4. First OBC Commission 

• The initial OBC Commission, led by Kaka Kalelkar, was established by the government of Jawaharlal Nehru on January 29, 1953, and it submitted its report on March 30, 1955.
• To identify socially and educationally backward classes, this commission applied specific criteria, including low social standing within the traditional caste hierarchy of Hindu society, a lack of general educational advancement within the majority of the caste/community, inadequate or nonexistent representation in government positions, and insufficient representation in trade, commerce, and industry.
• This commission created a list of 2,399 backward castes or communities across the country, with 837 of them categorized as the "most backwards."
• It also recommended the inclusion of caste enumeration in the 1961 census, along with a 25-40% reservation in various government job tiers and a 70% reservation for technical and professional institution admissions.
• Unfortunately, the report never underwent parliamentary discussion and remained unimplemented due to the government's perception of impracticality in creating an all-India list.

4.1. Second OBC Commission

• The second OBC Commission, known as the B.P. Mandal Commission, was appointed in 1979 during Morarji Desai's Janata government.
• However, its implementation was only officially declared in 1990 under the government of V.P. Singh.
• The Mandal Commission identified 3,743 castes and communities as OBCs, estimating their population at 52%.
• It recommended a 27% reservation in government jobs and admissions to all government-run scientific, technical, and professional institutions.
• The 27% OBC quota did not incorporate subcategories, although one member of the commission, L.R. Naik, dissented and proposed the division of OBCs into intermediate backward classes and depressed backward classes.
• The Central Government's Official Memorandum regarding the implementation of the Mandal recommendations, issued on September 25, 1991, stipulated that preference should be given to candidates from the economically disadvantaged sections of the SEBCs within the 27% reservation.
• Nevertheless, the central government consistently implemented the quota by treating the entire OBC population as a single group and excluding the "creamy layer" of affluent candidates, as per criteria established after a Supreme Court ruling.

GOVERNOR'S POWER

1. Context

2. About Governor

• Part VI of the Constitution deals with the states and lists out the role and responsibility of the Governor of states.
• Article 153 provides for a Governor of every state and is the constitutional head of the state.
• The executive power of the State shall be vested in the Governor and shall be exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him in accordance with this Constitution (Article 154).
• Governor performs the same duties as of President, but as the executive head of a State; the work remains the same as of the office of the President of India.
• A Governor is a nominated head and not an elected representative.
• Dual Role of the Governor as head and representative
  - Constitutional head of state; and
  - Link between Union and State governments.
• His dual role makes him a key functionary in the Indian Constitutional system.

3. Powers of Governor

• Under Article 161 the Governor has the following powers –the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment; the power to suspend, remit or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the State extends.
• The Governor makes all executive decisions on behalf of the state government (Article 166(1)).
• The Governor appoints the Chief Minister and other cabinet members. They serve at the pleasure of the Governor (Article 164).
• He may create rules for the efficient execution of a state government's work and its distribution among the ministers. (Article 166(3))
• He appoints the state's advocate general and determines his tenure and conditions of service.
• He has the authority to recommend to the President the declaration of a state of constitutional emergency.
• He may request from the Chief Minister any information about the administration of the state's affairs, as well as legislative suggestions (Article 167).
• The governor appoints the state election commissioner and establishes his term of office and working conditions (Article 243K).

4. Friction points between the States and Governor

• In recent years. these have been largely about the selection of the party to form a government, the deadline for proving the majority, sitting on Bills, and passing negative remarks on the state administration.
• Kerala’s government was dismissed based on a report by the Governor. Several state governments have been dismissed since then, including 63 through President’s Rule orders issued by Governors between 1971 and 1990.
• Kerala Governor in 2020 turned down a request to summon a special sitting of the Assembly to debate the three central farm laws.
• In 2018 J&K Governor dissolved the Assembly amid indications that various parties were coming together to form the government. This paved the way for the Centre to later bifurcate the state into two Union territories, by considering the Governor as the government.
• In 2019 Maharashtra Governor quietly invited the BJP leader and administered his oath as CM. This government lasted just 80 hours. Six months later, the governor refused to nominate CM to the Legislative Council.
• Following the Karnataka polls in 2018, Governor Vajubhai Vala invited the BJP to form the government and gave B S Yeddyurappa 15 days to prove the majority. Challenged by Congress and JDS in the Supreme Court, it was reduced to three days.

