Urbanisation, no liberating force for Dalits 

India is experiencing a rapid urbanization process, with a significant shift of population from rural areas to cities.  India's urban population is growing at a fast pace, with estimates suggesting over 34% of the population residing in cities as of 2017 (World Bank). This trend is projected to continue, with predictions suggesting India might become predominantly urban by 2050. Urbanization is not uniform across India. Major metropolitan cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, and Chennai are witnessing explosive growth, while smaller towns and cities are also experiencing an influx of population.

Drivers of Urbanization

• Similar to global trends, cities in India offer greater job prospects, particularly in service sectors like finance, IT, and education. This attracts people, especially youth, seeking better livelihoods.
• Cities generally have better access to education, healthcare, and essential services compared to rural areas. This motivates families to migrate for enhanced living standards.
• Factors like limited job opportunities, insufficient infrastructure, and lack of resources in rural areas can push people to seek a better life in cities.

Impacts of Urbanization in India

• Urbanization can contribute to economic development by fostering businesses, industries, and innovation. However, managing this growth effectively is crucial to maximize benefits.
• Rapid urbanization creates a demand for improved infrastructure like housing, transportation, sanitation, and water supply. This can strain existing resources and require significant investment.
• Urbanization can lead to social problems like slums, poverty, overcrowding, and social inequalities. Additionally, issues like pollution and waste management become more pressing in densely populated cities.
• While migration to cities weakens some traditional caste structures, caste discrimination persists in urban spaces. Segregation and social exclusion based on caste can still be prevalent, particularly in housing and employment.

Challenges

• Effective urban planning is essential to ensure sustainable growth and manage infrastructure needs. This includes creating inclusive cities that address issues like slums and provide basic necessities for all residents.
• Promoting social integration and addressing caste-based discrimination are crucial for creating a just and equitable urban society.
• Strategies for sustainable urban development and environmental protection are vital to minimize the impact of growing cities on pollution and resource utilization.

2. The Dalit Liberation Movement

The Dalit Liberation Movement, also known as the Dalit Movement, is a social and political struggle aimed at addressing the systemic discrimination and oppression faced by Dalits, formerly known as "untouchables," in Indian society. The movement traces its roots to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with the efforts of social reformers like Jyotirao Phule and B.R. Ambedkar. These pioneers advocated for the rights and dignity of Dalits, challenging the caste-based hierarchical system that relegated them to the lowest rungs of society.

• The primary goal of the Dalit Liberation Movement is to eradicate caste-based discrimination and achieve social, economic, and political equality for Dalits. This involves challenging entrenched social norms, fighting for land rights, access to education, and representation in government and other institutions.
• B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent Dalit leader and the chief architect of the Indian Constitution, played a pivotal role in articulating the grievances of Dalits and advocating for their rights. Other influential leaders include Jyotirao Phule, Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, and Kanshi Ram, who mobilized Dalits and spearheaded movements for social justice and empowerment.
• The Dalit Liberation Movement employs a variety of strategies to advance its objectives, including grassroots organizing, mass mobilization, legal advocacy, and political representation. Protests, demonstrations, and campaigns against caste-based violence and discrimination are common tactics used by activists to raise awareness and demand change.
• The movement faces significant challenges, including deep-rooted caste prejudice, systemic inequality, and political marginalization. However, it has also achieved notable successes, such as the implementation of affirmative action policies (reservations) to promote Dalit representation in education and employment sectors.
• The Dalit Liberation Movement remains highly relevant in contemporary India, as Dalits continue to face discrimination and violence in various spheres of life. Activists and organizations continue to advocate for the rights and dignity of Dalits, challenging caste-based oppression and striving for a more inclusive and equitable society.

The debate surrounding Indian village life, its significance, and its role in social structure and governance has been a subject of contention between two prominent figures in Indian history: B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi.

Ambedkar's Perspective

B.R. Ambedkar, a staunch advocate for Dalit rights and social reform, viewed the Indian village as a microcosm of the entrenched caste system. He rejected the romanticized notion of village life, arguing that it perpetuated caste domination and social inequality. Ambedkar believed that the village was the epitome of the Hindu social order, where caste-based discrimination thrived. He encouraged Dalits to move to urban areas, seeing cities as spaces with more opportunities for social mobility and equality.

Gandhi's Perspective

On the other hand, Mahatma Gandhi held a contrasting view of the Indian village. He saw villages as self-reliant, equitable, and non-violent communities, embodying the principles of his concept of Gram Swaraj or village self-governance. Gandhi advocated for the decentralization of power to villages, believing that local governance would promote democracy and socio-economic justice. He envisioned villages as the cornerstone of India's socio-economic and political structure.

