DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION

Education has played a vital role in the development of India. It has helped to improve the lives of millions of Indians by providing them with the knowledge and skills they need to succeed in life. Education has also helped to promote social justice and equality in India.

Before independence, education in India was largely confined to the elite, and illiteracy rates were high. The British colonial government made some efforts to expand education, but the focus was on primary education for boys only. Secondary and higher education were limited and expensive, and largely accessible to the wealthy.

The Charter Act of 1813 played a crucial role in the development of education in India under British colonial rule. Here are the key provisions and their impact on education:

Provisions for the Development of Education

• The most significant provision of the Charter Act of 1813 was the allocation of funds for the promotion of education in India. It earmarked a sum of one lakh rupees per annum for this purpose. Later, this amount was increased to ten lakhs. This marked the first significant financial commitment by the British authorities to promote education in India.
• The funds allocated were intended for the establishment of educational institutions, especially in British-administered territories. These institutions played a pivotal role in the spread of Western-style education.
• The Act authorized the government to spend money on the printing and distribution of religious texts, especially those that were aimed at promoting Christian values. This provision had both educational and religious implications.

Impact on Education

• The allocation of funds for education marked the beginning of British efforts to introduce Western-style education in India. This would eventually lead to the creation of educational institutions that followed British curricula and teaching methods.
• The Act paved the way for the establishment of institutions that would become the foundation of modern education in India. For example, the funds were used to establish Calcutta University in 1857, which became one of the premier educational institutions in the country.
• Many of the institutions established with funds from the Act used English as the medium of instruction. This contributed to the spread of the English language in India, which would later become a prominent medium of instruction and administration.
• The Act's focus on education aimed at creating a class of Indians who could assist in the administration of British India. This would eventually lead to the emergence of a new class of educated Indians who played key roles in various fields, including administration, law, journalism, and social reform.
• Over time, the Act and subsequent legislative measures brought about a transformation in the Indian education system. While the initial intent may have been to create a cadre of clerks and assistants for the British administration, it ultimately led to broader educational advancements in India.

Defects

Despite its significance, the Charter Act of 1813 had limitations and defects:

• The funds allocated were insufficient to meet the educational needs of the vast Indian population. The focus was primarily on the British administration's requirements.
• The Act had a strong Christian missionary influence, with provisions for the promotion of Christian religious texts. This led to concerns about the potential cultural and religious impact on Indian society.
• Access to the newly established educational institutions was primarily available to the elite and urban population, limiting the reach of modern education in rural areas.

The Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy in 19th-century British India was a significant educational and intellectual debate that had a profound impact on Indian education and culture under colonial rule.

Orientalists

The Orientalists advocated for the promotion of traditional Indian languages like Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian, along with classical texts, as the basis for education. They believed in preserving India's indigenous knowledge systems, languages, and cultural heritage.

Anglicists

The Anglicists, in contrast, championed the use of the English language as the medium of instruction and Western-style education. They argued that English education was essential to create a class of Indians who could engage with British institutions, participate in administrative roles, and bridge the cultural gap between the British and Indian populations.

Key Points of Contention

• The primary point of contention was the medium of instruction. Orientalists favoured education in vernacular languages and classical texts, while Anglicists advocated for English as the medium.
• Orientalists stressed the study of classical Indian texts, culture, and philosophy, while Anglicists supported a curriculum that included Western science, literature, and modern subjects.
• The Orientalists were concerned that English education posed a threat to Indian culture and religious traditions, viewing it as a form of cultural imperialism.
• In contrast, Anglicists argued that English education would promote modernity and social progress.

Resolution

The controversy did not lead to a clear victory for either side. Instead, the British administration adopted a policy of balance, promoting both vernacular languages and English in different regions and contexts.

Impact

• The compromise resulted in the coexistence of various types of educational institutions in India, including vernacular schools, English-medium schools, and colleges offering a mix of subjects.
• English education did create a new class of Indians proficient in English and Western knowledge, playing pivotal roles in administration, law, journalism, and social reform.
• The spread of the English language in India led to the decline of some traditional languages and impacted Indian culture by introducing Western ideas and values.

Criticism

The Anglicist perspective faced criticism. Many argued that it alienated Indians from their cultural roots, primarily serving British interests. The prioritization of English education was seen as an attempt to create a class of Indians more loyal to the British than to their own culture and heritage.

