19TH CENTURY WOMEN MOVEMENTS
Brahmo Samaj is a Hindu reform movement that originated in Bengal, India, during the early 19th century. It was founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833), a prominent Bengali thinker, social reformer, and intellectual. The term "Brahmo Samaj" translates to "Society of Brahman" or "Community of God."
The Brahmo Samaj movement sought to reform Hindu society, particularly by combating social evils such as idol worship, caste discrimination, and the oppression of women. Its primary aim was to promote monotheism, reason, and ethical living based on the principles of Vedanta, emphasizing the worship of the formless Brahman (God) rather than adherence to specific rituals or deities.
Key principles and beliefs of Brahmo Samaj include:
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Monotheism: Emphasis on the worship of one formless God, often described as Brahman, and rejection of polytheistic practices.
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Reason and Rationalism: Advocacy for the use of reason, logic, and scientific inquiry in religious and social matters. Brahmo Samaj promoted the idea that religious beliefs should be subjected to critical examination and intellectual scrutiny.
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Rejection of Idol Worship: Opposition to idol worship and the performance of elaborate rituals seen as unnecessary intermediaries between individuals and God.
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Social Reform: Commitment to social reform, including the abolition of caste distinctions, promotion of education, women's rights, and the eradication of social evils such as sati (widow burning) and child marriage.
After Raja Ram Mohan Roy's death, other prominent leaders such as Debendranath Tagore, Keshab Chandra Sen, and Akshay Kumar Datta played significant roles in shaping the Brahmo Samaj movement. The movement eventually split into different factions, including the Adi Brahmo Samaj and the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj, due to ideological differences and differing interpretations of its principles.
Brahmo Samaj has had a lasting impact on Indian society, influencing various reform movements and contributing to the broader socio-religious reform movements in 19th and early 20th-century India. While its influence has diminished somewhat over time, it remains a significant part of India's religious and social history
Arya Samaj
Arya Samaj is another prominent Hindu reform movement that emerged in 19th-century India. It was founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati (1824–1883), a renowned religious leader and social reformer. The term "Arya Samaj" translates to "Society of Nobles" or "Noble Society."
Arya Samaj aimed to rejuvenate Hinduism by advocating for a return to the ancient Vedic principles and teachings. Swami Dayananda Saraswati emphasized the importance of the Vedas as the ultimate authority in matters of religion and denounced later Hindu texts and practices that deviated from Vedic teachings.
Key principles and beliefs of Arya Samaj include:
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Vedas as the Ultimate Authority: Assertion of the Vedas as the infallible and eternal scriptures of Hinduism, rejecting the authority of other religious texts and traditions that emerged later.
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Monotheism: Advocacy for the worship of a single, formless God (Brahman), and rejection of idol worship and polytheism.
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Rejection of Caste System and Untouchability: Denouncement of the caste system and the practice of untouchability, emphasizing the equality of all human beings regardless of caste, creed, or gender.
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Social Reform: Commitment to various social reforms, including promotion of education for all, empowerment of women, abolition of child marriage, and eradication of social evils such as sati and dowry.
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Promotion of Sanskrit and Vedic Education: Advocacy for the study and propagation of Sanskrit language and Vedic knowledge, with the belief that this would lead to the spiritual and intellectual upliftment of society.
Arya Samaj played a significant role in the Indian independence movement and contributed to the resurgence of Hindu pride and identity. It established educational institutions, published literature, and promoted social welfare activities to further its objectives.
Today, Arya Samaj continues to exist as a vibrant religious and social organization with followers not only in India but also in other parts of the world. It has influenced various other Hindu reform movements and has left a lasting impact on the socio-religious landscape of India
The 19th century saw the emergence of several significant women's education movements across the world, driven by the recognition of the importance of education for women's empowerment and social progress.
Some notable women's education movements during this period include:
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United States - Women's Suffrage and Education: In the United States, the women's suffrage movement was closely intertwined with the push for women's education. Women such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone advocated for women's right to vote as well as access to higher education. Institutions like Mount Holyoke College (1837) and Oberlin College (1833) were pioneers in providing higher education to women.
