THE MARATHA AND OTHER INDIAN STATES AND SOCIETY IN THE 18^TH CENTURY

The 18th century was a period of great change and upheaval in India. The Mughal Empire was in decline, and regional powers such as the Marathas, Mysore, and Hyderabad were on the rise. These states were often at war with each other, and the people suffered greatly.

The Marathas

• The Marathas were a Hindu warrior group that originated in the western Indian state of Maharashtra.
• They were led by the Chhatrapati, who was considered to be the supreme ruler of all Marathas.
• The Marathas were skilled cavalrymen, and they were able to expand their empire rapidly in the 18th century.
• At its peak, the Maratha Empire controlled much of central and northern India.
• The Marathas were also patrons of the arts and culture, and they built many temples and forts during their rule.

Other Indian states

Other important Indian states in the 18th century included:

• Mysore was a Hindu kingdom located in southern India. It was ruled by the Wodeyars, who were skilled military commanders.
• Mysore was a major rival of the Marathas, and the two states fought many wars against each other.
• Hyderabad was a Muslim kingdom located in central India. It was ruled by the Nizams, who were descendants of the Mughal emperors.
• Hyderabad was a wealthy state, and it was known for its trade and commerce.
• Awadh was a Muslim kingdom located in northern India. It was ruled by the Nawabs, who were also descendants of the Mughal emperors.
• Awadh was a fertile state, and it was known for its agricultural products.

Society in the 18th century

• Indian society in the 18th century was highly stratified. The caste system was in place, and people were divided into different social groups based on their birth.
• The Brahmins were the highest caste, and they were followed by the Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• The untouchables were the lowest caste, and they were considered to be outside of the caste system.
• The 18th century was a difficult time for many Indians. The wars between the different states caused widespread destruction and suffering.
• The economy was also in decline, and there was widespread poverty and hunger.
• Despite the challenges, there were some positive developments in Indian society in the 18th century.
• For example, there was a revival of Hinduism, and many new temples and religious texts were produced.
• There was also a growth in education and literacy, especially among the upper castes.

The Marathas, a warrior community originating from the western Deccan region of India, pursued a policy of expansion during the 17th and 18th centuries. This policy led to the establishment of the Maratha Empire and its ascendancy as a dominant power in India. 

Early Expansion under Shivaji: The Maratha expansion had its roots in the leadership of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (1630-1680), who laid the foundation for the Maratha Empire. Shivaji's early campaigns were aimed at establishing an independent Maratha kingdom in the Deccan, free from the control of the Mughal Empire and Bijapur Sultanate.

Guerrilla Warfare and Fortification: Shivaji was known for his strategic use of guerrilla warfare and the construction of hill forts. These forts served as strongholds and provided defensive advantages against larger armies.

Maratha-Mughal Conflict: Shivaji's clashes with the Mughal Empire, particularly with Aurangzeb, resulted in the Maratha-Mughal Wars. Shivaji's ability to resist Mughal authority contributed to the expansion of Maratha influence.

Consolidation under Chhatrapati Shahu: After Shivaji's death, Chhatrapati Shahu (1682-1749) played a significant role in consolidating and expanding the Maratha Empire. Shahu was instrumental in maintaining a unified Maratha front against external threats, especially the Mughals.

Maratha Confederacy: The Marathas operated as a confederacy, with various Maratha chiefs (sardars) and dynasties controlling different regions. The Peshwa, who served as the chief administrator, played a crucial role in coordinating their efforts.

Northern Campaigns: Under the leadership of Peshwa Baji Rao I (1699-1740), the Marathas expanded northwards. They ventured into northern India, challenging the Mughals and subduing various regional powers.

Battles of Panipat: The First Battle of Panipat (1526) and the Third Battle of Panipat (1761) were significant engagements where the Marathas faced the Afghan invader Ahmad Shah Durrani (also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali). While the Marathas suffered a decisive defeat in the Third Battle of Panipat, their resilience in the face of adversity demonstrated their expansionist ambitions.

Administrative Measures: The Marathas implemented administrative reforms to govern their expanding territories efficiently. This included revenue collection systems and the appointment of officials in newly acquired regions.

Subsidiary Alliance System: The Marathas adopted a system of subsidiary alliances with regional rulers, wherein the Marathas were protected in exchange for tribute and political influence. This system allowed them to extend their control indirectly.

Legacy of Maratha Expansion: The Marathas' policy of expansion left a lasting impact on Indian history. It contributed to the fragmentation of Mughal power, the rise of regional kingdoms, and the eventual emergence of British colonial rule.