3. Efforts of Thomson

James Thomson, the lieutenant governor of the North-Western Provinces from 1843 to 1853, was a strong advocate for education. He believed that education was essential for the development of India and its people.

Thomson's efforts to improve education in India included:

• Thomson worked to establish a network of village schools that would provide basic education to children in rural areas. These schools were taught in the vernacular languages and focused on practical subjects such as agriculture and mensuration.
• Thomson was a strong supporter of female education. He believed that educating girls was essential for the development of India. He established several girls' schools in the North-Western Provinces and encouraged other provinces to do the same.
• Thomson believed that teachers were essential to the success of any education system. He worked to improve the quality of teacher training by establishing training schools and providing scholarships to teachers who wanted to further their education.
• Thomson believed that education should be affordable for all children. He reduced the fees charged by government schools and made it easier for poor children to attend school.

Thomson's efforts led to a significant increase in the number of children attending school in the North-Western Provinces. By the time he left office in 1853, the number of schools in the province had increased from 1,000 to over 10,000 and the number of students enrolled had increased from 20,000 to over 200,000.

Wood's Dispatch of 1854, also known as the Charter of Education, was a significant policy document that played a pivotal role in shaping the educational framework of British India. The mid-19th century witnessed significant social, political, and economic changes in India under British colonial rule. The need for a well-structured educational system to cater to these changing dynamics became evident.

Objectives

Wood's Dispatch had several key objectives, including:

1. Establishment of a well-organized educational system in India.
2. Promotion of education for a broader section of society, beyond the elite.
3. Development of educational institutions at different levels.
4. Promotion of vernacular languages and culture alongside English education.
5. Recognition of the significance of female education.
6. Improvement of teacher training.
7. Promotion of scientific and technical education.
8. Financial allocation for education.

Provisions

The Dispatch provided a comprehensive plan for the development of education in India:

1. It recommended the establishment of universities, colleges, and schools to provide a structured education system.
2. The Dispatch emphasized that primary and secondary education should be imparted in vernacular languages to make education more accessible to the masses.
3. English education was promoted at higher levels to prepare Indians for administrative and professional roles.
4. Female education was encouraged and provisions were made to promote the education of girls.
5. Teacher training institutions, like Normal Schools, were established to improve the quality of teaching.
6. A dedicated budget for education was recommended.

Impact

Wood's Dispatch had a profound and lasting impact on the education system in India:

1. It laid the foundation for a more organized and comprehensive educational framework, with the establishment of universities, colleges, and schools.
2. The emphasis on vernacular languages and female education contributed to the broadening of educational access.
3. Teacher training programs improved the quality of instruction.
4. The allocation of funds for education allowed for the growth and expansion of educational institutions.
5. It marked the beginning of a shift from traditional learning to a more modern and structured system.

Significance

Wood's Dispatch is considered a landmark in the history of education in India. It transformed education from an elitist pursuit to a more inclusive and comprehensive system, laying the foundation for the development of modern education in the country. It also recognized the importance of preserving Indian languages and culture alongside English education.

Hunter Commission (1882-83)

The Hunter Commission of 1882-83, officially known as the Indian Education Commission of 1882-83, was a significant educational inquiry during the British colonial era in India. The commission was led by Sir William Wilson Hunter, and its findings and recommendations had a lasting impact on the education system in India. 

Historical Background

In the late 19th century, the British government in India realized the need for a comprehensive review of the education system, which had evolved since the implementation of Wood's Dispatch in 1854.

The objective was to assess the progress made in education and suggest reforms based on the changing educational and social context.

Objectives

The main objectives of the Hunter Commission were as follows:

1. To evaluate the progress and impact of the education policies, particularly in the context of Wood's Dispatch of 1854.
2. To review the state of primary, secondary, and higher education in India.
3. To assess the role of education in promoting social and economic development.
4. To recommend improvements and reforms in the education system.

Provisions and Recommendations

The Hunter Commission made several significant recommendations and observations:

1. It noted the need for strengthening primary education and expanding access to basic education for the masses.
2. The Commission emphasized the importance of teacher training and recommended establishing teacher training institutions.
3. It recognized the significance of vocational and technical education for promoting employment and self-reliance.
4. The Commission encouraged the development of educational facilities for women and recommended enhancing the quality of female education.
5. It discussed the importance of using vernacular languages for primary and secondary education.
6. The Commission recognized the role of universities in advancing knowledge and research and suggested reforms in university education.
7. It recommended measures to promote education among various communities and regions of India.

