INTEGRATED MAINS AND PRELIMS MENTORSHIP (IMPM) 2025 Daily KEY
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Strategic Mutual Defense Agreement (SMDA) and President’s rule , GST Council , AI and Machine Learning (ML) for the UPSC Exam? Why are topics like Illegal migrants and Earth's Interior, important for both preliminary and main exams? Discover more insights in the UPSC Exam Notes for September 29, 2024
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- Although India and the Arab world share deep-rooted civilisational, historical, and religious bonds, New Delhi’s approach to the region for a long time was marked by ideological caution, concern over Pakistan, and reluctance to engage fully.
- Even as India’s dependence on the Gulf grew significantly — particularly after the oil crises of the 1970s–80s and the rise in Indian expatriate workers (now nearly 10 million) — political ties, especially with Saudi Arabia, remained limited.
- A shift began in the early 21st century with External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh’s visit to Riyadh in 2000, followed by King Abdullah’s landmark 2006 trip to India — the first by a Saudi ruler in five decades.
- Under Prime Minister Modi, however, relations with the Gulf, particularly Saudi Arabia, have advanced into one of the most important aspects of Indian foreign policy.
- Regular top-level exchanges and diplomatic outreach have expanded cooperation in energy, technology, trade, security, and connectivity, with new initiatives expected during Modi’s ongoing visits.
- Meanwhile, Saudi Arabia under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (MbS) has transitioned from a traditionally reactive role in regional politics to a more assertive one — intervening in Yemen, spearheading the Qatar blockade, and confronting Iran.
- Yet, MbS has also shown pragmatism by reconciling with Qatar, re-engaging with Turkey, reaching out to Iran, and signalling openness to normalize relations with Israel, conditional on progress toward a Palestinian state.
- At the same time, Riyadh is diversifying its foreign ties, moving beyond its reliance on Washington through strategic outreach to China, Russia, and emerging powers. Its entry into the expanded BRICS grouping and growing engagement with Africa and Latin America underline its pursuit of greater influence in a multipolar global order.
- Within the region, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) remains central. Formed in 1981 by Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE, it was conceived as a mechanism to collectively address political, security, and economic challenges amid regional upheavals.
- Recently, Saudi Arabia and Pakistan signed the Saudi–Pakistan Mutual Defense Agreement (SMDA), shortly after Israeli airstrikes on Qatar. While its exact terms are undisclosed, a joint statement declared that any attack on one would be treated as aggression against both. Responding to speculation, a senior Saudi official noted that the pact covers “all military means,” though denied specific mention of nuclear guarantees.
- The motivations of both countries differ. For Riyadh, and by extension the Arab Gulf, the pact represents an effort to reduce conflicts in the Middle East. The Saudi–Pakistan defence bond has historically rested on shared religious identity, Saudi financial aid, and Pakistani military backing.
- Pakistan’s involvement has been notable — Gen. Raheel Sharif has led the Islamic Military Counter-Terrorism Coalition since 2015, and Pakistani troops were deployed to Saudi Arabia in 2018 to assist in the Yemen war. Against this backdrop, Pakistan is seen as a reliable partner, especially as Arab states seek to counterbalance Israeli unilateralism in the region.
- The timing of the SMDA suggests that Israel’s strikes in Doha were a stronger trigger for the agreement than even the 2019 Houthi drone attacks on Saudi oil facilities, highlighting the erosion of trust between Israel and Arab powers.
- For Pakistan, however, the calculus is straightforward — leveraging Arab strategic anxieties to strengthen its own deterrence against India while maintaining its longstanding security role in the Gulf.
- By contrast, India’s defence partnership with Saudi Arabia remains relatively new. This was reflected in the 7th India–Saudi Joint Committee on Defence Cooperation meeting in August 2025, where India offered to train Saudi forces — a function Pakistan has long performed. Nonetheless, the relationship is growing, with recent joint exercises and the establishment of a Ministerial Committee on Defence Cooperation in April 2025.
- Saudi Arabia’s balanced stance during India–Pakistan tensions has helped this bilateral partnership grow. As such, the new Saudi–Pakistan defense pact, in its current form, is unlikely to significantly alter the South Asian security dynamic
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Answer (d)
Statement 1: ✅ Correct. Statement 2: ✅ Correct. Statement 3: ✅ Correct. |
For Preliminary Examination: Current events of national and international Significance
For Mains Examination: GS II - Indian Polity
Context:
It’s been eight months now since President’s Rule was introduced in Manipur, with Prime Minister Narendra Modi calling for peace between the Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities during his brief visit to the state on September 13. It was the first time he visited the state since ethnic violence broke out in May 2023. During the recent Monsoon Session of Parliament, President’s Rule in Manipur was extended for another six months
Read about:
What are the constitutional provisions related to the President’s rule?
