• Corruption was rampant in the Company's administration, particularly among the police, minor officials, and subordinate courts, which was a major source of dissatisfaction.
• Many historians believe that the current corruption levels in India result from the Company's control.
• Furthermore, the nature of British rule gave it a distant and alien appearance in the view of Indians: a form of absentee sovereignty.

3.4 Socio-religious causes

• The British administration's attitude toward the native Indian population had racial overtones and a superiority mentality.
• Indians viewed the activity of Christain missionaries in India who flew the British flag with distrust.
• A considerable segment of the populace saw initiatives at socio-religious change, such as the elimination of sati, support for window marriage, and women's education, as outsiders interfering in the social and religious spheres of Indian culture.
• These fears were exacerbated by the government's decision to tax mosque and temple lands and the passage of laws like the Religious Disabilities Act of 1856, which altered Hindu customs by declaring, for example, that a change of religion did not prevent a son from inheriting his 'heathen father's property.

4. Siege of Delhi

• The hard-fought recapture of Delhi by the British army was a decisive moment in the suppression of the 1857-58 Indian Mutiny against British rule. It extinguished Indian dreams of recreating the rule of the Mughal Empire. The rebellion lost its cohesion, allowing the British to defeat any remaining isolated pockets of resistance.
• After the capture of Delhi by rebels in May, the British were unable to launch a counterattack because their army was dispersed over vast distances. It took quite some time for the British to assemble an army, but in June, two columns were combined with a force of Ghurkas.
• The makeshift force managed to occupy a ridge overlooking the city but was not large enough to launch an assault, marking the beginning of the siege on June 8.
• Inside the city were more than 30,000 mutineers loyal to Bahadur Shah, who was holding court as the Mughal emperor.
• A large number of mutineers meant that the British force felt as though they were the ones under siege, and as the weeks wore on, the British began to suffer from outbreaks of cholera and dysentery.
• However, reinforcements slowly arrived from Punjab, including a siege train of thirty-two guns and 2,000 more men under the command of Brigadier General John Nicholson.
• By early September, the British had assembled a force of some 9,000, which consisted of 3,000 regular troops and 6,000 Sikhs, Punjabis, and Ghurkas. 
• The siege guns began firing on September 8, and by September 14, had made sufficiently large breaches in the walls to launch an attack.
• The assault was met with stiff resistance but by September 21, after a week of savage street-to-street fighting, Delhi was back under British control. Bahadur Shah was arrested and died in exile in Rangoon in 1862. He was the last of the Mughal Emperors.

5. An altered Landscape and culture in the city

• The post-revolt decades of the 1860s and 70s were also the time when much of the public works in Delhi were established by the British.
• The first public works stemmed as much from considerations of military exigency as commercial and civil administrative needs writes Gupta.
• The railway line, for instance, was built through the city rather than outside because it made for greater security in the case of another uprising. 
• New roads were built through the most densely populated parts of the city, much to the distress of the local inhabitants.
• In 1865, a general hospital was established in Chandni Chowk to replace the dispensary that existed there before 1857, and in 1867 the Sadar Bazar was inaugurated to formalize the shops that had sprung up to cater to the needs of the army.

7. Objectives of British

• The primary objective of the British in the period after 1857 was to wipe out the memory of the Mughals from Delhi.
• Thereafter begins a conscious commemoration of British sites of valor.
• Perhaps the most striking example of this was the four-tiered gothic-style monument, the Mutiny Memorial built by the British government on the Ridge where it continues to stand today.
• It listed out with statistics those who were killed in the revolt. It was only 25 years after the Independence of India that the government renamed this monument as Ajitgarh (place of the unvanquished) and erected a plaque, stating that the ‘enemy’ mentioned on the memorial were “immoral martyrs of Indian freedom.” 

For Prelims & Mains

• Lightning is an electrical discharge that occurs when there is an imbalance between the storm clouds and the earth or even within the clouds.
• Scientists believe that for lightning to occur, positive and negative charges must separate within a cloud.
• This happens, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), when the water droplets in the bottom part of the cloud are moved upwards, where the much colder atmosphere freezes them into small ice crystals. 
• As these small ice crystals continue to go up, they gain more mass and eventually become so heavy that they start to fall down to earth.
• This causes a system in which ice crystals going down collides with the water vapors coming up, leading to the accumulation of positive charges on the top of the cloud and negative changes gathering at the base, while the atmosphere between them in the cloud acts as an insulator.
• When the positive and negative charges grow large enough, their strength overpowers the insulating properties of the properties.
• As a result, the two kinds of changes meet with each other and produce lightning.
• Although most of the lightning takes place within the clouds, sometimes it is directed towards Earth also. With the base of the cloud becoming negatively charged, positive charges start accumulating on tall objects, like trees, poles, and buildings.