Impact

The recommendations of the Hunter Commission had a significant and long-lasting impact on the Indian education system:

1. The emphasis on primary education and teacher training led to the establishment of numerous primary schools and teacher training institutions.
2. The recommendations regarding technical education laid the foundation for technical institutions and vocational training centres.
3. Increased focus on female education and the establishment of schools for girls contributed to greater gender equality in education.
4. The recognition of vernacular languages for education paved the way for a multilingual approach in Indian schools.
5. The Commission's findings influenced subsequent educational policies and reforms in India.

By the early 20th century, the educational landscape in India had evolved significantly, with several universities and educational institutions established. The Indian Universities Act, 1904, was introduced as part of the broader British efforts to standardize and regulate university education in India. The Indian Universities Act, 1904 was a significant legislative piece enacted by the British colonial government in India. This act aimed to bring about reforms and regulations in the functioning of universities in India.

Objectives

The primary objectives of the Indian Universities Act, 1904, were as follows:

• The act aimed to standardize university degrees, making them recognized and accepted across different universities and institutions in India.
• It sought to provide a framework for the governance and administration of universities in British India.
• The act aimed to regulate and standardize university examinations, ensuring that they maintained a certain level of quality and rigour.
• It provided for the inspection and control of affiliated and constituent colleges and institutions to ensure they met specific academic standards.
• The act included financial provisions related to university funding and the allocation of resources.
• The act established advisory bodies, such as the Senate, for universities to provide input on academic and administrative matters.
• It addressed the recognition of degrees, diplomas, and certificates awarded by various universities.

Key Provisions

The act introduced several key provisions that had a significant impact on university education in India:

• It created the concept of a "Teaching University" and an "Affiliating University," each with different functions and responsibilities.
• The act provided for the appointment of a Vice-Chancellor, who was to be the principal executive officer of the university.
• The Senate, an advisory body, was established to provide input on academic and administrative matters.
• The act outlined the process for the recognition of degrees, ensuring that degrees awarded by universities were valid and accepted.
• It allowed universities to inspect and control affiliated colleges to maintain academic standards.
• Financial provisions were included to address the allocation of funds and resources for universities.

Impact

The Indian Universities Act, of 1904, had a significant impact on the higher education system in British India:

• It established a framework for the governance and administration of universities, which continued to influence the structure of universities in independent India.
• The act's provisions regarding examinations and degree recognition helped standardize the academic qualifications awarded by different universities.
• It contributed to the development of universities as centres of higher learning and research.
• The concept of affiliating universities and constituent colleges became a prominent feature of the Indian higher education system.

The Government Resolution on Education Policy of 1913 was a significant policy document formulated during the British colonial rule in India. It addressed various aspects of education and had a substantial impact on the development of the education system. Below are the key features and objectives of the Government Resolution on Education Policy of 1913:

Historical Background

• By the early 20th century, there was growing recognition of the need for reforms in the Indian education system.
• The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 included provisions for making education a subject of Indian responsibility.
• The Government Resolution on Education Policy of 1913 was aimed at addressing the educational needs of the Indian population.

Objectives

The primary objectives of the Government Resolution on Education Policy of 1913 were as follows:

• The policy aimed to extend the benefits of education to a larger section of the Indian population, especially in rural areas.
• It recognized the importance of vernacular languages and aimed to promote the use of regional languages in education.
• The policy emphasized the role of vernacular primary schools as the foundation of education.
• The policy focused on the training and qualifications of teachers, seeking to improve the quality of instruction.
• It highlighted the need for the development of technical and vocational education to meet the demands of the growing economy.
• The policy supported a decentralized approach to education to address regional and local needs effectively.
• It advocated for the introduction of post-primary education to cater to students beyond the primary level.
• The policy recognized the importance of female education and sought to promote the education of girls.

Key Provisions

• The Government Resolution on Education Policy of 1913 included several important provisions
• It emphasized the significance of vernacular schools in providing a basic education in the mother tongue of the students.
• The policy recognized the importance of technical and vocational education and proposed the establishment of more technical institutions.
• It encouraged the establishment of girls' schools and sought to remove cultural barriers to female education.
• The policy included provisions for the training of teachers to enhance the quality of instruction.

