• The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, 1992 are regarded as landmark reforms in India's democratic framework because they provided constitutional status to local self-government institutions.
• These amendments were enacted with the objective of decentralizing power, promoting grassroots democracy, and ensuring greater participation of people in governance.
• While the 73rd Constitutional Amendment deals with rural local self-government through Panchayati Raj Institutions, the 74th Constitutional Amendment focuses on urban local self-government through Municipalities.
• The 73rd Amendment came into effect on 24 April 1993, whereas the 74th Amendment became effective on 1 June 1993.
• The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 inserted Part IX (Articles 243 to 243-O) into the Constitution and added the Eleventh Schedule, which contains 29 subjects that may be devolved to Panchayats.
• The amendment established Panchayati Raj Institutions as the third tier of government in rural India and sought to strengthen democratic decentralization.
• It envisages a three-tier Panchayati Raj system, consisting of the Gram Panchayat at the village level, the Panchayat Samiti at the intermediate or block level, and the Zila Parishad at the district level. However, states with a population of less than twenty lakh are not required to establish the intermediate tier.
• An important feature of the 73rd Amendment is the recognition of the Gram Sabha as the foundation of village democracy.
• The Gram Sabha comprises all registered voters in a village and serves as the primary forum through which people participate directly in local governance.
• The amendment also mandates direct elections to all seats in Panchayats and provides for the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in proportion to their population.
• Additionally, it reserves not less than one-third of the total seats and offices of Chairpersons for women, although several states have subsequently increased this reservation to fifty percent.
• To ensure continuity and accountability, the amendment fixes the tenure of Panchayats at five years and requires fresh elections to be held within six months if a Panchayat is dissolved prematurely.
• It also provides for the establishment of an independent State Election Commission to supervise, direct, and conduct elections to Panchayats.
• Furthermore, every state is required to constitute a State Finance Commission every five years to recommend the distribution of financial resources between the State Government and local bodies, thereby strengthening their financial autonomy.
• The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 extended similar constitutional recognition to Urban Local Bodies by inserting Part IXA (Articles 243P to 243ZG) into the Constitution and adding the Twelfth Schedule, which lists 18 subjects related to urban governance.
• The amendment aims to make urban local institutions more democratic, representative, and accountable while enabling them to manage the increasing challenges of urbanization effectively.
• The amendment provides for three categories of urban local bodies depending on the size and nature of the urban area.
• A Nagar Panchayat is established for transitional areas moving from rural to urban status, a Municipal Council is constituted for smaller urban areas, and a Municipal Corporation is created for larger urban areas.
• Members of these bodies are elected directly by the people. Similar to the provisions under the 73rd Amendment, seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and not less than one-third of the seats for women, ensuring inclusive participation in urban governance.
• The 74th Amendment also prescribes a five-year tenure for Municipalities and requires elections to be conducted within six months if a municipality is dissolved before completing its term.
• It entrusts the State Election Commission with the responsibility of conducting municipal elections and requires the State Finance Commission to recommend measures for improving the financial position of urban local bodies.
• Recognizing the need for coordinated planning, the amendment provides for the constitution of District Planning Committees (DPCs) to integrate rural and urban development plans at the district level.
• It also mandates the establishment of Metropolitan Planning Committees (MPCs) in metropolitan areas to prepare comprehensive development plans by integrating the plans prepared by various municipalities and Panchayats within the metropolitan region.