5. Reasons for the friction between the Governor and the state governments

• There is no provision for impeaching the Governor, who is appointed by the President on the Centre's advice. While the Governor has a 5-year tenure, he can remain in office only until the pleasure of the President.
• There are no guidelines for the exercise of the Governor's powers, including for appointing a CM or dissolving the Assembly. There is no limit set for how long a Governor can withhold assent to a Bill.
• According to the Constitutional expert, although the Constituent Assembly envisaged the governor to be apolitical. But the truth is, politicians, become Governors and then resign to fight elections.
• The CM is answerable to the people. But the Governor is answerable to no one except the Centre. This is the fundamental defect in the Constitution.

6. Reforms Suggested

Several Panels, the Administrative Reforms Commission of 1968 and the Sarkaria Commission of 1988 have recommended reforms such as 

• selection of the Governor through a panel comprising the PM, the Home Minister, the Lok Sabha Speaker, and the CM.
• Apart from fixing his tenure for five years
• Recommendations have also been made for a provision to impeach the Governor by the Assembly. 

For Prelims & Mains

 

Previous Year Questions   Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State? (UPSC CSE 2014) 1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule 2. Appointing the Ministers 3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India 4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government Select the correct answer using the code given below A. 1 and 2 Only B. 1 and 3 Only C. 2, 3 and 4 D. 1, 2, 3, 4 Answer (B) 2.Which one of the following suggested that the Governor should be an eminent person from outside the State and should be a detached figure without intense political links or should not have taken part in politics in the recent past? (UPSC CSE 2019) A.First Administrative Reforms Commission (1966) B.Rajamannar Committee (1969) C.Sarkaria Commission (1983) D.National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2000) Answer (C) 1. Which one of the following suggested that the Governor should be an eminent person from outside the State and should be a detached figure without intense political links or should not have taken part in politics in the recent past?  (UPSC CSE Mains 2019)

Source: The Indian Express

ELECTRICITY TRANSMISSION

1. Background

When India’s first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru visited the planned site of the Bhakra Nangal Dam in Bilaspur in 1954, he called dams “the temples of modern India”. Contained in his turn of phrase were many indications about the way India was to develop in the coming decades but it also spoke to the centrality of electricity in the modern nation and the foundations that power transmission laid for economic development.

2. About Power Transmission

• Power transmission is necessary to move electricity from power plants to consumers.
• Power plants are often located in remote areas, far from where the electricity is needed.
• Transmission lines allow electricity to be transported over long distances with minimal loss.
• Electricity is transmitted using a network of transmission lines, substations, and transformers.
• Transmission lines carry electricity at high voltage, which reduces losses during transmission.
• Substations step up or down the voltage of electricity, depending on the need.
• Transformers convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC) and vice versa.
• AC is the most common form of electricity transmission. AC is easier to transmit over long distances than DC because it can be stepped up to a higher voltage, which reduces losses.

3. How is Power Transmitted?

• In a three-phase AC circuit, each wire transmits an AC in a different phase.
• From a power station, the wires are routed to transformers that step up their voltage.
• Then, they are suspended from transmission towers, which must be stable and properly wired, as they travel long distances.
• Insulators in contact with the wires draw away some current if there is a surge in the line; circuit-breakers ‘break’ the circuit if there is too much.
• The towers are also grounded and equipped with arresters that prevent sudden increases in voltage such as due to a lightning strike from affecting the wires.
• Similarly, dampers prevent vibrations in the wires from affecting the towers' stability.
• Switches are used to control the availability of current and to move currents between different lines.

