LAND RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE

Land serves various purposes, from production to residence and recreation, and is essential for human activities. Different land uses, such as agriculture, forestry, settlements, and infrastructure, reflect the diverse ways in which land is utilized.

Land Use Categories

Forests: This category includes areas designated by the government for forest growth, which may differ from actual forest cover. Land revenue records primarily follow government demarcations rather than the actual extent of forested areas.
Barren and Wastelands: These are lands unsuitable for cultivation due to factors like rugged terrain, desertification, or ravines. Despite their potential, existing technology limits their agricultural use.
Non-agricultural Uses: This category encompasses land used for settlements (rural and urban), infrastructure (roads, canals), industries, and commercial activities. Growth in secondary and tertiary sectors contributes to the expansion of this land use.
Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands: Typically owned by village councils or governments, this land serves as common grazing areas. Only a small portion is privately owned.
Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves: Orchards and fruit tree plantations fall under this category, mostly privately owned.
Culturable Wasteland: Land left uncultivated for over five years, which can be reclaimed and brought back into cultivation through improvement practices.
Current Fallow: Land left uncultivated for a single agricultural year or less, allowing it to rejuvenate naturally.
Fallow other than Current Fallow: Cultivable land left uncultivated for more than a year but less than five years. If left unused for over five years, it becomes categorized as a culturable wasteland.
Net Area Sown: The physical area where crops are sown and harvested constitutes the net sown area, a crucial indicator of agricultural activity.

1. Factors Influencing Land-Use Changes

Land use patterns are shaped by various economic factors, including population growth, technological advancements, and shifts in sectoral composition. These changes influence how land is utilized over time.

Growth of the Economy: Economic expansion, driven by factors like population growth and technological advancements, increases the demand for land resources. Marginal lands may come under use as pressure on land intensifies.
Sectoral Composition Changes: Developing economies witness faster growth in secondary and tertiary sectors compared to the primary sector, leading to a shift of land from agricultural to non-agricultural uses. Urbanization and industrialization result in the conversion of agricultural land for building purposes, particularly around urban areas.
Persistent Pressure on Agricultural Land: Despite the declining contribution of agriculture to GDP, the demand for agricultural land remains high due to a slow decline in the share of the population dependent on agriculture. and Increasing population requiring food production.

Land-Use Changes in India

India has experienced significant economic changes over the past few decades, impacting land utilization trends.

Key Observations from 1950–51 to 2014–15

Increase in Non-agricultural Uses: Rapid growth in industrial and service sectors, along with urban expansion, drives an increase in non-agricultural land use. Urban and rural settlements contribute to this expansion, leading to a decline in wastelands and agricultural land.
Expansion of Forest Area: Increase in demarcated forest areas contributes to the rise in forest land, although it may not reflect actual forest cover growth.
Fluctuations in Current Fallow: Variability in rainfall and cropping cycles results in fluctuating trends in current fallow lands.
Rise in Net Area Sown: The recent increase in net area sown is attributed to utilizing culturable wastelands for agricultural purposes. Previously, net area sown was declining due to the expansion of non-agricultural uses, particularly construction activities.

Categories Registering Decline

Barren and Wastelands, Culturable Wastelands: Increased pressure on land leads to declines in wastelands and culturable wastelands over time.
Pastures, Grazing Lands: Encroachment for cultivation reduces pasture and grazing lands, driven by agricultural expansion.

These observations highlight the dynamic interplay between economic growth, urbanization, and land-use changes in India.

2. Common Property Resources (CPRs)

Common Property Resources (CPRs) are natural resources owned by the state and intended for communal use. They play a crucial role in rural livelihoods, especially for landless and marginal farmers, and are significant for women who often depend on them for fuel and fodder collection. CPRs encompass community forests, pasture lands, village water bodies, and other public spaces managed by a larger group with usage rights but without individual property rights.

Agricultural Land Use in India

Importance of Land in Agriculture

Agriculture heavily relies on land, unlike secondary and tertiary sectors, making land access critical for rural livelihoods.
Land quality directly impacts agricultural productivity, unlike other sectors.
Land ownership has social value, serving as security for credit, natural hazards, and adding to social status in rural areas.