• The Marathas and Nizam-ul-Mulk, also known as Asaf Jah I, were two prominent regional powers in 18th-century India.
• Their interactions and conflicts played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of the Deccan region during that period.
•  Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I was a noble in the Mughal Empire who served as the Subedar (governor) of the Deccan region.
• Over time, he gained significant autonomy and established his independent state, known as the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• Asaf Jah I became the first Nizam of Hyderabad and founded the Asaf Jahi dynasty.

2.1. Interactions and Conflicts

• The Deccan region, which included present-day Maharashtra and parts of Telangana and Andhra Pradesh, was a contested territory between the Marathas and the Nizam. Both powers sought to control this strategically important region.
• The Marathas and the Nizam engaged in territorial disputes, particularly over key forts and cities in the Deccan. These conflicts often resulted in military confrontations.
• In 1724, a significant battle known as the Battle of Rakshasbhuvan took place between the Marathas, led by Peshwa Baji Rao I, and the Nizam's forces.
• The Marathas emerged victorious, strengthening their position in the Deccan.
• At times, the Nizam sought the support of the Mughal Empire against the Marathas.
• However, the Mughal-Maratha conflicts, including the Battle of Delhi in 1737, complicated this relationship.
• The Marathas and the Nizam entered into various treaties and alliances over the years, often with shifting loyalties.
• These treaties aimed to secure their respective interests and maintain a balance of power in the region.
• In the late 18th century, the British East India Company engaged in conflicts with both the Marathas and the Nizam.
• These Anglo-Maratha Wars (such as the First and Second Anglo-Maratha Wars) indirectly affected the dynamics between the Marathas and the Nizam.
• The Nizam's state and the Maratha Empire both faced internal conflicts, external pressures, and territorial losses in the late 18th century.
• The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818) and the British intervention led to the decline of both powers.

3. The Maratha Advance into Gujarat and Malwa

The Marathas, during their expansionist phase in the 18th century, advanced into the regions of Gujarat and Malwa, marking their presence and influence in these territories. Here's an overview of the Maratha advance into Gujarat and Malwa:

3.1. Advance into Gujarat

• Gujarat, located in western India, was a significant region due to its economic prosperity and strategic importance. It had been under the control of various dynasties, including the Mughals.
• The Marathas began their advance into Gujarat in the early 18th century under the leadership of Peshwa Baji Rao I.
• This marked the extension of Maratha's influence beyond their Deccan stronghold.
• One of the pivotal moments in the Maratha advance into Gujarat was the Battle of Baroda in 1731.
• The Marathas, led by Baji Rao I, defeated the Mughal governor of Gujarat, Chimnaji Anandrao. This victory allowed the Marathas to establish their control over the region.
• The Marathas established Baroda (Vadodara) as a major centre of their administration in Gujarat. Various territories in Gujarat came under Maratha suzerainty.
• The Marathas implemented their revenue collection systems in Gujarat, similar to the ones they had in the Deccan.
• The Chouth (a tax equivalent to one-fourth of the revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (a tax levied on land) were imposed on the territories under their control.

3.2. Advance into Malwa

• Malwa, a historical region in central India, had been under the rule of different dynasties, including the Mughals. It was known for its fertile lands and strategic significance.
• The Marathas launched a campaign into Malwa in the early 18th century, aiming to expand their territorial control. Peshwa Baji Rao I played a crucial role in these campaigns.
• The Battle of Malwa in 1737 was a significant engagement in the Maratha advance into Malwa. Baji Rao I led the Marathas to victory over the Mughal governor of Malwa, Ali Khan.
• Following their victory, the Marathas established their control over Malwa, with regional governors and administrators representing Maratha's interests.
• The Marathas introduced their revenue collection systems in Malwa, which included taxes like the Chouth and Sardeshmukhi. This allowed them to extract revenue from the region.
• Malwa was integrated into the broader Maratha Confederacy, with local rulers acknowledging Maratha suzerainty and contributing resources to the Maratha leadership.

4. The Maratha Advance into Doab and Punjab

The Marathas, during their expansionist phase in the 18th century, advanced into the regions of Doab and Punjab in northern India. Here's an overview of the Maratha advance into these territories:

4.1. Advance into Doab

The Doab, a region between the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, was a historically rich and fertile area with strategic importance. It had been ruled by various powers, including the Mughals.