3. Structure of Local Governance in India

• India's constitutional framework establishes a well-defined multi-level system of local governance in which citizens elect their representatives directly at different tiers. This arrangement is intended to deepen democratic participation by bringing decision-making closer to the people.
• In urban areas, local administration is carried out through Municipal Corporations, Municipal Councils, and Nagar Panchayats, each catering to different categories of urban settlements based on their size and stage of development.
• In rural areas, governance is organised through a three-tier Panchayati Raj system consisting of the Gram Panchayat at the village level, the Block Development Council (or Panchayat Samiti) at the intermediate level, and the Zila Parishad at the district level. Together, these institutions are responsible for addressing local developmental needs and promoting participatory governance.
• To ensure integrated planning at the district level, Article 243ZD of the Constitution provides for the establishment of a District Planning Committee (DPC). The DPC is entrusted with the responsibility of consolidating development plans prepared by both Panchayats and Municipalities and formulating a coordinated development strategy for the entire district.
• Rather than functioning as an independent executive body, the District Planning Committee serves as a coordinating institution that harmonises the priorities and proposals emerging from elected rural and urban local bodies.
• Its primary purpose is to encourage decentralised planning by incorporating local aspirations into district-wide development plans, thereby reinforcing the principles of democratic decentralisation.
• Despite the constitutional importance accorded to District Planning Committees, their performance has varied considerably across states. In many parts of the country, DPCs have remained weak or inactive, limiting their effectiveness in district planning.
• However, some states, particularly Kerala, have demonstrated more effective utilisation of these committees by integrating local planning with broader developmental objectives.

• The District Development Councils (DDCs) in Jammu and Kashmir were created through an executive order rather than by a legislative enactment.
• Although the government describes DDCs as directly elected institutions intended to deepen democratic participation at the grassroots, their structure has generated considerable debate regarding their compatibility with the existing system of local governance.
• One of the principal criticisms is that the DDC framework operates alongside, rather than through, constitutionally recognised local institutions such as Zila Parishads and Urban Local Bodies.
• In contrast, the District Planning Committee (DPC), envisaged under Article 243ZD of the Constitution, is designed to consolidate development plans prepared by Panchayats and Municipalities into a unified district development strategy.
• The DPC functions primarily as a coordinating body and does not exercise independent executive authority.
• By comparison, DDCs have been vested with administrative and developmental responsibilities, creating a parallel layer of governance that alters the conventional relationship between elected local institutions and decision-making powers.
• Another significant distinction lies in their approach to decentralisation. The DPC represents a bottom-up planning mechanism, where district-level priorities emerge from plans prepared by local elected bodies.
• DDCs, on the other hand, are often viewed as following a top-down model, with authority flowing from higher levels of administration.
• Critics contend that this arrangement places DDCs in competition with existing local institutions and reinforces bureaucratic oversight instead of promoting genuine democratic decentralisation.
• Questions have also been raised regarding the principle of equal representation within the DDC system. Each district is allotted the same number of DDC constituencies irrespective of population size, resulting in disparities in the value of individual votes across districts.
• For example, Srinagar, with a population of approximately 12 lakh, and Kishtwar, with nearly 2.5 lakh residents, are represented by an identical number of DDC members.
• As a result, citizens in smaller districts enjoy relatively greater representation than those living in more populous districts, leading to concerns about unequal political representation.
• Some analysts have likened DDCs to the Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs) established under the Smart Cities Mission.
• According to this view, while both structures appear to promote decentralised governance, they are largely administered through bureaucratic mechanisms and may override or sideline initiatives approved by elected local bodies. Consequently, DDCs are perceived by some as replacing, rather than complementing, constitutionally recognised local institutions.
• The establishment of 280 elected DDC members across Jammu and Kashmir has also been interpreted by some observers as creating a parallel representative structure at the district level.
• Historically, in regions experiencing political instability, higher levels of government have sometimes relied on district-based institutions to reduce the influence of state-level representative bodies.
• In the context of Jammu and Kashmir, where the Legislative Assembly remained absent or functionally weakened for an extended period, critics argue that the DDC framework enabled several planning, developmental, and financial functions that would ordinarily be exercised by elected state representatives and local self-government institutions to remain under the influence of the Union administration.