Estimation of Cultivable Land

Total cultivable land includes net sown area, fallow lands, and culturable wasteland.
A marginal decline in total cultivable land as a percentage of the total reporting area over the years.

Challenges and Solutions

Limited Scope for Additional Cultivable Land: India faces limitations in bringing new land under cultivation, necessitating the adoption of land-saving technologies.

Land-Saving Technologies: These technologies focus on increasing crop yield per unit area and enhancing overall output per unit of land through higher land-use intensity. Higher cropping intensity not only optimizes land use but also generates more employment, crucial for a labor-abundant country like India.

Calculation of Cropping Intensity (CI):

Cropping intensity is a key metric to assess land utilization efficiency, reflecting the intensity of agricultural activity and the potential for optimizing land productivity while addressing rural employment needs.

3. Cropping Seasons in India

India experiences three distinct crop seasons in its northern and interior regions: kharif, rabi, and zaid.

Kharif Season Coincides with the Southwest Monsoon, typically from June to September. Suitable for tropical crops like rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra, and tur.
Rabi Season Begins with winter in October-November and lasts until March-April. Facilitates the cultivation of temperate and sub-tropical crops such as wheat, gram, and mustard.
Zaid Season: Short-duration summer cropping season after the rabi harvest. Includes watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables, and fodder crops on irrigated lands.

Southern India: In contrast to the distinct seasons in the north, southern India's climate allows for tropical crop cultivation year-round if sufficient soil moisture is available. This region doesn't have a specific zaid season as crops can be grown multiple times in a year due to adequate soil moisture.

Types of Farming

Irrigated Farming Can be protective (supplementary) or productive (aiming for high productivity). Protective Irrigation Supplements rainfall to protect crops from soil moisture deficiency. Productive Irrigation Provides ample soil moisture for high crop yields, requiring higher water input.
Rainfed Farming In Dryland Farming Regions with annual rainfall < 75 cm, growing hardy crops like ragi, bajra, moong, and gram. Wetland Farming Regions with excess rainfall during the rainy season, growing water-intensive crops like rice, jute, and sugarcane, and practising aquaculture in freshwater bodies.

4. Foodgrains in India

Foodgrains are a cornerstone of the Indian agricultural economy, occupying approximately two-thirds of the total cropped area in the country. They are predominant crops across all regions, catering to both subsistence and commercial agricultural practices. Food grains are broadly classified into cereals and pulses.

4.1. Cereals

Cereals cover around 54% of the total cropped area in India and are further categorized into fine grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jowar, bajra, maize, ragi), among others.

Rice

Staple food for the majority of the Indian population.
Cultivated across various agro-climatic regions, ranging from sea level to 2,000 m altitude.
Significant rice-producing states include West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab.
Introduced in irrigated areas of Punjab and Haryana during the Green Revolution, resulting in high yields.

Wheat

Second most important cereal crop after rice.
Primarily a rabi crop grown during the winter season.
Concentrated in North and Central India, with high yields in Punjab and Haryana.
Rainfed cultivation in Himalayan highlands and parts of Madhya Pradesh.

Jowar

Main food crop in semi-arid regions of central and southern India.
Maharashtra is the largest producer, followed by Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
Grown as both kharif and rabi crops, with low yields in rainfed regions south of Vindhyachal.

Bajra

Thrives in hot and dry climates of northwestern and western India.
Major producers include Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.
Resilient to dry spells and drought, with low yields in rainfed regions like Rajasthan.

Maize

Grown under semi-arid conditions and over inferior soils.
Cultivated across India except Punjab and eastern regions.
Leading producers are Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.

4.2. Pulses

Pulses are vital sources of protein and play a crucial role in Indian agriculture, mainly grown in drylands.

Gram

Cultivated in subtropical areas during the rabi season.
Mainly rainfed crops in central, western, and northwestern India.
Leading producers include Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan.

Tur (Arhar)

Also known as red gram or pigeon pea.
Cultivated in marginal lands under rainfed conditions in central and southern states.
Maharashtra is the primary contributor to production, followed by Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.