• The Marathas began their advance into the Doab in the early 18th century under the leadership of Peshwa Baji Rao I.
• This marked their extension of influence beyond their Deccan stronghold.
• The Marathas clashed with the Mughal Empire over control of the Doab region.
• The Mughals, under Emperor Muhammad Shah, sought to maintain control over this valuable territory.
• The Battle of Delhi in 1737 was a significant engagement during the Maratha advance into the Doab.
• The Marathas, led by Baji Rao I, defeated the Mughals in this battle, weakening Mughal authority in northern India.
• Following their victory at Delhi and other key battles in the region, the Marathas established control over parts of the Doab.
• They appointed regional governors to administer these territories.
• The Marathas implemented their revenue collection systems in the Doab, similar to the ones used in other regions.
• They levied taxes, including the Chouth (a tax equivalent to one-fourth of the revenue) and Sardeshmukhi (a land tax), to extract revenue from the region.

4.2. Advance into Punjab

• Punjab, located in the northwest of India, had been under various rulers, including the Mughals and regional chieftains.
• The Marathas launched campaigns in Punjab, aiming to extend their territorial control into this region. These campaigns took place in the early to mid-18th century.
• The Marathas' expansion into Punjab brought them into conflict with the Mughal Empire, which still held influence in parts of northern India.
• One of the significant events in the Maratha advance into Punjab was the capture of Lahore in 1758.
• The Marathas, under the leadership of Jahan Khan and later Ahmad Shah Durrani (also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali), took control of Lahore.
• The Marathas established their rule in Lahore and other parts of Punjab for a brief period. However, their hold on the region was challenged by external forces, including Ahmad Shah Durrani's invasions.
• The Marathas' hold on Punjab was short-lived, and their influence in the region began to wane due to external invasions, internal conflicts, and the broader political dynamics of the time.

The Maratha Empire, one of the most prominent powers in 18th-century India, underwent significant transformations during two distinct phases: the First Phase (1741-52) and the Second Phase (1752-61). These phases were characterized by shifting alliances, territorial expansion, and socio-political changes that played a pivotal role in shaping the empire's destiny.

5.1. First Phase (1741-52): Challenges and Ambitions

• The 18th century dawned with the Marathas facing both internal and external challenges.
• Their expansionist ambitions and military prowess had earned them a dominant position in central India. However, their power was far from uncontested.
• One of the most formidable external threats during this phase was the invasion by Nadir Shah, the Persian ruler who had famously sacked Delhi in 1739.
• Although Nadir Shah withdrew from India after plundering Delhi, his brief but devastating incursion left behind a significant power vacuum in northern India.
• Various regional powers, including the Marathas, sought to exploit this vacuum.
• Under the leadership of their dynamic Peshwa (Prime Minister), Baji Rao I, the Marathas embarked on a series of military campaigns.
• Baji Rao's campaigns were characterized by rapid manoeuvring and audacious tactics, earning him the epithet "The Lightning Bolt of the Marathas."
• These campaigns yielded substantial gains for the Marathas, including the annexation of territories in Malwa and Gujarat.
• However, the Marathas were not the only power seeking to assert their dominance in the region.
• The Nizam of Hyderabad, Asaf Jah I, emerged as a formidable adversary, challenging Maratha expansion in the Deccan.
• Additionally, the remnants of the Mughal Empire, although weakened, still retained influence in parts of northern India and occasionally formed alliances with regional powers to counter the Marathas.
• Another significant player in the Indian political landscape during this phase was the British East India Company.
• While the company had initially established itself as a trading entity in India, it was gradually transitioning into a territorial power.
• The British's growing territorial acquisitions in Bengal and southern India brought them into direct conflict with the Marathas and other Indian states.
• One of the pivotal events of this phase was the First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-1782).
• This war marked the beginning of a series of conflicts between the Marathas and the British East India Company.
• The war ended inconclusively, highlighting the complex web of alliances and rivalries that characterized 18th-century India.