PRAMBANAN TEMPLE

 

1. Context

 

Prime Minister Narendra Modi, during his official visit to Indonesia, visited the 9th-century Prambanan Temple Complex in Yogyakarta along with Indonesian President Prabowo Subianto. The two leaders inaugurated a joint conservation initiative for the UNESCO World Heritage Site, which will be undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

 

 

2. Prambanan Temple: An Architectural Jewel of Southeast Asia

 

 

• The Prambanan Temple is the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia and one of the finest examples of Hindu architecture in Southeast Asia.
• Located in the Special Region of Yogyakarta on the island of Java, the temple stands as a remarkable reminder of the spread of Indian culture, religion, art and architecture beyond the Indian subcontinent through peaceful trade, cultural exchanges and maritime interactions.
• Built during the ninth century CE, Prambanan represents the golden age of the Hindu Mataram Kingdom.
• The temple complex was constructed primarily under the patronage of the Sanjaya Dynasty, whose rulers were devoted followers of Hinduism, particularly Shaivism.
• Although Indonesia is today the world's largest Muslim-majority country, Prambanan serves as an enduring symbol of the country's rich multicultural and religious history.
• The temple complex was designed as a grand sacred city consisting of nearly 240 temples, making it one of the largest temple complexes ever constructed in Southeast Asia.
• At the centre of the complex rises the majestic temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, surrounded by temples dedicated to Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma, collectively representing the Hindu Trimurti.
• This arrangement reflects the Hindu philosophical understanding of creation, preservation and destruction as complementary cosmic functions.

 

 

3. Historical Background of Prambanan Temple

 

 

• The construction of Prambanan began around 850 CE during the reign of King Rakai Pikatan of the Sanjaya Dynasty. The temple symbolised the political resurgence of Hindu rule in Central Java after a period of Buddhist dominance under the Sailendra rulers.
• By constructing such a monumental temple complex, the Sanjaya kings sought to establish both their political legitimacy and religious devotion.
• However, Prambanan's prosperity did not last indefinitely. During the tenth century, political power gradually shifted from Central Java to East Java, leading to the abandonment of the temple complex.
• Frequent volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and the passage of time caused significant structural damage, and much of the temple remained buried beneath volcanic debris for centuries.
• The temple was rediscovered during the nineteenth century under Dutch colonial administration, after which systematic archaeological restoration began. Even today, restoration work continues due to the enormous scale of the complex and the recurring seismic activity affecting the region

 

4. UNESCO World Heritage Status

 

• Recognising its exceptional historical, artistic and architectural significance, UNESCO inscribed the Prambanan Temple Complex as a World Heritage Site in 1991.
• The temple represents one of humanity's greatest architectural achievements and serves as an outstanding example of Hindu religious architecture outside the Indian subcontinent.
• UNESCO recognised the monument for its monumental scale, remarkable stone carvings, sophisticated urban planning and its testimony to the cultural interactions between South Asia and Southeast Asia.
• Despite centuries of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, Prambanan continues to preserve much of its original grandeur and remains one of Indonesia's most visited cultural landmarks.
• The recent conservation initiative led jointly by Indonesia and India's Archaeological Survey of India further strengthens global efforts to preserve this invaluable cultural treasure for future generations.

 

5. Architectural Style of Prambanan Temple

 

 

• The Prambanan Temple represents the finest expression of Classical Central Javanese Hindu architecture. While strongly inspired by Indian religious ideas and temple planning principles, its architecture evolved into a distinctly Indonesian style adapted to local geography, construction techniques and artistic traditions.
• The temple complex follows the Mandala concept, an important principle in Hindu cosmology that symbolises the universe.
• The temples are arranged in concentric square courtyards, with the holiest shrines occupying the innermost section.
• This spatial arrangement reflects the Hindu belief in moving progressively from the material world towards spiritual enlightenment.
• One of the most striking features of Prambanan is its soaring vertical towers. Unlike many Indian temples, whose towers often appear broader or pyramidal, Prambanan's towers are remarkably slender and rise sharply into the sky.
• These towering structures symbolise Mount Meru, the mythical mountain believed in Hindu cosmology to be the abode of the gods.
• The tallest temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, rises approximately 47 metres above the ground, making it the dominant feature of the entire complex.
• Surrounding the three principal temples are smaller shrines dedicated to the divine vehicles of the Hindu gods—Nandi for Shiva, Garuda for Vishnu and Hamsa for Brahma