What are the conditions given in the Constitution that can lead to the imposition of President’s Rule in a state?
Key takeaways:
As per Article 356(1) of the Indian Constitution, if the President, upon receiving a report from a State Governor or through any other source, is convinced that the governance of a State cannot be conducted in accordance with constitutional provisions, the President may issue a Proclamation to:
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Take over all or certain functions of the State government, along with powers vested in the Governor or any authority in the State other than the Legislature;
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Direct that the legislative powers of the State be exercised by or under the authority of the Parliament;
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Make such additional or consequential provisions that the President deems necessary to implement the objectives of the Proclamation, including temporarily suspending any constitutional provisions relating to State bodies or authorities.
- Historical data indicates that since Independence, President’s Rule has been imposed 135 times, starting in 1953. Following its revocation, the ruling party was replaced 87 times, with fresh elections leading to a new party coming to power on 69 occasions—roughly two-thirds of the instances.
- Punjab, including when it was part of the Patiala and East Punjab States Union (PEPSU), has witnessed the most frequent changes in government after the revocation of President’s Rule, with seven occurrences.
- In the early years, Punjab experienced shorter periods of President’s Rule due to political instability, but the longest spells occurred during the 1980s and 1990s amid militant activity.
- Overall, Punjab has been under President’s Rule nine times, totaling 3,878 days, second only to Jammu & Kashmir, which had 4,668 days.
- In terms of frequency, Manipur has experienced the most instances of President’s Rule at 11 times, followed by Uttar Pradesh with 10 stints. While militancy influenced periods of President’s Rule in Punjab, J&K, and Manipur, in Uttar Pradesh it was primarily political instability that triggered its imposition.
- Manipur first came under President’s Rule in 1967, prior to elections for its inaugural Assembly as a Union Territory. Kerala, on the other hand, was the first state to see a non-Congress government in 1957, when the E.M.S. Namboodiripad-led Communist Party of India replaced the Congress following a spell of President’s Rule
Follow Up Question
1.Which of the following are not necessarily the consequences of the proclamation of the President’s rule in a State? (2017)
- Dissolution of the State Legislative Assembly
- Removal of the Council of Ministers in the State
- Dissolution of the local bodies
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
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Answer (b)
When President’s Rule is imposed under Article 356:
Thus, 1 (Assembly) and 3 (local bodies) are not necessarily dissolved, making option b correct |
- On September 3, 2025, the GST Council approved a major restructuring of the indirect tax framework. The new model reduces the number of slabs and lowers GST on most goods. While these changes have been welcomed by many industries, some sectors have expressed dissatisfaction, and concerns remain over possible revenue shortfalls.
- Discussions on rationalising GST rates have been ongoing for several years. In 2021, the Council set up a Group of Ministers (GoM) composed of state representatives to examine this issue, though its progress was limited.
- To accelerate the process, the Union Finance Ministry submitted its proposals to the GoM on August 15, 2025, the same day Prime Minister Narendra Modi described these “next-generation” reforms as a Deepavali gift in his Independence Day speech.
- Following a briefing by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman, the GoM endorsed the proposals and forwarded them to the Council, which took them up in a marathon 10.5-hour meeting on September 3.
- The revised tax structure reduces the earlier slabs of 0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, 28% plus cess to 0%, 5%, 18% and 40%, with most compensation cesses withdrawn. The cess continues only on tobacco products but will also be phased out once the Centre clears its COVID-19 compensation loans.
- Of the 453 items affected, 413 (over 91%) saw rate reductions, particularly shifting common-use goods from 12% to 5%. A smaller group of 40 items faced hikes, including 17 luxury products that moved from 28% to 40%, though in cases like SUVs, the effective tax incidence will actually decline when the cess is removed.
- The timing of these changes is tied to two developments. First, the legal window for levying the compensation cess will soon close, likely by the end of this year, once the Centre repays its borrowings.
- Without new rates, items such as tobacco would have become cheaper, which the government could not justify. Second, the reforms may also cushion the economic impact of recent U.S. tariffs of 50% on Indian imports, which are expected to slow growth in the coming quarters despite a strong 7.8% GDP growth in Q1.
- The healthcare sector has welcomed the cut in GST on medical products from 12% to 5%, highlighting benefits for patients. The renewable energy sector also hailed the reduction on components as a boost to India’s clean energy goals. Real estate developers have praised the lowering of GST on cement from 28% to 18%, while auto manufacturers expect stronger demand from tax cuts on cars and two-wheelers.