5.2. Second Phase (1752-61): Consolidation and Socio-Political Shifts

• The second phase of the 18th century witnessed the consolidation of Maratha power and the emergence of distinct socio-political trends.
• Baji Rao I's untimely death in 1740 led to a period of internal strife among the Marathas.
• However, this phase also witnessed the rise of other influential Maratha leaders, including Balaji Baji Rao, commonly known as Nana Saheb, who played a pivotal role in Maratha politics.
• One of the most significant developments during this period was the Treaty of Surat (1775).
• This treaty marked the beginning of a Maratha-British alliance against the Mysore Sultanate, ruled by Tipu Sultan.
• The treaty reflected the pragmatic approach of both the Marathas and the British, as they sought to protect their respective interests in the face of external threats.
• Socio-politically, the 18th century was characterized by a fragmented landscape of princely states, each with its own rulers and administrative systems.
• The Marathas, like other Indian states, had a feudal structure with regional chieftains, known as sardars, who owed allegiance to the central authority.
• The agrarian economy was the backbone of most Indian states, with land revenue serving as a major source of income.
• Religiously, the 18th century was marked by religious diversity and syncretism.
• Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, and various indigenous beliefs coexisted, often with syncretic practices.
• The Marathas, despite being a Hindu power, demonstrated religious tolerance in their administration.
• However, the Marathas faced internal challenges during this phase. The Bhosale family, a prominent Maratha clan, experienced power struggles that occasionally split into conflicts within the Maratha Confederacy.
• The British East India Company continued its expansion during this phase, acquiring significant territories in southern India.
• The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805) resulted in the Marathas ceding large portions of their territory to the British.
• This marked a turning point in Indian history, as the British established themselves as the preeminent colonial power on the Indian subcontinent.

• The Third Battle of Panipat was fought on January 14, 1761, between the Maratha Empire and an alliance of Afghan and Indian forces.
• The battle was fought on the battlefield of Panipat, about 97 kilometres (60 mi) north of Delhi.
• The Maratha Empire was at its peak in the mid-18th century. The Marathas had defeated the Mughals on several occasions and had established their empire.
• However, the Marathas were also facing several challenges, including internal conflict and rivalry between different Maratha factions.
• The Afghan army was led by Ahmad Shah Durrani, who had invaded India on several occasions.
• Durrani was allied with several Indian rulers, including the Nawab of Awadh and the Rohillas.
• The Maratha army was led by Sadashivrao Bhau. The Maratha army was larger than the Afghan army, but it was not as well-organized or well-equipped.
• The battle lasted for several days and was very bloody. In the end, the Afghan army emerged victorious.
• The Marathas suffered heavy casualties, including the death of Sadashivrao Bhau.
• The Third Battle of Panipat was a major setback for the Maratha Empire.
• The battle weakened the Marathas and made them vulnerable to attack from their enemies. The Marathas never fully recovered from the defeat at Panipat.
• The Third Battle of Panipat is considered to be one of the most important battles in Indian history.
• The battle had a significant impact on the political and military landscape of India. The battle also marked the beginning of the decline of the Maratha Empire.

Causes of the Third Battle of Panipat

There were several causes of the Third Battle of Panipat. These included:

• The Marathas had been expanding their empire rapidly in the mid-18th century. This expansion led to conflict with several Indian rulers, including the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Nawab of Awadh.
• The Mughal Empire was in decline in the 18th century. This decline created a power vacuum in India, which led to several regional powers vying for control.
•  Ahmad Shah Durrani had established the Afghan Empire in 1747. Durrani was ambitious and sought to expand his empire into India.
• The Maratha Empire was a loose confederation of different clans, each with its own leader. These leaders often competed with each other for power and influence.

Consequences of the Third Battle of Panipat

The Third Battle of Panipat had several consequences. These included:

• The Marathas never fully recovered from the defeat at Panipat. The battle weakened the Marathas and made them vulnerable to attack from their enemies.
• The British East India Company was able to take advantage of the weakness of the Marathas to expand its own power in India.
• The Third Battle of Panipat helped to pave the way for the eventual unification of India under British rule.

Shivaji Bhonsle, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, was a legendary Indian warrior-king, military strategist, and the founder of the Maratha Empire in the 17th century. He is revered as one of India's greatest heroes and is particularly celebrated in the western Indian state of Maharashtra. 

Early Life

• Shivaji was born in 1627 in the hill fort of Shivneri, located in present-day Maharashtra, India. He belonged to the Bhonsle clan of the Maratha caste.
• He was raised by his mother, Jijabai, and was deeply influenced by her sense of honour, bravery, and religious beliefs.
• His early exposure to tales of valour and resistance against foreign rule played a significant role in shaping his character.

Military and Political Career

• Shivaji established the Maratha Empire by carving out a realm from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur in the late 17th century. He was crowned as the Chhatrapati (emperor) in 1674.
• Shivaji was known for his innovative military tactics, including guerrilla warfare techniques. He effectively used geography, forts, and strategic retreats to resist the powerful Mughal Empire.
• Shivaji constructed numerous forts along the Western Ghats, which served as strongholds for his forces.
• He also developed a formidable navy to protect his coastline and launch maritime raids.
• Shivaji entered into a peace treaty with the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1665. However, he later escaped from house arrest and resumed his struggle against Mughal rule.
•  He made Raigad Fort his capital and implemented a well-organized administration. His rule was known for its efficient revenue system and governance reforms.

