission?

 

India's first polarimetry mission is called XPoSat, which stands for X-ray Polarimeter Satellite. It is a significant accomplishment for the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and is the world's second space mission dedicated to measuring the polarization of light, following NASA's Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) launched in 2021. 

 

3. What is the XPoSat mission?

 

XPoSat (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite) is India's first dedicated polarimetry mission, scheduled to launch in 2024 aboard a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV). Its primary objective is to study the dynamics of bright astronomical X-ray sources in extreme conditions, such as:

• Black holes are incredibly massive objects that warp spacetime and have immense gravitational pulls.
• Neutron stars are incredibly dense remnants of collapsed stars that spin at incredibly fast rates and have powerful magnetic fields.
• Active galactic nuclei (AGNs) are the incredibly bright cores of galaxies, powered by supermassive black holes.
• Pulsar wind nebulae are clouds of gas and plasma ejected by pulsars, rapidly rotating neutron stars that emit beams of radiation.
   

How XPoSat work?

The satellite carries two scientific payloads

1. POLIX (Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays): This instrument measures the degree and angle of polarization of X-rays from celestial sources. X-ray polarization reveals the geometry and magnetic field properties of the source, providing valuable insights into its inner workings.
2. XSPECT (X-ray Spectroscopy and Timing): This instrument gathers spectroscopic information within a different energy range, complementing POLIX data and offering a more comprehensive understanding of the source.

 

Benefits of XPoSat

By studying the polarization of X-rays, XPoSat will:

• Unravel the mysteries of extreme environments: It will provide new insights into the physical processes occurring near black holes, neutron stars, and AGNs.
• Probe the nature of magnetic fields: X-ray polarization is sensitive to magnetic fields, allowing XPoSat to map and characterize these fields in extreme environments.
• Advance our understanding of particle acceleration: X-ray polarization can trace the paths of high-energy particles ejected from these objects, helping us understand how they are accelerated to such immense speeds.
• Contribute to the field of astrophysics: The mission's findings will contribute significantly to our understanding of the universe's most energetic and fascinating objects.

 

4. What are X-rays?

 

X-rays are a type of electromagnetic radiation, like visible light, but with much shorter wavelengths and higher energy. Imagine light on a spectrum, with radio waves at one end and gamma rays at the other. X-rays occupy a middle ground, roughly between ultraviolet light and gamma rays.

• Penetrating power: X-rays can pass through some materials, like bones and tissues, but not others, like metals and lead. This property is why they're used in medical imaging, revealing internal structures while leaving flesh mostly transparent.
• High energy: X-rays pack a punch! Their high energy allows them to interact with matter in unique ways, causing electrons to jump to higher energy levels or even be ejected from atoms. This interaction is crucial for capturing X-ray images and studying the universe's most energetic phenomena.

 

Witnessing X-Rays in Space

While our atmosphere blocks X-rays from reaching Earth's surface, they abound in the vast expanse of space. Here are some ways we witness these cosmic X-rays:

• Stars and Stellar Remnants: Our own Sun emits X-rays, and much more energetic ones come from stars many times hotter and larger. Supernovae, the explosive deaths of massive stars, and black holes, the ultimate gravitational behemoths, are major sources of X-rays in the universe.
• Active Galactic Nuclei (AGNs): These incredibly bright centres of galaxies, powered by supermassive black holes, generate intense X-ray radiation as matter falls into the black hole's gravitational maw.
• Clusters of Galaxies: Where massive galaxies gather, hot gas between them can reach millions of degrees, emitting X-rays that reveal the structure and dynamics of these galactic clusters.

 

Unveiling the Mysteries of the Universe

Observing X-rays in space is crucial for understanding various cosmic phenomena:

• Studying extreme environments: X-rays tell us about the hot, dense regions around black holes, neutron stars, and AGNs, where matter behaves in exotic ways.
• Mapping the universe: By analyzing X-ray emissions from different celestial objects, astronomers can map the large-scale structure of the universe and trace the evolution of galaxies and clusters.
• Understanding cosmic processes: X-rays reveal how stars form and die, how black holes feed and grow, and how galaxies interact with each other.