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United Kingdom - The Langham Place Circle: The Langham Place Circle, led by women like Barbara Bodichon and Emily Davies, campaigned for women's rights, including access to education. Their efforts contributed to the founding of Girton College (1869) and Newnham College (1871), which were the first residential institutions for women's higher education in England.
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Japan - Women's Education during the Meiji Restoration: The Meiji Restoration in Japan (1868) brought about significant changes, including advancements in women's education. The government initiated policies to establish schools for girls and promote female literacy as part of modernization efforts.
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Iran - Women's Education under Qajar Rule: In the Qajar period (19th century), Iran saw the emergence of women's education movements led by progressive intellectuals and reformers. Women like Tahirih Qurratu'l-Ayn played a crucial role in advocating for the education of girls and women, despite facing opposition from traditionalist elements
In 19th-century India, there were several notable movements and individuals dedicated to promoting women's education as part of broader social reform efforts.
Some key movements and figures include:
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Brahmo Samaj and Raja Ram Mohan Roy: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, the founder of Brahmo Samaj, advocated for the education of girls and women as a fundamental aspect of social reform. He believed that educating women was essential for the progress and moral upliftment of society. The Brahmo Samaj established schools for girls and actively promoted female education.
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Pandita Ramabai and Mukti Mission: Pandita Ramabai was a social reformer and educator who founded the Mukti Mission in Pune in 1889. The mission focused on the welfare and education of widows and other marginalized women. Ramabai emphasized the importance of education in empowering women and enabling them to lead independent lives.
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Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule: Jyotirao Phule and his wife, Savitribai Phule, were prominent social reformers in Maharashtra who worked tirelessly for the upliftment of women and oppressed castes. They established schools for girls, including the first school for girls in Pune in 1848. Savitribai Phule, in particular, played a significant role in promoting girls' education despite facing opposition and social stigma.
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Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar was a renowned scholar and social reformer from Bengal. He advocated for the education of girls and women and worked to establish schools for them. Vidyasagar believed that educating women was crucial for the progress of society and campaigned for their rights, including the right to education and remarriage.
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Keshub Chandra Sen and the Brahmo Balika Shikshalaya: Keshub Chandra Sen, a leader of the Brahmo Samaj, established the Brahmo Balika Shikshalaya in Calcutta (now Kolkata) in 1856. This school provided education to girls from different backgrounds and emphasized the importance of intellectual and moral development.
The Widow Remarriage Movement in 19th-century India was a significant social reform movement aimed at addressing the plight of widows, who were often marginalized, stigmatized, and deprived of basic rights within Indian society. The movement sought to challenge prevailing social norms and advocate for the rights of widows to remarry and lead fulfilling lives. Several key figures and organizations contributed to this movement:
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Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, a prominent social reformer from Bengal, played a central role in advocating for widow remarriage. He campaigned tirelessly to abolish the practice of enforced celibacy for widows and fought against social discrimination towards them. Vidyasagar's efforts culminated in the passage of the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856, which legalized widow remarriage in British India.
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Keshub Chandra Sen and the Brahmo Samaj: Keshub Chandra Sen, a leader of the Brahmo Samaj, also supported the cause of widow remarriage. The Brahmo Samaj, as a progressive religious and social reform movement, actively promoted the rights of widows and challenged orthodox Hindu customs that imposed restrictions on their remarriage.
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Pandita Ramabai: Pandita Ramabai, a pioneering social reformer and women's rights advocate, worked tirelessly for the welfare of widows and campaigned for their right to remarry. She established the Arya Mahila Samaj and Mukti Mission, organizations dedicated to the upliftment and empowerment of widows and other marginalized women.
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Behramji Malabari and the Prarthana Samaj: Behramji Malabari, a Parsi social reformer, was a staunch advocate for widow remarriage. He was associated with the Prarthana Samaj, a reformist Hindu organization based in Bombay (now Mumbai), which actively supported the cause of social reform, including widow remarriage.