Legacy and Impact

• Shivaji's efforts laid the foundation for the Maratha Empire, which became a dominant force in India during the 18th century.
• He promoted religious tolerance and respected the diverse faiths of his subjects. His policies allowed people of different religions to coexist peacefully in his kingdom.
• Shivaji's emphasis on naval power and fortifications influenced subsequent Indian rulers, including the British, who admired his military strategies.
• He contributed to Marathi literature and promoted the Marathi language. His legacy is celebrated in various forms, including literature, theatre, and art.
• Shivaji's life and achievements continue to inspire generations of Indians and are often cited as an example of courage, determination, and the spirit of resistance against oppression.

Shivaji's administration was characterized by efficient governance, a well-organized bureaucracy, and a focus on both military and civil administration. His approach to ruling his kingdom, the Maratha Empire, was innovative for its time and laid the groundwork for subsequent Maratha rulers.

The key aspects of Shivaji's administration

Shivaji's primary goal was to establish and maintain a Hindu kingdom that was free from external control, particularly from the Mughal Empire. He aimed to achieve swarajya, or self-rule, for his people.

 Ashta Pradhan (Council of Eight Ministers): Shivaji established an efficient council of eight ministers to assist him in various aspects of governance. Each minister had specific responsibilities, which included finance, justice, military, foreign affairs, and more.

1. Peshwa: The prime minister who was responsible for general administration and coordination among the ministers.
2. Amatya: The finance minister who managed revenue collection, taxation, and financial matters.
3. Sachiv: The secretary who handled correspondence, documentation, and record-keeping.
4. Mantri: The interior minister responsible for intelligence and internal security.
5. Senapati: The military commander-in-chief in charge of the armed forces.
6. Nyayadhish: The chief justice who presided over the legal matters and administration of justice.
7. Sumant: The foreign affairs minister who handled diplomatic relations with other states.
8. Panditrao: The religious affairs minister who managed temples and religious matters.

• Shivaji introduced a well-organized revenue system. Land revenue was collected based on the assessment of the quality and productivity of land.
• This system was designed to ensure fair taxation and prevent the exploitation of farmers.
• Shivaji was known for constructing and strengthening forts, particularly in the hilly regions of the Western Ghats.
• These forts served as defensive strongholds and played a crucial role in resisting enemy invasions.
•  Recognizing the strategic importance of a strong navy, Shivaji developed a formidable maritime force.
• His navy protected the coastline, thwarted enemy attacks, and facilitated trade and commerce.
•  Shivaji encouraged local self-governance through village panchayats. These panchayats were responsible for resolving local disputes and managing local affairs.
• Shivaji promoted the Marathi language and culture. He encouraged the use of Marathi in administration, literature, and communication.
• Shivaji was known for his religious tolerance. He ensured the protection of religious institutions and allowed people of different faiths to practice their religions freely.
• Shivaji established an efficient communication system that included a network of spies and messenger services. This helped in gathering intelligence and maintaining swift communication across his kingdom.
• Shivaji made Fort Raigad his capital, where he implemented many of his administrative reforms. It served as the centre of his kingdom.
• Shivaji's administrative innovations and emphasis on good governance had a lasting impact on the Maratha Empire. His policies influenced subsequent Maratha rulers and leaders in India.

After the death of Chhatrapati Shivaji in 1680, the Maratha Empire faced a period of transition and change in leadership. Shivaji's successors played significant roles in the history of the Maratha Empire. Here are the key successors of Shivaji:

Sambhaji (1681-1689): Sambhaji, Shivaji's eldest son, succeeded him as the Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire. His rule faced numerous challenges, including Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb's relentless campaigns to capture him. Sambhaji's reign was marked by conflicts with the Mughals, especially the brutal siege of Raigad Fort, which led to his capture and execution in 1689.

 Rajaram (1689-1700): After the death of Sambhaji, his younger brother Rajaram ascended to the throne as the Chhatrapati. His reign was characterized by continuous warfare with the Mughals, as he adopted a strategy of guerrilla warfare and evasion. Rajaram's wife, Queen Tarabai, played a crucial role in governing the Maratha state during this turbulent period.

Shivaji II (1700-1714): Shivaji II, the son of Sambhaji, was the next Chhatrapati. His rule was marked by further conflicts with the Mughals, particularly under the leadership of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. Shivaji II's reign was relatively short, and he passed away in 1714.