Impact

 The Government Resolution on Education Policy of 1913 had a significant impact on the education system in India:

• It marked a shift toward recognizing the role of vernacular languages and the importance of education in the mother tongue.
• The policy led to the expansion of educational opportunities, especially at the primary level, benefiting a broader section of the population.
• Emphasis on teacher training contributed to the professional development of educators.
• It was a step towards promoting the education of girls, although progress in this regard was gradual.
• The policy laid the foundation for further developments in Indian education, including the expansion of technical and vocational education.

The Saddler University Commission of 1917-1919 was a notable commission appointed by the Government of India to review the state of universities and higher education in British India. The commission was chaired by Michael Ernest Sadler, an English historian and educationist. Its primary purpose was to assess the state of universities, recommend improvements, and provide insights into the development of higher education in India. 

Background

• The commission was formed during British colonial rule when there was a growing demand for educational reforms in India.
• The aftermath of World War I created new dynamics and challenges in the Indian context.
• The British government felt the need to evaluate the state of higher education to meet the evolving needs of India.

Objectives

• The commission aimed to assess the condition of existing universities in India, including their organization, governance, curriculum, and quality of instruction.
• It sought to provide recommendations for reforms and improvements in the higher education system.
• The commission looked into the courses offered by universities, teaching methods, and the relevance of the curriculum to India's social, economic, and cultural context.
• The commission examined the administrative and financial structure of universities and their relationship with the government.

Key Recommendations

• The commission recommended the expansion of universities in different regions of India to provide more accessible higher education.
• It suggested the Indianisation of university education, including increased representation of Indians in university governance.
• The commission encouraged the diversification of courses to cater to the different needs of students.
• It emphasized the need for promoting research in universities and creating an academic environment conducive to research activities.
• The commission recommended stronger links between universities and industries to promote vocational education and research in applied fields.

Impact

• The commission's recommendations provided the foundation for several educational reforms in India, both during the colonial period and after independence.
• Its emphasis on expanding universities led to the establishment of several new universities in different regions of India.
• The recommendations contributed to the development of research activities and the creation of a research-oriented culture in higher education.
• The commission's call for increased Indian representation in university governance contributed to a more inclusive and diverse higher education system.
• The recommendations influenced curricular reforms and the development of new courses to meet the evolving needs of society.

Education under Dyarchy refers to the educational policies and systems that were in place during the period of Dyarchy in British India, particularly from 1919 to 1935. Dyarchy was introduced as a constitutional experiment through the Government of India Act, 1919, and it aimed to share power between Indian representatives and the British government. During this period, education was one of the key areas under the purview of the Dyarchy system.

Key Features

• Under Dyarchy, the powers of the provincial government were divided into two categories: "transferred" and "reserved." Transferred subjects, including education, were under the control of elected Indian ministers, while reserved subjects remained under the control of British officials.
• Dyarchy provided a limited form of provincial autonomy by allowing elected Indian ministers to handle certain aspects of provincial governance, including education.
• Local boards and universities gained more autonomy and had increased roles in educational matters.

Impact on Education

• The introduction of Dyarchy allowed Indian ministers to have a say in educational policies, curricula, and funding.
• Many universities and educational institutions flourished during this period due to increased local control and funding. Some universities were established in the provinces.
• Elected ministers had the authority to introduce reforms in the educational curriculum, leading to greater emphasis on Indian culture, languages, and history.
• Dyarchy policies encouraged the use of vernacular languages in education, and several vernacular-medium schools were established.
• The increased influence of Indian ministers and local educational authorities led to greater involvement of students and teachers in the formulation of educational policies.

Challenges

• Despite the increased role of Indian ministers, significant powers remained reserved with British authorities, limiting the scope of reforms.
• The education policies varied from province to province, leading to disparities in educational standards and curricula.
• The limited control over finances often hindered the implementation of ambitious educational reforms.

End of Dyarchy

Dyarchy came to an end with the Government of India Act, 1935, which introduced provincial autonomy and led to the formation of provincial governments with full control over education and other subjects.

The Hartog Committee, officially known as the Indian Statutory Commission on the Teaching of English, was a significant committee formed in British India. The committee's primary purpose was to evaluate the state of English education in India and provide recommendations for its improvement. 

The Hartog Committee was appointed in 1929 during British colonial rule in India. The committee was chaired by Sir Philip Hartog, a British educationist and economist. It consisted of various other members, including Indian and British educationists and officials.