 

 

6. Architectural Features of the Temple

 

 

• Prambanan demonstrates extraordinary engineering skills and artistic excellence. The temples were constructed using locally available volcanic andesite stone, carefully cut and assembled without the extensive use of mortar.
• The precision of stone fitting reflects the advanced engineering capabilities of the builders.
• The walls of the temples are adorned with intricate relief sculptures depicting episodes from the Ramayana and other Hindu scriptures.
• These carvings narrate the adventures of Lord Rama, Sita, Hanuman and Ravana with remarkable artistic detail.
• Interestingly, although the stories originate in India, many of the figures are portrayed with local Javanese artistic characteristics, illustrating how Indian religious narratives were creatively adapted into Southeast Asian culture.
• The temple also features elaborate carvings of celestial beings, floral motifs, mythical creatures and divine guardians, all of which contribute to its rich decorative programme.

 

7. The Sanjaya Dynasty

 

 

• The Sanjaya Dynasty played a crucial role in shaping the religious and cultural history of ancient Java. Emerging during the eighth century CE, the dynasty established the Hindu Mataram Kingdom and became one of the most influential ruling houses in Southeast Asia.
• The rulers of the Sanjaya Dynasty were ardent followers of Hinduism, especially Shaivism, and actively patronised the construction of monumental temples. Their reign witnessed the flourishing of Sanskrit language, Hindu philosophy, literature, sculpture and temple architecture.
• One remarkable aspect of the Sanjaya period was the peaceful coexistence of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms.
• Although the Sanjaya rulers promoted Hinduism, they maintained cordial relations with the neighbouring Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty, which was responsible for constructing the famous Borobudur Temple.
• This coexistence reflects the religious tolerance that characterised much of ancient Southeast Asian civilisation.
• The construction of Prambanan became the greatest architectural achievement of the Sanjaya rulers and continues to stand as a symbol of their cultural and political legacy.

 

8. Prambanan and India's Civilisational Links with Indonesia

 

 

• The significance of Prambanan extends far beyond its architectural beauty. The temple embodies centuries of cultural interaction between India and Southeast Asia.
• From the early centuries of the Common Era, Indian traders, scholars, priests and artisans travelled across the Bay of Bengal, carrying with them religious ideas, Sanskrit literature, artistic traditions and systems of governance.
• These influences were gradually assimilated by local societies without military conquest or political domination.
• The spread of Hinduism and Buddhism contributed to the emergence of Indianised kingdoms across Southeast Asia, including those in present-day Indonesia, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam.
• The Ramayana and Mahabharata became deeply embedded in local traditions, while Sanskrit vocabulary entered regional languages. Even today, Indonesian culture retains numerous references to these ancient civilisational connections.
• The joint conservation project led by the Archaeological Survey of India therefore carries symbolic significance beyond heritage preservation.
• It represents India's commitment to strengthening cultural diplomacy under its Act East Policy and reaffirms the shared historical legacy between India and Indonesia.
• Such initiatives also enhance cooperation in archaeology, tourism, education and cultural exchanges while reinforcing India's image as a responsible stakeholder in preserving global heritage

 

 

9. Way Forward

 

The Prambanan Temple is much more than an ancient Hindu monument; it is a living testament to the enduring civilisational dialogue between India and Southeast Asia. Its magnificent architecture, historical significance and artistic excellence illustrate how Indian religious and cultural traditions travelled across the seas and were creatively adapted by local societies. At the same time, the temple highlights the importance of cultural exchange, religious tolerance and shared heritage in shaping the history of Asia.

 

For Prelims: Current events of national and international importance.   For Mains: General Studies I: Art& Culture General Studies II: Bilateral, regional and global groupings and agreements involving India and/or affecting India’s interests.