4. How do Grids Operate?

• As mentioned earlier, transmission is situated between production and distribution.
• A national grid includes all three components, and as a result, transmission also has to account for the particulars of power production at different types of sources, at various locations, and how and where that power is consumed.
• For example, some sources like coal-fired or nuclear reactors can produce energy continuously, whereas renewable energy sources are intermittent.
• So grids also have storage facilities that store electrical energy when there's a surplus supply and release it in times of deficit.
• They are also connected to sources like gas turbines that can provide power on short notice, such as during emergencies, as well as automated systems that ‘tell’ sources to increase or decrease their output in response to fluctuating consumer demand.
• Grids also need to respond to failure in different parts of the network and prevent them from carrying over to other parts, adjust voltages in response to demand (as well as manage demand), control the AC frequency, improve the power factor (the power drawn by a load versus the power available in a circuit), etc.
• A grid becomes a wide-area synchronous grid if all the generators connected to it are producing an AC current at the same frequency.
• The world's largest such grid covers Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, and Russia; the world's most powerful is the North Chinese State Grid, with a connected capacity of 1,700 GW.
• India's national grid is also a wide-area synchronous grid. Such grids result in lower power costs but also require measures to prevent cascading power-supply failures.

5. Way Forward

Transmission is a critical component of the modern electricity grid. It is also important to consider the broader context of the energy transition. As the world moves away from fossil fuels and towards renewable energy sources, the role of electricity transmission will become even more important. It will be essential to ensure that the transmission grid is able to accommodate the increasing demand for electricity and that it is able to do so in a way that is reliable, affordable, and sustainable.

 

For Prelims: Electricity Transmission, Bhakra Nangal Dam, alternating current, direct current, coal-fired, nuclear reactors,  For Mains:  1. How can India balance the need for economic development with the need for environmental sustainability in the context of electricity transmission? (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions Prelims   1. The Bhakra Nangal Dam is built across the River (MP Police Constable 2017) (SSC GD 2019) A. Jhelum          B. Chenab       C. Ravi           D. Sutlej Answer: D 2. With reference to ‘fuel cells’ in which hydrogen-rich fuel and oxygen are used to generate electricity, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2015) 1. If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, the fuel cell emits heat and water as by-products. 2. Fuel cells can be used for powering buildings and not for small devices like laptop computers. 3. Fuel cells produce electricity in the form of Alternating Current (AC). Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only       (b) 2 and 3 only      (c) 1 and 3 only         (d) 1, 2 and 3 Answer: A 3. With reference to technologies for solar power production, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2014) 1. ‘Photovoltaics’ is a technology that generates electricity by direction conversion of light into electricity, while ‘Solar Thermal’ is a technology that utilizes the Sun’s rays to generate heat which is further used in electricity generation process. 2. Photovoltaics generate Alternating Current (AC), while solar Thermal generates Direct Current (DC). 3. India has manufacturing base for Solar Thermal technology, but not for Photovoltaics. Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only            (b) 2 and 3 only             (c) 1, 2 and 3               (d) None Answer: A 4. Consider the following statements: (UPSC 2020) 1. Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury. 2. Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment. 3. High ash content is observed in Indian coal. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  A. 1 only        B. 2 and 3 only           C. 3 only           D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 5. Consider the following: (UPSC 2011) 1. Carbon dioxide 2. Oxides of Nitrogen 3. Oxides of sulphur Which of the above is/are emission/emissions from coal combustion at thermal power plants?   A. 1 only         B. 2 and 3 only        C. 1 and 3 only          D. 1, 2 and 3 Answer: D 6. The function of heavy water in a nuclear reactor is to (2011) (a) Slow down the speed of neutrons (b) Increase the speed of neutrons (c) Cool down the reactor (d) Stop the nuclear reaction Answer: A Mains 1. Give an account of the current status and the targets to be achieved pertaining to renewable energy sources in the country. Discuss in brief the importance of National Programme on Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). (UPSC 2016) 2. With growing energy needs should India keep on expanding its nuclear energy programme? Discuss the facts and fears associated with nuclear energy. (UPSC 2018)

Source: The Hindu

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO (DRC)

1. Context 

Recently, the UN International Organization of Migration (IOM) reported that the number of people who have been internally displaced in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has risen to 6.9 million. In the eastern province of North Kivu, nearly a million people have been displaced due to the ongoing conflict with the rebel group, Mouvement du 23 Mars (M23).