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Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the Brahmo Sabha: While Raja Ram Mohan Roy's efforts were primarily directed towards broader social reform initiatives, such as the abolition of sati and promotion of women's education, his advocacy for women's rights laid the groundwork for subsequent movements, including the widow remarriage movement
Women played integral roles in the nationalist movement of India, contributing significantly to the struggle for independence from British colonial rule. Their participation took various forms, ranging from political activism and organizational leadership to civil disobedience and grassroots mobilization. Here are some key ways in which women participated in the nationalist movement of India:
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Leadership in Nationalist Organizations: Women took on leadership roles in various nationalist organizations, including the Indian National Congress (INC) and its affiliated groups. Figures like Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, and Kamala Nehru were prominent leaders within the INC, advocating for independence and social reform.
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Participation in Mass Movements: Women actively participated in mass movements and protests against British rule. They joined protests, marches, and boycotts, demonstrating their commitment to the nationalist cause. Women often played leading roles in organizing and mobilizing communities for collective action.
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Civil Disobedience Campaigns: Women participated in civil disobedience campaigns, such as the Salt Satyagraha led by Mahatma Gandhi. They joined salt marches, defied colonial laws, and faced arrest and imprisonment for their activism. Figures like Aruna Asaf Ali and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay were known for their participation in civil disobedience movements.
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Women's Organizations and Initiatives: Women's organizations played crucial roles in the nationalist movement, providing platforms for women to engage in political activism and social reform. The All India Women's Conference (AIWC), founded in 1927, became a prominent forum for women's involvement in nationalist activities and advocacy for women's rights.
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Contribution to Education and Social Reform: Women leaders like Pandita Ramabai and Rukhmabai were involved in education and social reform initiatives aimed at empowering women and challenging oppressive customs and traditions. They advocated for women's education, widow remarriage, and the abolition of practices like child marriage and purdah.
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Revolutionary Activities: Some women also participated in revolutionary activities aimed at overthrowing British rule. Figures like Matangini Hazra and Pritilata Waddedar were involved in armed struggles against the British, demonstrating their commitment to the nationalist cause
The nationalist movement in India witnessed the active participation of numerous women who played pivotal roles in various capacities. Here's a list highlighting some prominent women who contributed significantly to the Indian nationalist movement:
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Sarojini Naidu: Known as the Nightingale of India, she was a prominent poet, politician, and activist. She played a crucial role in the Indian Nationalist Movement and was the first woman to become the President of the Indian National Congress.
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Annie Besant: An Irish-born British activist, Besant became involved in Indian politics and joined the Indian National Congress. She was a prominent supporter of Indian self-rule and played a key role in the Home Rule Movement.
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Kasturba Gandhi: The wife of Mahatma Gandhi, Kasturba was actively involved in the Indian independence movement. She participated in various protests, marches, and civil disobedience movements alongside her husband.
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Aruna Asaf Ali: She was a prominent freedom fighter who played a significant role in the Quit India Movement of 1942. Aruna hoisted the Indian National Congress flag during the movement's underground phase.
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Sister Nivedita: Born Margaret Elizabeth Noble, Sister Nivedita was an Irish social worker who dedicated her life to serving Indian society. She was a disciple of Swami Vivekananda and actively participated in the Indian nationalist movement.
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Begum Hazrat Mahal: The wife of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh, Begum Hazrat Mahal played a crucial role during the Indian Rebellion of 1857. She led the resistance against the British East India Company in Awadh.
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Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay: A social reformer and freedom fighter, Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay was actively involved in the Indian independence movement. She played a key role in promoting the revival of Indian handicrafts and the upliftment of women.
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Savitribai Phule: Along with her husband, Jyotirao Phule, Savitribai Phule was a prominent social reformer who worked towards the eradication of caste-based discrimination and the promotion of women's education.
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Matangini Hazra: Popularly known as Gandhi buri (Old Gandhi), Matangini Hazra was an Indian revolutionary who participated in the Indian independence movement. She played a significant role in the Quit India Movement and was martyred while leading a protest against British rule.
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Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi: While primarily remembered for her role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857, Rani Lakshmibai's resistance against British rule is often cited as an early example of Indian nationalism.