To witness these celestial X-rays, special telescopes are needed. Unlike optical telescopes that capture visible light, X-ray telescopes have detectors sensitive to X-ray wavelengths. Some are positioned above Earth's atmosphere in satellites, like the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the XMM-Newton, while others are balloons or sounding rockets that briefly reach high altitudes.

 

 

5. About Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

 

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is the national space agency of India, established in 1969. It stands as a beacon of innovation and progress, propelling India into the elite club of nations with advanced spacefaring capabilities. Let's delve into its vibrant history, remarkable achievements, and exciting upcoming missions.

Background

• Vision: "To harness the potential of space technology for national development and to use space for the benefit of humanity."
• Mission: "To advance space science and technology, develop application missions for socio-economic benefits, explore the universe and planetary bodies, and promote international cooperation in space activities."
• Key areas of focus: Satellite technology, launch vehicle technology, space science and exploration, and space applications.

Achievements

• One of the six largest space agencies in the world: Possesses full launch capabilities, operates a large fleet of satellites, deploys cryogenic engines, and carries out extraterrestrial missions.
• Over 100 successful satellite launches: Spanning communication, navigation, earth observation, and scientific satellites.
• Development of advanced launch vehicles: The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) have placed numerous satellites in orbit.
• Chandrayaan-1 lunar probe: India's first lunar mission, making significant discoveries about the lunar surface.
• Mangalyaan-1 Mars orbiter mission: A historic milestone, making India the first Asian nation to reach Mars.
• International collaborations: Partnering with other space agencies on projects like the Mars Orbiter Mission (with NASA) and Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission (with Japan).

Impact on India

• Technological advancements: Spurred progress in electronics, materials science, and robotics.
• Improved communication infrastructure: Communication satellites connect remote areas, bridging the digital divide.
• Enhanced disaster management: Earth observation satellites provide real-time data for monitoring natural disasters and coordinating relief efforts.
• Economic growth: Space technology applications create jobs and boost sectors like agriculture and healthcare.

Upcoming Missions

• Chandrayaan-3 lunar mission: Scheduled for launch in 2024, aiming to land a rover on the Moon's south polar region.
• Gaganyaan human spaceflight program: Targeting 2024, sending an Indian astronaut into space for the first time.
• Missions to Mars and Venus: Exploring the feasibility of future missions to these planets.
• Development of reusable launch vehicles: Reducing the cost of space missions and making them more sustainable.
• Continued research and development in space science and technology: Furthering India's spacefaring capabilities and contributing to global scientific understanding.

 