 

2. About the Democratic Republic of the Congo

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as Congo-Kinshasa, is a country located in Central Africa. It is the second-largest country in Africa by land area and the eleventh-largest in the world. With a population of over 90 million, the DRC is the most populous officially Francophone country in the world. The national capital and largest city is Kinshasa, which is also the economic centre. 

Image Source: Britannica

3. Conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo

The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has been facing a long-running conflict that has displaced millions of people. The conflict is rooted in the Rwandan genocide of 1994, which saw the deaths of nearly one million people. Since then, eastern DRC has been plagued by violence from rebel groups, including the Mouvement du 23 Mars (M23).

Causes of the Conflict

• Following the Rwandan genocide, around two million Hutu refugees crossed Rwanda into North Kivu and South Kivu provinces of DRC. They organised ethnic militias in DRC fearing prosecution. Tensions intensified as Rwandan Tutsis organised militias against the Hutus who fled to the DRC. Subsequently, several ethnic and inter-ethnic groups who felt threatened started organising their militias against each other. The multiple rebel groups and several actors fighting in the region have carried out widespread killing, sexual violence and massive human rights atrocities.
• President Felix Tsikedi came to power in 2019 through democratic elections. The country is to hold elections on December 20. However, the electoral commission has said that continuing insecurity in parts of the country would pose a challenge to a “free, democratic and transparent” vote. Meanwhile, the peripheries of DRC are ruled by numerous ethnic chiefdoms which are recognised by the government. The grievances of these peripheries are not met inclusively as struggles for representation, power, territory and resources are being ignored.
• The armed groups have been supported by the governments of Rwanda, Uganda, and Burundi at various points, acting as proxies for each country’s interests in the region.

4. Humanitarian Crisis and International Response

• The conflict in DRC has caused a major humanitarian crisis. According to the Kivu Security Tractor, this year alone, 1,400 people were killed and over 600 attacks were reported in the region.
• According to the World Food Programme (WFP), the crisis has left more than 1.1 million people in need of food support across North Kivu, Ituri, and South Kivu.
• International actors have failed to make a considerable effort to address the crisis.
• According to organisations such as WFP and the Norwegian Refugee Council, lack of funding is a major challenge in assisting Congolese people facing hunger, starvation and humanitarian crises.

5. Conclusion

The conflict in DRC is a complex and long-running problem. However, the international community needs to continue to provide humanitarian assistance and to support efforts to bring peace to the region.

For Prelims:  UN International Organization of Migration, Democratic Republic of Congo,  Mouvement du 23 Mars, World Food Programme, Norwegian Refugee Council,  For Mains:  1. Examine the challenges and opportunities of implementing a comprehensive disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) program in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). (250 Words)

 

 

Previous Year Questions   1. Congo is situated in (Jharkhand Civil Service 2015) A.  Africa          B.  Asia            C. Europe            D. North America   Answer: A

 

Source: The Hindu

DELHI'S ODD-EVEN SCHEME

 

 

1. Context

Delhi government will observe and implement The Odd-Even scheme as per the instructions given by the Supreme Court of India

 

2. What is the Odd-Even Scheme of Delhi?

• In an effort to curb the city's severe air pollution, the Delhi government introduced the Odd-Even Scheme, a policy restricting vehicles with odd-numbered registration plates to odd-numbered dates and vehicles with even-numbered plates to even-numbered dates. This measure is primarily implemented during periods of intense air contamination, when the Air Quality Index (AQI) reaches the "severe" or "severe plus" classification
• The Odd-Even Scheme was first implemented in Delhi in 2016 as a temporary solution to the city's persistent air pollution crisis.
• While the scheme initially received mixed reactions, with some applauding its effectiveness in reducing pollution levels and others criticizing its inconvenience, it was generally deemed a success. Consequently, the Odd-Even Scheme has been reintroduced multiple times since its initial implementation in 2016.
• Studies have demonstrated the Odd-Even Scheme's effectiveness in mitigating Delhi's air pollution. One study revealed a 13% average reduction in PM2.5 levels during the first week of the scheme's implementation. Similarly, another study found a 17% average reduction in PM10 levels during the same period.