4.3. Oilseeds

Oilseeds play a crucial role in the production of edible oils and are grown across specific regions in India. They contribute to about 14% of the total cropped area in the country and include key crops such as groundnut, rapeseed and mustard, soybean, and sunflower.

Groundnut

Accounts for about 18.8% of the global groundnut production.
Primarily a rainfed kharif crop in drylands, but also cultivated during the rabi season in southern India.
Leading producers include Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.
Higher yields were observed in partially irrigated areas like Tamil Nadu compared to regions with lower irrigation levels.

Rapeseed and Mustard

Encompasses varieties like rai, sarson, toria, and taramira.
Subtropical crops cultivated during the rabi season in north-western and central India.
Frost-sensitive with yields varying annually, stabilized by improved irrigation and seed technology.
Rajasthan contributes significantly to production, along with Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.

Soyabean

Primarily cultivated in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, which account for about 90% of the total soybean output in India.
A significant oilseed crop contributing to the edible oil industry.

Sunflower

Concentrated cultivation in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and adjacent areas of Maharashtra.
Minor crops in northern regions but with high yields due to irrigation facilities.

These oilseeds are strategically grown in specific regions known for their suitability to these crops, with varying levels of irrigation and technology adoption influencing their yields and contribution to the overall edible oil production in India.

4.4. Fibre Crops

Fibre crops are essential for various industrial and domestic purposes, providing materials for cloth, bags, sacks, and other items. India cultivates key fibre crops such as cotton and jute.

Cotton

Cotton is a tropical crop grown during the kharif season in semi-arid regions.
India is the world's second-largest producer of cotton after China.
Cotton cultivation areas include parts of Punjab, Haryana, northern Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.
Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana are leading producers, with high yields in irrigated regions and lower yields in rainfed areas like Maharashtra.

Jute

Jute is used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks, and decorative items.
Major jute production areas are West Bengal, Bihar, and Assam.
India produces about three-fifths of the world's jute and accounts for a significant portion of its production.
Jute cultivation is limited to specific regions, covering only about 0.5% of the total cropped area in India.

4.5. Other Crops

Sugarcane

Sugarcane is primarily a tropical crop cultivated in sub-humid and humid climates.
It is largely an irrigated crop in India, with major cultivation areas in Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.
India ranks as the second-largest producer of sugarcane globally after Brazil.

Tea

Tea is a plantation crop used for beverages, with black and green tea varieties.
Assam, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu are major tea-producing states in India, with Assam contributing significantly to the total tea production.

Coffee

Coffee is a tropical plantation crop with varieties such as arabica, robusta, and liberica.
India produces superior-quality arabica coffee, mainly grown in the highlands of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
Karnataka is the leading producer of coffee in India.

These crops play vital roles in various industries and contribute significantly to India's agricultural and economic sectors.

5. Agricultural Development in Pre-Independence India

Before Independence, India's agricultural economy was primarily subsistence-based. The period was marked by severe droughts, famines, and challenges in agricultural productivity. During partition, a significant portion of irrigated land went to Pakistan, affecting India's agricultural landscape negatively.

Post-Independence Agricultural Strategies

After Independence, India prioritized increasing foodgrain production through various strategies:

Shift to Food Crops: Emphasis was placed on switching from cash crops to food crops.
Intensification of Cropping: Intensifying cropping on existing lands was encouraged.
Expansion of Cultivated Area: Efforts were made to bring fallow land under cultivation.

Challenges and Initiatives in the Mid-20th Century

India faced agricultural stagnation in the late 1950s, leading to food crises due to consecutive droughts. To address this, initiatives like the Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and the Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP) were launched.

Green Revolution and Agricultural Transformation

The introduction of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of wheat and rice in the mid-1960s, along with modern agricultural practices like chemical fertilizers and irrigation, led to a significant increase in foodgrain production, known as the Green Revolution. This revolution transformed India into a self-reliant nation in food production, especially in irrigated areas.

Expansion and Regional Balancing of Agricultural Development

Initially limited to irrigated areas, the Green Revolution later spread to eastern and central parts of India, reducing regional disparities in agricultural development.