3. Why is it a matter of concern?

• Data from the National Crime Records Bureau show that since 2005, lightning has been responsible for at least 2,000 fatalities annually.
• Rural areas account for more than 90% of lightning-related fatalities,
• It is not considered a natural calamity, thus unlike in the case of floods or earthquakes, the afflicted people are not entitled to government compensation.

4. Where are the lightning hotspots around the world?

• It has been discovered by scientists at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute (STRI) in Panama that lightning strikes the tropics more than 100 million times a year.
• Asia, South America, North America, Australia, and Africa are the other continents having the highest concentration of lightning hotspots.
• According to experts, lightning strikes are expected to rise by 25-50% as a result of climate change.

5. Findings of the latest study

• The researchers analyzed 5,858 selected lightning-ignited fires based on satellite images of US wildfires between 1992 and 2018 and found that approximately 90 percent of them might have been started by "hot lightning" strikes.
• Also known as long continuing current (LOC), this type of lightning strike can last from around 40 milliseconds to nearly a third of a second.

6. Why Hot lighting has more potential of triggering a wildfire than typical lightning?

• Lightning with continuing currents can transport more energy from cloud to ground than typical lightning. When lightning with continuing currents attaches to ground or vegetation, they produce more Joule heating and higher temperature than typical lightning, increasing the probability of ignition.
• With the help of computer simulations, the researchers also looked at the frequency of "hot lightning" strikes and observed that as the atmosphere warms, there might be an increase of 41 percent in the incidents of LCC strikes by 2090.
• This means that the rate of such lightning flashes could jump from three strikes per second globally to four strikes per second. Meanwhile, the frequency of all cloud-to-ground strikes might increase to nearly eight flashes per second, a 28 percent jump.
• According to the study, the areas that might witness a significant increase in wildfires triggered by the LCC strikes are Southeast Asia, South America, Africa, Australia, North, America, and Europe.
• The researchers predicted this after accounting for changes in precipitation, humidity, and temperature.
• However, many northern polar regions might see a decrease in wildfires as rainfall is projected to increase while "hot lightning " rates remain constant.

7. Government initiatives to tackle this problem

• Lightning Alert System provides a location-specific forecast of thunder, lightning, strong winds, high winds, and hailstorms occurrences for up to 48 hours.
• The Common Alert Protocol (CAP) system has been released by the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) to alert citizens to imminent thunderstorms and lightning.
• From the INSAT-3DR satellite, which uploads data every 15 minutes, ISRO provides information about convective clouds.
• A GPS notification from the Damini App, which was created by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology and Earth System Science organization, alerts users when lightning is nearby and is between 20 to 40 kilometers away.

8. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American Scientific and regulatory agency within the United States Department of Commerce that forecasts weather monitors oceanic and atmospheric conditions, chart the seas, conducts deep sea exploration, and manages fishing and protection of marine mammals and endangered species.

NOAA provides services to its customers and information pertaining to the state of the oceans and the atmosphere, such as weather warnings and forecasts via the National Weather Service.

NOAA’s five fundamental activities are

• Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks.
• Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of data.
• Assessing and predicting the changes in these systems over time.
• Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with relevant information.
• Custodianship of environmental resources.

Previous year question

 

1. During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the (UPSC 2013) 1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky 2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds 3. violent upward movement of air and water particles Select the correct answer using the codes given below. A.1 only  B.2 and 3  C.1 and 3    D.None of the above produces the thunder Answer : D

For Prelims & Mains

For Prelims: Lightning, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Common Alert Protocol (CAP) system, National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), INSAT-3DR satellite, Long continuing current (LOC), and Damini App. For Mains:1. What is lightning and discuss how does it occur and explain why Hot lighting has more potential of triggering a wildfire than typical lightning?

 

 Source: The Indian Express

SEAHORSE

1. Context

The great seahorse, one of the nine species found in the Indian coastal ecosystem, is among the eight species tagged ‘vulnerable’. Extensive fishing off the Coromandel coast could be forcing the great seahorse to migrate laboriously toward Odisha.

2. About Sea Horse

• Seahorse, (genus  Hippocampus), also spelled sea horse, is any of about 50 species of marine fishes allied to pipefishes in the family Syngnathidae (order Gasterosteiformes).
• Seahorses are found in shallow coastal waters in latitudes from about 52° N to 45° S.
• Their habitats include coral reefs, mangroves seagrass beds, and estuaries.
• They are unique in appearance, with their horselike head, prehensile tail, independently moving eyes, and brood pouch.
• They have long, tubular snouts and small, toothless mouths.
• Their bodies are covered with consecutive rings of bony plates. The name of the genus that contains seahorses is taken from the Greek words hippos (meaning “horse”) and kampos (meaning “sea monster”).