Objectives

• The primary objective of the Hartog Committee was to assess the state of English education in India. This included examining the curriculum, teaching methods, and the role of English in Indian education.
• The committee aimed to provide recommendations for the development and enhancement of English education in India.

Key Findings and Recommendations

• The committee recognized the importance of English as a language for higher education, administration, and as a means of communication in India.
• The Hartog Committee recommended the promotion of vernacular (local) languages alongside English to ensure that students received education in their mother tongues at the primary level.
• The committee proposed decentralization of education to ensure greater control at the provincial and local levels, thus catering to the specific needs and interests of different regions.
• It suggested curricular reforms that were more relevant to the Indian context and encouraged the development of creative and critical thinking among students.
• The committee emphasized the need for improved teacher training programs to enhance the quality of instruction.
•  It recommended increasing scholarships and grants to support education, particularly for students from marginalized communities.
• The Hartog Committee stressed the importance of providing education to women, expanding educational opportunities for girls, and ensuring gender equality in schools.

Impact

• The recommendations of the Hartog Committee were influential in shaping educational policies in British India.
• They encouraged a more balanced approach to language and curriculum, focusing on the promotion of vernacular languages and acknowledging the significance of English as a tool for higher education and administration.
• The committee's findings and recommendations provided valuable insights into the development of the educational system in India.
• While not all of its suggestions were immediately implemented, they contributed to subsequent educational reforms, including those under the Government of India Act, of 1935.

The Wardha Scheme of Basic Education, also known as the Wardha Scheme, was a significant development in the field of education in British India. It was formulated in 1937 under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and was aimed at providing a holistic and child-centric education system. 

Historical Background

• The Wardha Scheme was significantly influenced by Mahatma Gandhi's educational philosophy.
• Gandhi believed that education should be linked to the daily life experiences of children and should promote moral and ethical values.
• Mahatma Gandhi emphasized the importance of education that would nurture the physical, mental, and moral development of children.
• He wanted an education system that would be closely connected to rural life and the development of character.

Objectives

• The primary objective of the Wardha Scheme was to provide a holistic education that focused on the overall development of the child—physical, mental, and moral.
• It aimed to instil Indian cultural and moral values in students. The scheme emphasized the importance of local traditions, crafts, and culture.
• The scheme aimed to establish schools in rural areas, making education accessible to children in villages and linking education with rural life.
• It encouraged the development of practical skills and vocational education to equip students with the knowledge and skills needed to be self-reliant and contribute to the economic well-being of their communities.
• The scheme focused on promoting cottage industries, as Gandhi believed that this would not only provide practical skills to students but also help in the economic upliftment of rural communities.

Key Features

• The Wardha Scheme introduced a concept of "basic education," which was intended to be the foundation for all further learning. Basic education included subjects such as handicrafts, agriculture, and other practical skills in addition to the usual subjects.
• The curriculum was designed to be integrated and based on the local context. It included activities that connected education with daily life experiences.
• Emphasis was placed on vocational training and practical skills that would help students become economically self-sufficient.
• The scheme encouraged students to actively participate in their own education, focusing on learning by doing.

Impact

• The Wardha Scheme was influential in shaping the philosophy of education in India. While it did not become the official system of education in the country, it inspired educational reforms and had a lasting impact on the development of education in India.
• It contributed to the promotion of practical and vocational education, which later found expression in various educational policies.
• It also emphasized the importance of local languages and cultural traditions in the education system.
• The Wardha Scheme of Basic Education reflected Mahatma Gandhi's vision for an educational system that nurtured the physical, mental, and moral development of students and connected them with their communities and traditions.
• This vision of holistic education remains a significant aspect of Indian educational philosophy.

• The Sergeant Plan of Education, also known as the Report of the Sargent Commission on Post-War Education Development in India, was a 1944 memorandum prepared at the behest of the British-run Government of India that outlined the future development of literacy and education in India.
• A central goal of the Sergeant Scheme was the educational reconstruction of India.
• It recommended the introduction of free and compulsory education for all Indian children in the 6-11 years age group.
• The plan aimed to bring about universal literacy in India within 40 years of its introduction, i.e. by 1984.
• The Sergeant Plan of Education was a landmark document in the history of Indian education.
• It was the first comprehensive plan to cover all stages and aspects of education – pre-primary, primary, high school and university education, as well as, technical, vocational and professional education. It provided equal opportunities to all students.