Focus on Rainfed Areas and Diversification: In the 1980s, attention shifted to rainfed areas, leading to agro-climatic planning and the promotion of diversified agriculture including dairy farming, poultry, horticulture, livestock rearing, and aquaculture.
Liberalization and Market Influences: The policy of liberalization and a free market economy in the 1990s influenced agricultural development, opening avenues for innovation, technology adoption, and market-driven approaches.
National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) Initiatives focus on sustainable, climate-resilient, and remunerative agriculture, promoting integrated farming systems and conservation measures.
Technological Advancements and Agricultural Growth: Over the last 50 years, agricultural output and technology have significantly improved, with increased production and yields in various crops due to modern agricultural practices, irrigation expansion, and technology diffusion.
Farmer's Portal of India: The Farmer's Portal serves as an interactive platform providing comprehensive information related to agriculture, including insurance, storage, crop details, extension activities, market prices, schemes, and interactive maps for block-level agricultural data. Users can access a wide range of resources and guidelines for farm-friendly practices and welfare schemes.

6. Problems of Indian Agriculture

Dependence on Erratic Monsoon: Only 33% of cultivated land in India has irrigation, making agriculture heavily reliant on monsoon rains. Drought-prone areas like Rajasthan face unreliable rainfall, while regions with high rainfall experience fluctuations leading to droughts and floods.
Low Productivity: Crop yields in India are lower compared to global standards. Land pressure and low labour productivity contribute to overall low agricultural output.
Financial Constraints and Indebtedness: Modern agricultural inputs are expensive, posing challenges for small and marginal farmers. Farmers often resort to credit from institutions or moneylenders, leading to indebtedness due to crop failures and low returns.
Lack of Land Reforms: Historical unequal land distribution persists due to ineffective implementation of land reforms post-independence. Strong political lobbies and a lack of political will hindered the implementation of equitable land distribution.
Small Farm Size and Land Fragmentation: Average landholding size is decreasing due to population pressure, leading to fragmented landholdings. Lack of consolidation exacerbates economic inefficiencies in farming practices.
Lack of Commercialization: Many farmers focus on subsistence farming, limiting commercialization and modernization of agriculture. Commercialization is more prevalent in irrigated areas compared to rainfed regions.
Vast Underemployment: The agricultural sector faces significant underemployment, especially in unirrigated regions. Seasonal unemployment and limited labour-intensive operations contribute to the underutilization of agricultural labour.
Degradation of Cultivable Land: Faulty irrigation practices and agricultural development strategies lead to land degradation. Issues include soil fertility depletion, alkalization, salinization, waterlogging, and chemical concentration due to excessive pesticide use. Degradation is particularly severe in irrigated areas, affecting soil health and natural fertilization processes.

Previous Year Questions

1. With reference to the cultivation of Kharif crops in India in the last five years, consider the following statements: (UPSC 2019)

Area under rice cultivation is the highest.
Area under the cultivation of jowar is more than that of oilseeds.
Area of cotton cultivation is more than that of sugarcane.
Area under sugarcane cultivation has steadily decreased.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: A

2. Why does the Government of India promote the use of 'Neem-coated Urea' in agriculture? (UPSC 2016)

(a) Release of Neem oil in the soil increases nitrogen fixation by the soil microorganisms

(b) Neem coating slows down the rate of dissolution of urea in the soil

(d) It is a combination of a 1,veedicide and a fertilizer for particular crops

Answer: B

3. In the context of food and nutritional security of India, enhancing the 'Seed Replacement Rates' of various crops helps in achieving the food production targets of the future. But what is/are the constraint/constraints in its wider/greater implementation? (UPSC 2014)

There is no National Seeds Policy in place.
There is no participation of private sector seed companies in the supply of quality seeds of vegetables and planting materials of horticultural crops.
There is a demandsupply gap regarding quality seeds in case of low value and high volume crops.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 (d) None

Answer: B

Mains

1. What is allelopathy? Discuss its role in major cropping systems of irrigated agriculture. (UPSC 2016)

2. What are the main bottlenecks in upstream and downstream process of marketing of agricultural products in India? (UPSC 2022)

3. What is Integrated Farming System? How is it helpful to small and marginal farmers in India? (UPSC 2022)

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LAND RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE

LAND RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE

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