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

 

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

 

 

 

1. Context

 

Supreme Court recognised walking on demarcated footpaths as a fundamental right and urged the government to introduce a law that declares this right. The two-judge bench’s ruling came in a case involving the death of a schoolboy in a road accident.

 

 

2. What are the Fundamental Rights?

 

 

• Fundamental Rights are the basic human rights guaranteed by the Constitution of India to all citizens (and, in some cases, to all persons). They are contained in Part III (Articles 12–35) of the Constitution.
• These rights protect the dignity, liberty, equality, and freedom of individuals against arbitrary actions of the State. They also ensure the establishment of a democratic and welfare-oriented society.
• Fundamental Rights form the cornerstone of the Indian Constitution by balancing individual liberty with societal interests. They guarantee equality, freedom, justice, and human dignity while ensuring that governmental power remains subject to constitutional limitations.
• Through judicial interpretation, particularly under Article 21, these rights have evolved into dynamic instruments for protecting civil liberties and promoting constitutional morality, making them indispensable to India's democratic framework

 

3. What are the constitutional articles related to it?

 

 

• Right to Equality (Articles 14–18)
  • Equality before the law
  • Prohibition of discrimination
  • Equality of opportunity in public employment
  • Abolition of untouchability
  • Abolition of titles
• Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22)
  • Freedom of speech and expression
  • Freedom of assembly
  • Freedom to form associations
  • Freedom of movement
  • Freedom to reside anywhere in India
  • Freedom to practice any profession
  • Protection in respect of conviction for offences
  • Protection of life and personal liberty
  • Protection against arbitrary arrest and detention
• Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24)
  • Prohibition of human trafficking and forced labour
  • Prohibition of child labour in hazardous occupations
• Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28)
  • Freedom of conscience and religion
  • Freedom to manage religious affairs
  • Freedom from certain religious taxes
  • Freedom from religious instruction in certain educational institutions
• Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30)
  • Protection of the interests of minorities
  • Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions
• Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32)
  • Right to approach the courts for enforcement of Fundamental Rights. B. R. Ambedkar called this the "heart and soul" of the Constitution.

 

 

4. Fundamental Rights Available Only to Citizens

 

 

 

 

• The Constitution of India guarantees several Fundamental Rights under Part III (Articles 12–35). While many of these rights are available to all persons, including foreigners, certain rights are reserved exclusively for Indian citizens.
• These rights recognize the special legal and political relationship between the State and its citizens.
• They primarily relate to equality, freedom, participation in public affairs, and the protection of India's cultural and educational heritage.
• The Fundamental Rights available only to citizens are contained in Articles 15, 16, 19, 29, and 30.

 

Article 15 prohibits the State from discriminating against any citizen solely on the grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. The objective of this provision is to ensure equality in public life and prevent unfair treatment based on social or personal characteristics Article 16 guarantees equal opportunity to all citizens in matters relating to employment or appointment under the State. Every citizen has the right to compete for public employment without arbitrary discrimination Article 19 is one of the most significant Fundamental Rights because it guarantees the essential freedoms required for the functioning of a democratic society. These freedoms are available only to Indian citizens. Article 29(1) provides that any section of the citizens residing in India having a distinct language, script, or culture has the right to conserve and preserve it. This provision recognizes India's immense cultural and linguistic diversity and seeks to protect the identity of different communities. Article 29 ensures that communities can preserve their traditions, language, literature, and cultural heritage without interference. Article 29(2) further prohibits denial of admission into educational institutions maintained by the State or receiving State aid solely on grounds of religion, race, caste, language, or any of them. Article 30 grants religious and linguistic minorities the right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. The objective is to preserve the identity, culture, language, and traditions of minority communities through education.