Shahu (1707-1749): Shahu, the son of Sambhaji and the nephew of Rajaram emerged as a significant figure in the Maratha Empire. His reign marked a turning point in Maratha-Mughal relations. Shahu was released from Mughal captivity in 1707 and subsequently became the Chhatrapati. Under his rule, the Marathas expanded their influence and established themselves as a major power in India. His reign also witnessed the emergence of influential Maratha leaders like the Peshwas.

The Peshwas were the prime ministers of the Maratha Empire from 1713 to 1818. They were appointed by the Chhatrapati, or king, of the Maratha Empire. The Peshwas were responsible for the day-to-day administration of the empire, and they played a major role in shaping the political and military landscape of India.

Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720)

Balaji Vishwanath was the first Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He was appointed by Chhatrapati Shahu in 1713. Balaji Vishwanath was a skilled administrator and diplomat, and he was able to unite the Maratha factions and revive the Maratha Empire. He also secured a favourable treaty with the Mughal Empire, which helped to stabilize the Marathas' position in India.

Baji Rao I (1720-1740)

Baji Rao I was the second Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He was the son of Balaji Vishwanath. Baji Rao, I was a brilliant military strategist and tactician. He led the Marathas to several victories against the Mughals and other regional powers. He expanded the Maratha Empire to its peak, and he is considered to be one of the most important figures in Indian history.

Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)

Balaji Baji Rao was the third Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He was the son of Baji Rao I. Balaji Baji Rao was also a skilled administrator and diplomat. He was able to maintain the Maratha Empire during a time of great turmoil. However, the Maratha Empire began to decline after he died in 1761.

Madhavrao I (1761-1772)

Madhavrao I was the fourth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He was the nephew of Balaji Baji Rao. Madhavrao I was a brilliant military strategist and tactician. He led the Marathas to several victories against the British and other regional powers. However, he was assassinated in 1772.

Narayanrao (1772-1773)

Narayanrao was the fifth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He was the son of Madhavrao I. Narayanrao was a young and inexperienced ruler. He was assassinated in 1773.

Sawai Madhavrao (1774-1795)

Sawai Madhavrao was the sixth Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He was the illegitimate son of Narayanrao. Sawai Madhavrao was a skilled administrator and diplomat. He was able to revive the Maratha Empire for a time. However, he died in 1795 at the age of 26.

Bajirao II (1795-1818)

Bajirao II was the seventh and last Peshwa of the Maratha Empire. He was the son of Raghunathrao, who was the younger brother of Balaji Baji Rao. Bajirao II was a weak and indecisive ruler. He was defeated by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the Maratha Empire was annexed by the British in 1818.

11.1. The Bhonsles

The Bhonsles, also spelt Bhonsale or Bhonsla, were a prominent Maratha dynasty that ruled over the region of Nagpur and central India. Known for their valour in battle, administrative acumen, and contributions to Maratha power, the Bhonsles played a significant role in shaping the history of the Indian subcontinent during the 18th and 19th centuries. 

Origins and Early History

• The Bhonsle dynasty originated from the Bhonsi clan within the Maratha community.
• Their rise to prominence was closely linked to their association with the powerful Maratha chieftain Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire.
• The Bhonsles served as loyal commanders and administrators in Shivaji's army and continued their service under his successors.

Key Rulers of the Bhonsle Dynasty

Raghoji Bhonsle (r. 1788-1816):

• Raghoji Bhonsle, also known as Raghoji II, was one of the most notable rulers of the Bhonsle dynasty.
• He played a crucial role in the Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-1805) against the British East India Company.
• The Treaty of Deogaon (1803) and the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon (1803) were signed during his reign, resulting in territorial losses for the Marathas.
• Raghoji Bhonsle's rule witnessed conflicts with both the British and other Maratha factions.

Appa Saheb Bhonsle (r. 1818-1848):

• Appa Saheb Bhonsle succeeded Raghoji Bhonsle and continued to resist British expansion in central India.
• His rule marked a period of diplomatic manoeuvring and efforts to preserve Maratha sovereignty.
• The British Residency in Nagpur was established during his reign.

Achievements and Contributions of the Bhonsles:

• The Bhonsles were known for their military prowess and valiant efforts to defend Maratha territories.
• They played a vital role in the Maratha Confederacy and participated in several conflicts against the British East India Company.
• Nagpur, under Bhonsle's rule, witnessed cultural and architectural developments.