3. Exemptions from the Odd-even Scheme

Certain vehicles are exempt from the Odd-Even Scheme's restrictions. These exemptions include:

• Electric vehicles
• Hybrid vehicles
• CNG vehicles
• Two-wheelers
• Emergency vehicles (ambulances, fire trucks, etc.)
• Public transport vehicles (buses, autos, etc.)
• Vehicles transporting essential commodities (food, medicine, etc.)
• Vehicles driven by women (exempt on Mondays and Wednesdays)
• Vehicles driven by senior citizens (exempt on Tuesdays and Thursdays)
• Vehicles driven by disabled individuals (exempt at all times)

The Delhi Traffic Police is responsible for enforcing the Odd-Even Scheme. Police officers are stationed at checkpoints throughout the city to verify vehicle registration plates. Violators of the scheme face a fine of Rs 2,000.

4. What exactly is contributing to Delhi's air Pollution?

• A combination of factors contributes to Delhi's recurring air pollution crisis. The city's location within a shallow atmospheric basin traps pollutants, preventing their dispersion. During periods of low temperatures and slow wind speeds, pollutants accumulate near the surface, creating the infamous Delhi smog.
• Another significant contributor is the smoke from numerous fires set by farmers in Punjab and Haryana.
• As farmers prepare their fields for the rabi crop, they burn the stubble left over from the harvested kharif crop. While sources like vehicular emissions and road dust contribute to pollution year-round, the farm fires and atmospheric conditions around Diwali exacerbate the issue.
• A study by the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) revealed that farm fires contributed up to 40% of Delhi's PM 2.5 concentration during peak periods in past years. Data from the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology indicates that biomass burning accounted for 35%, 20%, and 21% of the daily mean PM 2.5 concentration in Delhi on November 3, 4, and 5, respectively.
• While farm fires significantly impact Delhi's air quality during a brief period, their overall contribution to the city's annual air pollution is relatively small, estimated at around 3% or less. Multiple studies have indicated that local sources are the primary cause of Delhi's air pollution, with vehicles contributing up to 30% of the city's annual PM 2.5 concentration.
• Vehicular emissions also include harmful pollutants like NO2, and the CSE estimates a 60% increase in NO2 levels this year compared to the same period last year. Certain high-traffic areas have reported NO2 concentrations three to four times higher than the 24-hour standard.

5. Challenges in Implementing Odd-Even Scheme

• Implemented to curb Delhi's air pollution, the Odd-Even Scheme's restriction on vehicle usage has inconvenienced residents, particularly those dependent on cars for daily commutes or work-related activities. The scheme's effectiveness is further hampered by factors like traffic congestion and the use of alternative modes of transport that contribute to pollution.
• Critics contend that the Odd-Even Scheme disproportionately impacts lower-income residents, who are more likely to own older vehicles not exempted from the restrictions. This can worsen existing economic disparities and hinder access to essential services for those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds.
• The Odd-Even Scheme is often perceived as a temporary measure rather than a long-term solution to Delhi's air pollution problem. Effectively addressing air pollution requires a comprehensive approach that tackles all pollution sources, including vehicular emissions, industrial activities, and construction dust.
• Enforcing the Odd-Even Scheme in a large and densely populated city like Delhi poses challenges. Identifying and penalizing violators can be difficult, and the scheme's effectiveness can be undermined by lax or inconsistent enforcement.
• The Odd-Even Scheme includes exemptions for certain vehicle categories, such as emergency vehicles, public transport, and electric vehicles. While these exemptions are necessary for essential services and promoting eco-friendly alternatives, they can also create loopholes that allow some vehicles to pollute without restriction.
• The Odd-Even Scheme's success hinges on public awareness and compliance. Ensuring residents are well-informed about the scheme's rules and exemptions is crucial for its effectiveness. Encouraging public support and cooperation can help reduce the need for strict enforcement measures.

6. Way forward

While the Odd-Even Scheme has proven effective in reducing air pollution levels in Delhi, it remains a controversial policy. The scheme is likely to continue as part of the city's ongoing efforts to address air pollution

 

Source: Indianexpress