 

 

5. Fundamental Rights and Duties Difference

 

 

• The Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties are two essential features of the Constitution of India.
• While Fundamental Rights guarantee certain freedoms and protections to individuals against arbitrary State action, Fundamental Duties remind citizens of their moral and civic obligations towards the nation. Together, they seek to establish a balance between individual liberty and social responsibility, thereby strengthening Indian democracy.
• Fundamental Rights are contained in Part III (Articles 12–35) of the Constitution, whereas Fundamental Duties are contained in Part IVA (Article 51A).
• The Fundamental Duties were inserted by the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee.
• Later, the Eighty-sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India added the eleventh Fundamental Duty, requiring parents or guardians to provide educational opportunities to children between the ages of six and fourteen years.

 

Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties are complementary rather than contradictory. Rights enable citizens to enjoy freedom and dignity, while duties ensure that these freedoms are exercised responsibly without harming society or the nation. For example: The Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression should be exercised responsibly without promoting hatred or violence. The Right to Freedom of Religion should be balanced with the duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood. The Right to Education is complemented by the duty of parents or guardians to provide educational opportunities to children between six and fourteen years of age. The Right to a Clean Environment, recognized through judicial interpretation of Article 21, is supported by the duty to protect and improve the natural environment under Article 51A(g).

 

6. Way Forward

 

The Supreme Court on 19th June held that the right to walk on secured footpaths is a fundamental right and urged the government to bring a law that declares this right and recognises the duty of municipal authorities and local bodies to build, demarcate, and maintain necessary pedestrian infrastructure

 

For Premins:  Indian Polity and Governance, Fundamental rights, Fundamental Duties   For Mains: General Studies II: Indian Constitution—historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure.

 

 

 

Source: Indianexpress

 

 

ECOLOGICALLY SENSITIVE AREA (ESA)

 

 

1. Context

 

Twelve years after it issued the first draft notification, the Centre is finally ready to finalise and notify the demarcation of Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESA) in the Western Ghats region, at least in the three states in which contentious issues have more or less been resolved

 

 

2. What is an ecologically sensitive area?

 

 

• An Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) is a region that possesses unique and fragile environmental characteristics and therefore requires special protection from activities that could cause irreversible ecological damage.
• These areas are rich in biodiversity, provide important ecosystem services, and often support rare or endangered species of plants and animals.
• Because of their ecological significance, any developmental activities in such regions need to be carefully regulated to ensure that economic growth does not come at the cost of environmental degradation.
• The idea behind declaring an area as ecologically sensitive is not to completely stop human activities, but to strike a balance between conservation and development.
• Certain activities that can have severe environmental impacts—such as mining, quarrying, large-scale industries, thermal power plants, or extensive deforestation—are either prohibited or strictly regulated.
• At the same time, sustainable activities like agriculture, horticulture, eco-tourism, and traditional livelihoods are generally encouraged so that local communities can continue to benefit from the resources without destroying them.
• In India, the concept of Ecologically Sensitive Areas derives from the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The Central Government can notify such areas to provide them with an additional layer of protection.
• A notable example is the Western Ghats, one of the world's eight “hottest hotspots” of biodiversity.
• Parts of the Western Ghats have been proposed and notified as Ecologically Sensitive Areas to preserve their rich flora and fauna, maintain water security, regulate climate, and ensure the long-term sustainability of the ecosystem

 

3. Which state has the highest number of ecologically sensitive zones in India?

 

• Maharashtra has the highest number of Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) in India. The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has identified and notified the maximum number of ecologically sensitive zones in the state under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
• This is primarily because Maharashtra has a large number of protected areas, including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and tiger reserves, many of which lie within the biodiversity-rich Western Ghats.
• The state's varied landscapes and rich flora and fauna necessitate the creation of numerous buffer zones to protect these ecosystems from harmful developmental activities

 

4. Who declares ecologically sensitive areas?

 

 

• The Forest Survey of India (FSI) is the apex national institution functioning under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) and is entrusted with the periodic assessment and monitoring of the country’s forest resources.
• Besides conducting forest inventories, the organization also undertakes training, research, and extension activities.
• Established on June 1, 1981, FSI replaced the Pre-investment Survey of Forest Resources (PISFR), which had been launched in 1965 by the Government of India with support from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
• In November 2013, acting on the recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee, the Central Government invoked the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to restrict the establishment and expansion of activities such as mining, quarrying, sand extraction, thermal power projects, large-scale construction, townships, and highly polluting red-category industries.
• The issuance of final Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) notifications further strengthens the legal framework aimed at safeguarding these environmentally fragile regions.