- On the other hand, some industries are less satisfied. The textile sector supported the 5% rate on fibres but criticised the 18% duty on garments above ₹2,500, warning it will make woollens and wedding apparel costlier.
- Auto dealers fear customers may delay purchases until the new rates take effect. The insurance sector faces a mixed outcome—while exemptions for personal life and health insurance may deepen penetration, the removal of input tax credits could squeeze profits.
- Airlines opposed the higher tax on non-economy seats, while edible oil producers expressed frustration that the inverted duty structure was not resolved. The MSME sector raised concerns about higher GST on labour charges from 12% to 18%, citing increased operating costs.
- The revenue effects remain contested. The Centre projects a hit of ₹48,000 crore based on current consumption, while an SBI study places the figure closer to ₹3,700 crore. Opposition-ruled states have demanded a cess on the new 40% slab to offset losses, but this proposal was rejected, leaving states dependent on their own resources and the recommendations of the 16th Finance Commission
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Answer (D)
A. It is a destination tax ✅ B. It benefits producing states more ⌠C. It benefits consuming states more ✅ D. It is a progressive taxation ⌠E. It is an umbrella tax to improve ease of doing business ✅ |
Human Involvement in AI Development
- Machines alone cannot interpret the meaning of raw data. This is where data annotators step in—by tagging images, audio, video, and text with relevant information that serves as the foundation for training Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) models.
- For instance, a large language model (LLM) would not be able to identify the colour “yellow” unless the dataset explicitly labelled it. Similarly, autonomous vehicles rely on labelled video inputs to distinguish between pedestrians and traffic signs. The accuracy of AI output largely depends on the quality of these labelled datasets, which in turn requires significant human effort.
- Data annotators are particularly important in training LLMs like ChatGPT or Gemini. Their training process involves three stages: self-supervised learning, supervised learning, and reinforcement learning.
- While the first stage involves machines scanning large Internet datasets, annotators are crucial in the latter two, where they fine-tune responses and provide feedback. This human input helps correct mistakes, remove harmful prompts, and improve accuracy over time.
- A significant portion of this work is outsourced by big tech companies in the U.S. to workers in countries such as Kenya, India, Pakistan, China, and the Philippines. Despite being essential, the annotating jobs are poorly paid and involve long, demanding hours.
- Data labelling is generally divided into two types: tasks requiring little or no subject knowledge, and specialised tasks demanding expertise. Many companies have been criticised for hiring non-specialists for complex work, such as labelling medical scans, which can result in serious errors in AI systems. Some firms have now begun employing professionals for highly technical datasets to reduce such risks
Hidden Human Effort in “Automated” Features
- Even technologies advertised as “fully automated” often depend on unseen human labour. For example, social media platforms filter sensitive content only because human moderators have already reviewed and labelled it as harmful.
- Unfortunately, these workers are constantly exposed to disturbing content—such as graphic violence or explicit material—which has been linked to severe psychological issues like depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
- Likewise, AI-generated audio and video require real human input. Voice actors, dancers, and even children may be recorded so machines can learn human expressions, movements, and sounds.
- In 2024, Kenyan AI workers wrote to former U.S. President Joe Biden, exposing exploitative working conditions. They described being forced to annotate extremely graphic material—ranging from pornography to beheadings—for less than $2 an hour, all under tight deadlines. Many reported that when they protested against such treatment, they were dismissed, and their unions were broken up.
The Invisible Workforce
- Most AI workers operate through digital gig platforms and are often unaware of the actual companies behind the projects. To cut costs, tech companies outsource tasks through multiple layers of subcontractors.
- Workers are paid per “microtask” they complete and are constantly monitored. Missing output targets can lead to immediate dismissal. This fragmented system hides accountability and makes working conditions precarious.
- The rapid progress of AI, therefore, relies on these “ghost workers” whose contributions are invisible but vital. The lack of recognition and the informal nature of their employment allow exploitation to continue.
- To address this, stronger regulations are needed—not only to ensure transparency in digital content but also to safeguard fair pay, labour rights, and dignity for the workers who sustain AI systems
With the present state of development, Artificial Intelligence can effectively do which of the following? (UPSC CSE 2020)
1. Bring down electricity consumption in industrial units
2. Create meaningful short stories and songs
3. Disease diagnosis
4. Text-to-Speech Conversion
5. Wireless transmission of electrical energy
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 5 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 4 and 5 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5
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Answer (b)
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How Earth’s shifting forces drive quakes, floods and climate extremes?