Legacy and Impact:

• The Bhonsles' legacy is closely tied to the history of Nagpur and central India.
• Their resistance against British expansion contributed to the broader narrative of Indian resistance against colonial rule.
• Despite territorial losses, they retained a degree of influence as rulers of the Nagpur state during the British colonial period.
• The Bhonsles are remembered as significant figures in Maratha history and as leaders who defended Maratha's interests in central India during a challenging period of colonial expansion.
• Their contributions to the region's culture and history continue to be acknowledged and celebrated.

11.2. The Gaikwads

The Gaikwads, also known as the Gaekwads or Gaekwars, were a prominent Maratha dynasty that ruled over the princely state of Baroda (now Vadodara) in western India. Their reign, which spanned several centuries, was marked by significant contributions to art, culture, and governance.

Origins and Early History

• The Gaikwads belonged to the Maratha community and were part of the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj's empire.
• Their ancestors served as commanders and administrators in Shivaji's administration.
• The rise of the Gaikwads as a distinct dynasty can be traced back to the 18th century when they established themselves as rulers of Baroda.

Key Rulers of the Gaikwad Dynasty:

The Gaikwad dynasty witnessed the rule of several notable rulers who made significant contributions to the state of Baroda and the Maratha Empire. Here are some key Gaikwad rulers:

Pilaji Rao Gaikwad (1721-1732): Pilaji Rao, also known as Damaji Rao Gaikwad, is considered the founder of the Gaikwad dynasty in Baroda. He served as a commander in the Maratha army under the Peshwa Baji Rao I. After his successful military campaigns in Gujarat, Pilaji Rao was appointed as the chief of Baroda by the Peshwa, marking the establishment of Gaikwad rule in the region. His brief reign laid the foundation for the Gaikwad dynasty's rule over Baroda.

Sayaji Rao I (1758-1789): Sayaji Rao I, one of the most prominent Gaikwad rulers, is remembered for his enlightened rule and efforts to modernize the state of Baroda. He abolished oppressive taxes, promoted education, and initiated infrastructure development projects. Sayaji Rao I was a patron of art and culture, and his reign witnessed the flourishing of Baroda's literary and artistic traditions.

Fateh Singh Rao Gaikwad (1881-1930): Fateh Singh Rao was a significant ruler during the British colonial period. His reign coincided with the era of British paramountcy. He focused on administrative reforms, modernization, and infrastructure development. Fateh Singh Rao played a crucial role in the integration of Baroda into the newly independent Indian Union in 1949.

Contributions and Achievements:

The Gaikwads made several noteworthy contributions and achievements during their rule:

• The Gaikwad rulers were known for their patronage of art, culture, and literature.
• They supported poets, scholars, and artists, leading to the flourishing of Marathi literature and the fine arts in Baroda.
• Sayaji Rao III, in particular, was instrumental in modernizing Baroda. He introduced administrative reforms, established schools and colleges, and promoted industrialization.
• Under his rule, Baroda became one of the most progressive princely states in India.
• Sayaji Rao III's contributions to education were remarkable. He founded the renowned Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, which remains a prestigious educational institution in India.
• The Gaikwads also supported the establishment of schools and libraries.
• The Gaikwad rulers were known for their philanthropic activities and social welfare initiatives.
• They worked to improve the living conditions of their subjects and provided relief during times of famine and natural disasters.

Legacy:

• The Gaikwad dynasty's legacy continues to endure in the state of Gujarat, particularly in Vadodara (formerly Baroda).
• Their contributions to art, culture, education, and governance have left an indelible mark on the region.
• The city of Vadodara, with its rich cultural heritage and educational institutions, stands as a testament to the Gaikwads' vision and commitment to progress.

11.3. The Holkars

The Holkars were a prominent Maratha dynasty that played a significant role in the history of central India during the 18th and 19th centuries. Known for their military prowess and contributions to art and culture, the Holkars ruled over a vast territory and left a lasting legacy in the region. 

Origins and Early History

• The Holkar dynasty originated from the Dhangar community, a shepherd caste, and was founded by Malhar Rao Holkar in the early 18th century.
• Malhar Rao Holkar began his career as a military commander in the service of the Maratha Empire and rose to prominence during the reign of the Peshwa Baji Rao I.
• His military exploits and strategic acumen paved the way for the establishment of an independent Holkar state.

Key Rulers of the Holkar Dynasty

 Malhar Rao Holkar (r. 1731-1766)

• Malhar Rao was the founder of the Holkar dynasty and is often regarded as its greatest ruler.
• He played a pivotal role in expanding Maratha's influence in northern India and was known for his military campaigns and statesmanship.
• Malhar Rao's leadership led to the establishment of the Holkar state with its capital in Indore.