 

 

5. Which are the states where the areas to be demarcated as ESA?

 

The proposed Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) in the Western Ghats spans six states. Based on the recommendations of the Kasturirangan Committee, approximately 56,825 sq. km of the Western Ghats has been identified for demarcation as ESA. These states are:

• Gujarat
• Maharashtra
• Goa
• Karnataka
• Kerala
• Tamil Nadu

Among these, the largest proposed ESA area lies in Karnataka (20,668 sq. km), followed by Maharashtra (17,340 sq. km) and Kerala (about 9,993 sq. km)

 

6. Where do the Western Ghats stretch from?

 

• The Western Ghats, also known as the Sahyadri Hills, form a continuous mountain chain running parallel to the western coast of India.
• They stretch for about 1,600 kilometres from the Tapti (Tapi) River valley in Gujarat in the north to Kanyakumari in Tamil Nadu at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula.
• Along their course, they pass through six states—Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
• The mountain range covers an area of approximately 1,60,000 sq. km and acts as a major watershed, giving rise to several important peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, and Tungabhadra.
• Owing to their exceptional biodiversity and high degree of endemism, the Western Ghats are recognized as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biodiversity and have been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site

 

 

7. Significance of Western Ghats

 

The Western Ghats, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, hold immense ecological, climatic, cultural, and economic significance:

 

• The Western Ghats are one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity. They host over 7,400 species of flowering plants, 139 mammal species, 508 bird species, 179 amphibian species, 6,000 insect species, and 290 freshwater fish species, many of which are endemic.
• A significant proportion of the species found in the Western Ghats are endemic, meaning they are not found anywhere else in the world. This includes many unique species of plants, animals, and microorganisms
• The region provides crucial ecosystem services, such as water purification, climate regulation, soil stabilization, and carbon sequestration
• The Western Ghats play a critical role in the Indian monsoon system. They intercept the moisture-laden winds from the southwest, causing heavy rainfall on the western side, which supports lush forests and agriculture
• The forests of the Western Ghats act as a climate buffer, moderating temperatures and maintaining regional climate stability
• The Western Ghats are the source of numerous rivers, including the Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery, which provide water to millions of people in peninsular India. These rivers are crucial for drinking water, irrigation, and hydropower
• The Western Ghats are home to numerous indigenous communities and tribal groups who have lived in harmony with the environment for centuries. These communities have rich cultural traditions and knowledge systems linked to the forests and biodiversity
• Many areas in the Western Ghats are considered sacred by local communities and host numerous temples, shrines, and pilgrimage sites.
• The Western Ghats support diverse agricultural systems, including spice plantations (pepper, cardamom), tea, coffee, and rubber. These crops are economically significant both domestically and for export

 

8.Way forward

 

Though the negotiations with Kerala and Karnataka are continuing, the Centre is learnt to be preparing to notify the ESA in the states where an agreement on this issue has either been achieved, or is close to being finalised. This is different from the previous attempts in which the Centre had issued draft notifications for ESAs in all the states together

 

 

 

For Prelims: Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Landslides, Flash floods For Mains: GS 1 - Indian Geography

 

 

Previous year questions 1. Which of the following statements in respect of landslides are correct? (NDA 2022) 1. These occur only on gentle slopes during rain. 2. They generally occur in clay-rich soil. 3. Earthquakes trigger landslides. Select the correct answer using the code given below. A. 1 and 2         B. 2 and 3            C. 1 and 3              D. 1, 2 and 3  Answer: (B) For Mains: 1. Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the National Landslide Risk Management Strategy. (250 words) (2021)

 

 

Source: indianexpress