For Prelims: Indian Space Research Organisation, polarimetry mission,  XPoSat,  Aditya-L1, AstroSat, Black holes, Neutron stars, Active galactic nuclei (AGNs), Pulsar wind nebulae,  Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV), Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV), Chandrayaan-2 lunar mission,  For Mains:  1. Analyze the potential benefits of XPoSat in advancing our understanding of extreme environments in space. (250 Words) 2. Explore the potential contributions of future Mars and Venus missions to India's space exploration endeavours. (250 Words) 3. Discuss the impact of ISRO on India's technological advancements, communication infrastructure, and disaster management. (250 Words) 4. Discuss the importance of studying X-rays in space and how they contribute to our understanding of cosmic phenomena. (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. In the context of space technology, what is "Bhuvan", recently in the news?  (UPSC 2010)  A. A mini satellite, launched by ISRO for promoting the distance educa­tion in India B. The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayan-II C. A geoportal of ISRO with 3 D imaging capabilities of India D. A space telescope developed by India   2. What will be India's second moon mission by ISRO? (Maharashtra Talathi  2019)  A. Chandrayaan 1          B. Chandrayaan 1.A       C. Chandrayaan 2          D. Chandrayaan 3   3. Chandrayaan - 2 was launched from which of the following states by ISRO? (DSSSB LDC 2019)  A. Maharashtra           B.  Rajasthan             C.  Kerala             D.  Andhra Pradesh   4. The phases of the moon as we see from the Earth are due to changing relative positions of the sun, the earth and the moon. Which of the following statements is true?  (CTET  2022)   A. on a full moon day, the earth comes between the sun and the moon B. on a new moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun C. on a full moon day, the moon is in between the earth and the sun D. on a new moon day, the earth is between the sun and the moon. E. on a new moon day, the sun is between the moon and the earth  A. A, B          B.  B, C          C. C, D          D. A, E   5. ISRO is related to:  (SSC JE EE  2020)  A. space research          B. agricultural research           C. seed research        D. marine research 6. “The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to (UPSC 2020)  A. Voyager-2          B. New Horizons          C. LISA Pathfinder          D. Evolved LISA   7. With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2018) 1. PSLVs launch satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites. 2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth. 3. GSLV Mk III is a four- staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? A. 1 only       B. 2 and 3           C. 1 and 2            D. 3 only     8. ‘Black hole’ is a (NDA  2019) (UPPSC 2019) A. huge black star which has zero acceleration due to gravity on its surface B. star which has moderate acceleration due to gravity on its surface C. star which has collapsed into itself and has large acceleration due to gravity on its surface D. star which has collapsed into itself and has zero acceleration due to gravity on its surface    9. Which of the following pairs is/are correctly matched? (UPSC 2014) Spacecraft                                 Purpose Cassini-Huygens              Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth Messenger                        Mapping and investigating the Mercury Voyager 1 and 2               Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only       (b) 2 and 3 only            (c) 1 and 3 only           (d) 1, 2 and 3   10. Aditya L1 is a ______. (ISRO IPRC Technical Assistant Mechanical 2016)  A. Long-range missile B. Rocket to moon C. Spacecraft project D. Light combat aircraft     11. With reference to 'Astrosat', the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct? (UPSC 2016) 1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space. 2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 only           B.  2 only          C. Both 1 and 2         D. Neither 1 nor 2     12. If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth? (UPSC 2022) 1. GPS and navigation systems could fail. 2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions. 3. Power grids could be damaged. 4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth. 5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet. 6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed. 7. Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted. Select the correct answer using the code given below: A. 1, 2, 4 and 5 only    B. 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only    C.  1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only    D.  1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7     13. A spinning neutron star emits radio-wave and is called (Maha TAIT 2017) A. Supernova        B. Pulsar            C. White dwarf          D. Protostar     14. Consider the following pairs:  (UPSC 2023) Objects in space   Description (1) Cepheids          Giant clouds of dust and gas in space (2) Nebulae            Stars which brighten and dim periodically (3) Pulsars            Neutron stars that are formed when massive stars run out of fuel and collapse How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? A. Only one             B. Only two          C. All three          D. None   Answers: 1-C, 2-C, 3-D, 4-A, 5-A, 6-D, 7-A, 8-C, 9-B, 10-C, 11-D, 12-C, 13-B, 14-A   Mains 1. India has achieved remarkable successes in unmanned space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbiter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space missions, both in terms of technology and logistics. Explain critically (UPSC 2017) 2. Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development? (UPSC 2016)

 

 

Source: The Indian Express

EARTHQUAKE

 

1. Context

A state of emergency has been declared in Iceland, after a swarm of 800 earthquakes rocked the island country’s southwestern Reykjanes peninsula in under 14 hours

 

2. What is an Earthquake?

An earthquake is an intense shaking of the ground caused by movement under the earth’s surface. It happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly slip past one another, according to USGS. This releases stored-up ‘elastic strain’ energy in the form of seismic waves, which spreads through the earth and cause the shaking of the ground.

3. How do exactly Earthquakes Occur?

• As we know, the earth’s outermost surface, crust, is fragmented into tectonic plates. The edges of the plates are called plate boundaries, which are made up of faults.
  The tectonic plates constantly move at a slow pace, sliding past one another and bumping into each other.
• As the edges of the plates are quite rough, they get stuck with one another while the rest of the plate keeps moving.
• Earthquake occurs when the plate has moved far enough and the edges unstick on one of the faults.
• The location below the earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.”