For Preliminary Examination: Floods, Climate Extremes, Earthquakes
For Mains Examination: GS I & III - Geography & Environment and Ecology
Context:
Recently, some countries, including India, Afghanistan, China, and the US, experienced natural disasters in the form of heavy rains, floods, and earthquakes, causing loss of lives and damage to infrastructure. Although these phenomena are not new, their increasing frequency and intensity are a serious cause of concern
Read about:
How does heavy rains, floods, and earthquakes form ?
What is in Earth's Interior?
Key takeaways:
Structure of Earth’s Interior
The Earth’s outer shell is made up of several rigid tectonic plates that vary in size. These plates are not fixed; instead, they drift over a softer, semi-molten layer beneath them called the asthenosphere. Their interactions—whether colliding, separating, or sliding past one another—create distinct landforms such as mountains, plains, and plateaus, while also triggering natural hazards like earthquakes, volcanoes, and tsunamis, as seen recently in Afghanistan.
Though the Earth’s surface appears stable, its interior is composed of three concentric layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core, each with unique properties.
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Crust (5–70 km thick): The outermost shell where all life and physical landforms exist.
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Mantle (up to ~2,900 km deep): Divided into the upper mantle (to ~700 km) and lower mantle (700–2,900 km). The upper mantle contains the lithosphere (rigid, up to ~100 km) and the underlying asthenosphere (ductile, semi-molten, up to ~700 km) that drives plate motion through convection currents.
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Core (~2,900–6,371 km): Extends to the Earth’s centre and is composed mainly of iron and nickel.
Movement of Tectonic Plates
Tectonic plates, comprising the crust and upper mantle, float independently on the asthenosphere. Currently, seven major and several minor plates are active. Their interactions form three main boundary types:
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Convergent boundaries: Where denser plates sink beneath lighter ones (subduction), forming trenches and volcanic activity.
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Divergent boundaries: Where plates pull apart, leading to the creation of new crust.
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Transform boundaries: Where plates move laterally, sliding past one another
Forces Shaping the Earth’s Relief
The Earth’s landforms result from two sets of forces:
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Endogenetic forces (internal): These build landforms by reshaping the surface.
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Sudden forces (e.g., earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis) create rift valleys, faults, and volcanic mountains.
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Diastrophic forces act slowly over geological time, giving rise to mountains, plateaus, and plains. Vertical movements (epeirogenetic) cause submergence or uplift of landmasses, while horizontal movements (orogenetic) lead to folding, faulting, and warping at convergent and divergent zones.
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Exogenetic forces (external): These wear down existing relief through weathering, erosion, mass wasting, and deposition
Theories Explaining Plate Movements
Continents occupy nearly 29% of Earth’s surface, with the remainder covered by oceans.
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Continental Drift (1912): Proposed by Alfred Wegener, this theory suggested that continents are not fixed but drift slowly due to forces like Earth’s rotation and tidal action. However, these forces were considered too weak to move massive landmasses.
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Convection Current Hypothesis (1930s): Arthur Holmes proposed that heat-driven convection currents within the mantle are responsible for the drift.
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Seafloor Spreading (1960s): Harry Hess, studying the ocean floor, demonstrated that new crust forms at mid-ocean ridges and spreads outward, supported by paleomagnetic evidence.
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Plate Tectonic Theory (1967): Developed by McKenzie, Parker, and Morgan, this unified earlier theories and provided a comprehensive explanation for both present and past geological processes
Breakup of Pangaea
Earth, formed about 4.6 billion years ago, has undergone constant changes. Roughly 300–200 million years ago, all continents were joined in a single landmass called Pangaea, surrounded by the ocean Panthalassa.
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Pangaea eventually split into Laurasia (North America, Europe, and Asia) and Gondwanaland (South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica), separated by the Tethys Sea.
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During the Cretaceous period, Gondwanaland fragmented further, leading to the separation of South America from Africa and the creation of the Atlantic Ocean.
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The Indian Plate, once attached to Australia, began moving northward ~71 million years ago. Its collision with the Eurasian Plate, separated earlier by the Tethys Sea, led to the uplift of the Himalayas around 40 million years ago and the opening of the Indian Ocean
1.Consider the following: (2013)
- Electromagnetic radiation
- Geothermal energy
- Gravitational force
- Plate movements
- Rotation of the earth
- Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 only
(b) 1, 3, 5 and 6 only
(c) 2, 4, 5 and 6 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
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Answer (d)
All six contribute to dynamic changes on Earth’s surface. ✅ Correct Answer: (d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 |