Image Source: AZ Animals

3. Sea Horse Species in India

• There are 46 species of seahorses reported worldwide. The coastal ecosystems of India house nine out of 12 species found in the Indo-Pacific, one of the hotspots of seahorse populations that are distributed across diverse ecosystems such as seagrass, mangroves, macroalgal beds, and coral reefs.
• These nine species are distributed along the coasts of eight States and five Union Territories from Gujarat to Odisha, apart from Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The Great seahorse, also known as the Hippocampus kelloggi has been included in the ‘vulnerable’ list due to its overexploitation. It was popular as an ornamental fish and as a constituent in Chinese medicines.
• The population of the great seahorse, which is among the eight species tagged ‘vulnerable’, is declining due to its overexploitation for traditional Chinese medicines and as an ornamental fish, combined with general destructive fishing and fisheries bycatch.
• Despite the ban on fishing and trading activities on seahorses from 2001, clandestine fishing and trading still take place in India.
• This creates immense pressure on the seahorse populations that have a high dependence on local habitats to maintain their extensive and long-life history traits.

4. Long Migration

• Seahorses are poor swimmers but migrate by rafting -clinging to floating substrata such as macroalgae or plastic debris for dispersal by ocean currents to new habitats for successful maintenance of their population.
• However, the 1,300-km northward migration of the great seahorse from Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar to Odisha is likely a response to extensive fishing activities around the southern coast of India.
• The species is abundant off the Coromandel coast (Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu), but is under extensive fishing pressure, with 13 million individuals caught a year.

5. Need for Conservation

• Increased monitoring of the coastal ecosystems on the Eastern coast of India is essential to conserve and protect the remaining seahorse populations of the area.
• The fishing nets used to catch seahorses need to be banned and rules enforced while also reconsidering existing trawling regulations in order to protect the species as their migration to the north will not be helpful due to the lack of a suitable environment.

For Prelims

For Prelims: Sea Horse, Vulnerable, Coromandel coast, Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Hippocampus kelloggi, Lakshadweep, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

 

Source: The Indian Express

BRU REFUGEES AGREEMENT

1. Context

Twenty-three years after ethnic clashes in Mizoram forced 37 000 people out of the Bru (or Reang) community to flee their homes to neighbouring Tripura, an agreement has been signed to allow them to remain permanently in the latter state.

The agreement among the Bru leaders and the government of India, Tripura, and Mizoram signed in New Delhi, gives the Bru the choice of living in either state.

In several ways, the agreement has redefined how internal displacement is treated in India.

2. About Bru Agreement

• All Bru Currently, living in temporary relief camps in Tripura will be settled in the state if they want to stay on.
• The Bru who returned to Mizoram in the eight phases of repatriation since 2009, cannot, however, come back to Tripura.
• To ascertain the numbers of those who will be settled, a fresh survey and physical verification of Bru families living in relief camps will be carried out.
• The Centre will implement a special development project for the resettled Bru; this will be in addition to the Rs 600 crores fund announced for the process, including benefits for the migrants.
• Each resettled family will get 0.03 acre (1.5 ganda) of land for building a home, Rs 1.5 lakh as housing assistance and Rs 4 lakh as a one-time cash benefit for sustenance.
• They will also receive a monthly allowance of Rs 5, 000 and free rations for two years from the date of resettlement.
• All cash assistance will be through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) and the state government will expedite the opening of bank accounts and the issuance of Aadhaar, permanent residence certificates, ST certificates and voter identity cards to the beneficiaries.

3. Bru's resettlement

• Physical verification to identify beneficiaries will be carried out within 15 days of the signing of the deal.
• The land for resettlement will be identified within 60 days and the land for allotment will be identified within 150 days.
• The beneficiaries will get housing assistance, but the state government will build their homes and hand over possession.
• They will be moved to resettlement locations in four clusters, paving the way for the closure of the temporary camps within 180 days of the signing of the agreement.
• All dwelling houses will be constructed and payments completed within 270 days.
• Revenue experts reckon 162 acres will be required. Tripura CM said that the effort will be to choose khash or government land, but since Tripura is a small state (only 10, 491 sq km), his government would explore the possibility of diverting forest lands, even reserve forest areas if necessary to grant the new entitlements.

4. Conditions of migrants now

• The Bru or Reang are a community indigenous to Northeast India, living mostly in Tripura, Mizoram and Assam.
• In Tripura, they are recognised as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group (PVTG).
• Over two decades ago, they were targeted by the Young Mizo Association (YMA), Mizo Zirwlai Pawl (MZP) and a few ethnic social organisations of Mizoram d

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