4. Earthquake waves

The release of energy during an earthquake generates waves which are called Earthquake Waves. Earthquake waves are basically of two types body waves and surface waves.

Body waves: They are generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move in all directions traveling through the body of the earth. Hence, the name body waves. The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate a new set of waves called surface waves.

Surface waves: These waves move along the surface. The velocity of waves changes as they travel through materials with different densities. The denser the material, the higher the velocity. Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract when coming across materials with different densities.

There are two types of body waves. They are called P and S-waves.

P-waves or ‘primary waves’ move faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. The P-waves are similar to sound waves. They travel through gaseous, liquid, and solid materials.

P-waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. This exerts pressure on the material in the direction of propagation. As a result, it creates density differences in the material leading to stretching and squeezing of the material.

S-waves or secondary waves arrive at the surface with some time lag. They can travel only through solid materials. This characteristic of the S-waves is quite important. It has helped scientists to understand the structure of the interior of the earth.

The direction of vibrations of S-waves is Perpendicular to the wave direction in the vertical plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass. Surface waves are considered to be the most damaging waves.

5. Measuring of Earthquakes

• The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock.
• The magnitude scale is known as the Richter scale. The magnitude indicates the energy released during the quake. It is expressed in absolute numbers 0-10.
• The intensity scale is named after Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale indicates the visible damage caused by the event. The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.

6. Turkey and Syria lie in a seismically active region

• The region where the earthquake struck lies along a well-known seismic fault line called the Anatolia tectonic block that runs through northern, central, and eastern Turkey.
• It is a seismically active zone-though not as active as, say, the Himalayan region which is one of the most dangerous regions in the world from the perspective of earthquakes.
• Large earthquakes, of magnitude 5 or higher, have not been very frequent in recent years. According to USGS, only three earthquakes of magnitude 6 or more have happened in the region since 1970. The last major quake in this area came in January 2020.
• The seismicity in this region is a result of interactions between the African, Eurasian, and Arabian plates. The Arabian plate is known to be pushing northward, which results in a slight westward movement for the Anatolian plate, where Turkey is located.
• The earthquake happened around the near-vertical fault line on the eastern Anatolian block, close to the Syrian border.

7. Shallow Earthquakes cause much greater damage

• Earthquakes in Turkey emerged from relatively shallow depths which made them devastating. The first earthquake, of magnitude 7.8, originated 17.9 km below the earth's surface.
• All the subsequent ones, including one of 7.5 magnitudes, emerged from even closer to the surface.
• Shallow earthquakes are generally more devastating because they carry greater energy when they emerge on the surface.
• Deeper earthquakes lose much of their energy by the time they come to the surface. The deeper quakes spread farther though- the seismic waves move conically upwards to the surface even as they lose energy while traveling greater distances and hence cause less damage.

8. Can earthquakes be predicted?

• An accurate prediction of an earthquake requires some sort of a precursory signal from within the earth that indicates a big quake is on the way.
• Moreover, the signal must occur only before large earthquakes so that it doesn’t indicate every small movement within the earth’s surface. Currently, there is no equipment to find such precursors, even if they exist.
• Theoretically, it is possible to offer a lead time of a few seconds between the time of the origin of the earthquake and the time it reaches the Earth’s surface.
• Seismic waves travel significantly slower than the speed of light between 5 and 13 km
  per second. So if the earthquake is detected as soon as it is triggered, information about it can be related a few seconds ahead of it reaching the ground.
• Such systems are already in use in some locations to issue alerts about earthquakes. However, these are not predictions. The alerts are issued post-event.
• Attempts to find reliable predictors of earthquakes have not been fruitful so far. Scientists have been able to map the areas that are earthquake-prone, and are likely to generate earthquakes in the future, but there is no way to predict when.

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Earthquake, Tectonic plates, Hypocenter, Epicenter, Body waves, Surface waves, P-waves or ‘primary waves’, S-waves or secondary waves, Richter scale, and Seismic waves. For Mains: 1. What is an Earthquake? How do exactly Earthquakes Occur? Discuss the effects of Earthquakes.

 

Source: The Indian Express