The main features of the Sergeant Plan of Education were:

1. Free and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 and 11.
2. A common curriculum for all students, regardless of their caste or social status.
3. The use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction at the primary level.
4. The introduction of technical and vocational education at the secondary level.
5. The expansion of higher education.

• The Sergeant Plan of Education was a visionary document that laid the foundation for the modern education system in India.
• It helped to popularize the idea of free and compulsory education and the importance of education in the mother tongue.
• It also inspired the development of new educational programs that emphasized the importance of technical and vocational education.
• The Sergeant Plan of Education was not fully implemented during the British period.
• However, it had a significant impact on the development of education in India after independence.
• The Indian government adopted many of the recommendations of the Sergeant Plan of Education in its own education policies.
• The Sergeant Plan of Education is still relevant today. It provides a valuable model for education that is accessible to all, relevant to the needs of the community, and empowering for students.

The Kothari Education Commission, officially known as the "Education Commission (1964-66)" or the "Second Education Commission," was a significant education commission in India. It was chaired by Dr. Daulat Singh Kothari, a renowned physicist and educationist. The commission was appointed by the Government of India to examine the state of education in the country and provide recommendations for its improvement.

Key Highlights of the Kothari Education Commission

• The Kothari Commission conducted a comprehensive review of the education system in India, from the school level to higher education. It aimed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the existing system.
• One of the notable recommendations of the commission was the introduction of a Common School System. It proposed a uniform and common structure for school education, which would provide equal educational opportunities to all children, irrespective of their socio-economic backgrounds.
• The commission recommended the adoption of a 10+2+3 system of education, which meant ten years of school education (6-16 years of age), followed by two years of intermediate education and three years of undergraduate education.
• The commission emphasized the need for rigorous teacher training and professional development to improve the quality of education.
• The Kothari Commission emphasized the principle of equalization of educational opportunities to address disparities and ensure that quality education reaches every segment of the population.
• It recommended that regional languages be used as the medium of instruction during the initial years of schooling to make education more accessible and relevant to students.
• The commission also made several recommendations for improving higher education in India, including the establishment of autonomous universities, strengthening postgraduate education, and promoting research.
•  It called for better coordination and planning of educational activities at both the state and national levels.

Vernacular education refers to the education provided in the native or regional languages of a particular area or community. It played a crucial role in the development of education in various regions, especially during the colonial period in India. 

Pre-Colonial Period

• Before British colonial rule, education in India was primarily imparted in regional languages and scripts.
• Traditional systems of learning, such as gurukuls and madrasas, used vernacular languages for instruction.
• The promotion and preservation of cultural and religious texts in vernacular languages, like Sanskrit, Tamil, Telugu, and Bengali, were vital for the transmission of knowledge.

British Colonial Rule

• The advent of British colonialism significantly transformed the educational landscape in India.
• Initially, the British promoted English education through institutions like Fort William College in Calcutta and other schools.
• They considered English education essential for creating a class of Indians who could assist in administrative roles.
• The neglect of vernacular education by the British administration led to concerns about the erosion of local cultures and languages.

Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy

• During the 19th century, a debate known as the Orientalist-Anglicist Controversy took place.
• Orientalists supported the promotion of traditional Indian languages and texts, while Anglicists advocated for English education.
• The outcome was a compromise that recognized both English and vernacular languages as mediums of instruction.
• However, English-language education gained more prominence in urban areas.

Vernacular Education Movements

• Recognizing the importance of vernacular education, various social and educational reformers, including Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Keshab Chandra Sen, played a vital role in promoting native language education.
• They established vernacular schools, published textbooks, and campaigned for the spread of vernacular literacy.

Post-Independence Era

• After India gained independence in 1947, there was a renewed focus on promoting vernacular languages and preserving cultural diversity.
• State governments introduced policies to encourage primary education in regional languages. The Three-Language Formula was implemented to promote multilingualism.
• Vernacular education has played a significant role in preserving and promoting regional cultures, traditions, and languages. It has contributed to the diversity of India's education system.

National Education Policy

• Various national education policies in independent India have emphasized the importance of multilingualism and the use of vernacular languages in education.
• The National Education Policy of 1986 and the National Education Policy of 2020, for instance, emphasize the need for a strong foundation in the mother tongue or regional language.