Ambedkar's Opposition in the Constituent Assembly

During the deliberations of the Constituent Assembly, Ambedkar vehemently opposed the idea of recognizing villages as autonomous administrative units. He expressed relief when the Assembly rejected this proposition, stating that such recognition would have been a calamity for the untouchables, further entrenching their marginalization within the caste-based village structure.

B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent leader in the fight for Dalit rights and social reform, viewed urbanization as a potential avenue for Dalit liberation from the oppressive structures of caste prevalent in Indian villages. He believed that the systems of caste oppression that thrived in rural areas, such as segregation into ghettos, economic restrictions, and denial of land ownership, weakened in urban environments.

City Life as Liberating

Ambedkar, along with Jyotirao Phule, admired city life for its liberal atmosphere and opportunities for economic independence. They saw anonymity in cities as a means to escape the confines of caste-based identities. In urban settings, individuals could transcend their caste backgrounds and be judged based on their abilities and resources rather than their caste lineage. Cities offered the prospect of transitioning from a caste-based social order to a class-based one, where social status was determined by wealth and capital accumulation rather than birth.

Challenges and Realities

 However, Ambedkar was not blind to the challenges that Dalits faced in urban areas. He acknowledged that caste continued to adapt and exert its influence even in urbanization processes. In his autobiographical work, "Waiting for a Visa," Ambedkar recounted his struggles in finding accommodation in Baroda, highlighting the persistence of caste discrimination in urban spaces.

Caste Persistence in Urban Contexts

Despite the aspirations for liberation through urbanization, the spatial logic of Indian cities remains deeply rooted in caste. Even in modern urban settings, caste-based discrimination and segregation persist, hindering the full realization of Ambedkar's vision of Dalit emancipation in urban spaces.

5. Manifestation of Caste in Urban Spaces

The spatial organization of Indian cities reflects the deeply entrenched caste dynamics through the lens of 'purity-pollution'. This manifests in various aspects, including housing discrimination and state-imposed regulations targeting specific communities.

Housing Discrimination

A 2021 consumer survey highlighted that the consumption of non-vegetarian food is a significant deterrent in securing rental housing in India. This bias against non-vegetarianism perpetuates the ideology of purity associated with savarna spaces, contrasting them with the perceived pollution brought by Dalit bodies, marked by meat-eating habits.

Ghettoization and Caste Body

Gopal Guru's analysis of segregation policies during the Peshwa rule illustrates how the ghetto is not merely a physical space but also shapes the identity and constitution of the ghetto dweller's body. The language of purity-pollution, deeply rooted in caste ideology, stigmatizes Dalit bodies as impure, further reinforced by their residence in areas perceived as filthy.

State-Imposed Regulations

Recent instances of state intervention further entrench caste-based discrimination in urban public spaces. In Uttar Pradesh, regulations issued in 2017 targeted meat shops, imposing restrictions on their location and appearance to avoid offending religious sentiments. Similarly, municipal corporations in Gujarat banned the sale of meat-based street food on main roads under the guise of upholding religious sentiments.

Brahminical Regulation and Stigmatization

These regulations reflect Brahminical norms that equate meat consumption with impurity, framing it as a threat to the sanctity of public spaces. By characterizing meat as impure and polluting, the state reinforces caste hierarchies and marginalizes communities associated with meat-eating practices.

6. Caste-Based Segregation in Urban Spaces

Urban governance policies and housing crises have entrenched caste-based segregation, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities such as Dalits and Muslims.

• Studies by scholars like Raphael Susewind, Sheba Tejani, and Christophe Jaffrelot reveal that Muslims and Dalits encounter severe segregation in Indian cities, perpetuated by urban governance practices.
• Research indicates that Dalit and Muslim ghettos face inadequate public services and limited access to municipal infrastructure, including clean drinking water. These marginalized communities bear the brunt of neglect in urban planning and development.
• Areas designated as "sacrifice zones," marked by severe environmental pollution such as landfills, are predominantly inhabited by Dalits and Muslims. This environmental injustice exacerbates the marginalization experienced by these communities.
• Reports from the Housing and Land Rights Network highlight how Dalits and Muslims are disproportionately affected by forced evictions and slum demolition drives. These actions exacerbate housing insecurity and perpetuate cycles of poverty and disenfranchisement.
• Despite the hopes pinned on urbanization by the Dalit liberation movement, the reality falls short of expectations. While urban life may have weakened some forms of caste oppression, new structures have emerged, perpetuating caste-based discrimination through language, state policies, and urban planning.
• Ambedkar's vision of urbanization as a pathway to liberation remains unrealized. Despite a century of urban development, Dalits continue to inhabit marginalized spaces, reflecting Ambedkar's description of them as "the children of India's ghettos."