Challenges and Opportunities

• Challenges include variations in the quality of vernacular education across different states, the digital divide, and the need to adapt to a rapidly changing world.
• With the growth of vernacular language media, there are opportunities to leverage these languages for educational content and dissemination.

Technical education in India has a long and rich history, dating back to the pre-colonial era. However, it was during the British colonial period that technical education began to develop more systematically.

In the early 19th century, the British government established several technical schools and colleges to train skilled workers for the railways, telegraph, and other industries. These institutions were modelled on British technical schools, and they taught a variety of subjects, such as engineering, surveying, and carpentry.

The development of technical education in India:

• Before independence, technical education in India was relatively limited. It was primarily imparted through apprenticeships and vocational training. There were some technical institutions and engineering colleges established during the colonial period, but their numbers were limited.
• The establishment of engineering colleges, such as the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur in 1951, played a crucial role in the development of technical education. These institutions were created to produce a skilled workforce to meet the technological demands of the country.
• Over the years, the number of IITs in India has grown, and they have been recognized globally for their quality technical education. The expansion of the IIT system has helped India produce world-class engineers and technologists.
• Alongside IITs, polytechnic colleges have played a significant role in providing diploma-level technical education. These institutions offer practical training and skill development in various technical fields.
• Industrial Training Institutes (ITIs) have been established to provide skill-based technical training to a wide range of students. These institutes offer courses in trades such as welding, carpentry, plumbing, and electrician work.
• Several technical universities and institutions have been established across the country, offering undergraduate, postgraduate, and doctoral programs in engineering, technology, and related fields. Some notable examples include the National Institutes of Technology (NITs) and state technical universities.
• Public and private sector collaboration has led to the establishment of private engineering colleges and technical institutions. These institutions provide a broader range of choices for students pursuing technical education.
• Besides traditional technical education, there has been an increased focus on research and innovation in the technical field. Various government initiatives and funding programs support research in technology and engineering.
• In recent years, skill development programs and initiatives have been launched to enhance the employability of technical education graduates. These programs focus on bridging the gap between academia and industry requirements.
• The National Education Policy (NEP) of 2020 aims to reform technical education by introducing multidisciplinary courses, promoting research, and fostering a culture of innovation. The NEP emphasizes practical learning and industry collaborations.
• Indian engineers and technologists educated through technical institutions have made significant contributions on a global scale, earning recognition in various industries and countries.
•  Despite significant progress, there are still challenges related to the quality of technical education, faculty development, and employability of graduates. Addressing these challenges remains a priority.

The British policy on education in India was a complex and contradictory one. British introduced English education to India, which helped to create a new class of educated Indians who played a leading role in the Indian independence movement. British neglected vernacular education and focused on educating a select few Indians, while the vast majority of the population remained illiterate.

The evaluation of British education policies in India

Positive Aspects

• British colonial rule introduced Western-style education in India, which was a departure from the traditional gurukul system. This led to the establishment of modern schools and colleges, contributing to the spread of education.
• The British emphasis on English education had a significant impact. It led to a generation of Indians becoming proficient in English, which facilitated their participation in administration, law, and global communication.
• The establishment of universities and institutions like the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) and the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) helped produce skilled professionals and contributed to scientific research and innovation.
• The British educational system played a role in training Indians who later became leaders in law, administration, and other fields. Many of India's prominent leaders and bureaucrats were products of this system.
• British scholars documented traditional Indian knowledge systems, languages, and texts, which helped preserve Indian heritage.

Negative Aspects

• The British initially neglected vernacular education, which was the primary mode of education for most Indians. This led to a disconnect between the education system and the masses.
• British education focused on rote learning, memorization, and theoretical knowledge. It didn't emphasize practical skills and critical thinking, which are essential for holistic education.
• The British educational system was limited in its reach, benefiting mainly the urban and elite classes. Rural and marginalized communities had limited access to education.
• The emphasis on English education and the neglect of indigenous languages and culture led to a cultural disconnect. Many Indians felt alienated from their own heritage.
• The economic drain theory suggests that the British profited from India's education system by producing a class of clerks and administrators to run the colonial bureaucracy, benefiting the British economy more than India's.
• The British educational system created a Western-educated elite class, which was often detached from the socio-economic issues faced by the masses. This divide contributed to social and political tensions.
• The British placed less emphasis on technical and vocational education, which could have contributed more effectively to the country's industrialization.