Ahilya Bai Holkar (r. 1767-1795)

• Ahilya Bai Holkar, the daughter-in-law of Malhar Rao, is one of the most revered rulers in Indian history.
• Her reign is marked by just and enlightened governance, along with significant contributions to architecture and philanthropy.
• Ahilya Bai Holkar is best known for the construction of numerous temples and ghats along the Ganges River in Varanasi.

Yashwantrao Holkar (r. 1797-1811)

• Yashwantrao Holkar, also known as Jaswant Rao Holkar, was a prominent ruler who continued his family's legacy of military leadership.
• He led Maratha forces in battles against the British East India Company, including the Battle of Poona and the Battle of Mahidpur.
• His rule witnessed significant conflicts with both the British and other Maratha leaders.

Achievements and Contributions of the Holkars

• The Holkars made substantial contributions to the fields of art, culture, and architecture during their rule.
• They played a crucial role in expanding Maratha power in northern India, marking the zenith of their influence.
• The reign of Ahilya Bai Holkar is particularly known for temple construction and philanthropic endeavours.
• The Holkar dynasty's legacy continues to be celebrated in modern-day Indore, with several monuments, institutions, and cultural events named after its rulers.

Legacy and Impact

The Holkars left an indelible mark on the history of central India. Their contributions to art, culture, and governance continue to be celebrated in the region. However, their conflicts with the British East India Company marked the decline of their influence. Nevertheless, the Holkars remain an integral part of India's historical heritage, representing the Maratha legacy and their significant role in shaping the destiny of central India.

11.4. The Sindhias

The Sindhias also spelt Scindias or Shindes, were a prominent Maratha dynasty that played a significant role in the history of northern India, particularly in the region of Gwalior. Known for their military prowess, administrative skills, and contributions to art and culture, the Sindhias were instrumental in shaping the destiny of the Indian subcontinent during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Origins and Early History

The Sindhia dynasty, like many other Maratha dynasties, had humble beginnings. They belonged to the Kunbi community, traditionally engaged in agriculture. The founder of the dynasty, Ranoji Rao Scindia, began his career as a soldier in the service of the Peshwa of the Maratha Empire, Baji Rao I. Ranoji Rao's exceptional abilities in warfare led to his rapid rise within the Maratha ranks, laying the foundation for the Sindhia dynasty.

Key Rulers of the Sindhia Dynasty

Mahadji Shinde (Mahadji Scindia) (r. 1761-1794)

• Mahadji Shinde, also known as Mahadji Scindia, was one of the most illustrious rulers of the Sindhia dynasty.
• He played a pivotal role in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, where the Marathas fought against the Durrani Empire.
• Mahadji Shinde's leadership helped the Marathas regain their lost prestige after the defeat at Panipat.
• He became the de facto ruler of northern India and established his capital in Gwalior.
• Mahadji Shinde was known for his diplomacy, administrative reforms, and patronage of art and culture.

Daulat Rao Scindia (r. 1794-1827)

• Daulat Rao Scindia succeeded his father, Mahadji Shinde, and continued his legacy.
• His rule witnessed significant conflicts with the British East India Company during the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars.
• Daulat Rao Scindia signed the Treaty of Surji-Anjangaon in 1803, which ceded control of certain territories to the British.
• Despite facing territorial losses, he remained a prominent figure in northern India.

Achievements and Contributions of the Sindhias

• The Sindhias made significant contributions to the fields of art, culture, and architecture during their rule.
• They played a crucial role in Maratha politics and northern Indian geopolitics.
• Mahadji Shinde's diplomatic skills helped in the restoration of Maratha's prestige after the Third Battle of Panipat.
• The Gwalior Fort, an architectural marvel, saw substantial improvements and renovations during their rule.

Legacy and Impact:

• The Sindhia dynasty's legacy is closely tied to the history of Gwalior and northern India.
• Their contributions to art, culture, and governance continue to be celebrated in the region.
• The conflicts with the British East India Company marked a decline in their influence, but they remained influential in the princely state of Gwalior during the British colonial period.
• The Sindhias are remembered as key figures in Maratha history and as rulers who left a lasting impact on the political and cultural landscape of northern India.

The economic conditions during the 18th century in India, particularly under the Maratha Empire and various other Indian states, were characterized by regional diversity, economic activities, and the influence of colonial powers. Here are key aspects of the economic conditions during this period

Maratha Empire

• Agriculture played a central role in the economy of the Maratha Empire.
• The fertile regions of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and parts of central India were known for their agricultural productivity. Crops like rice, wheat, pulses, cotton, and sugarcane were cultivated.
•  The Marathas employed the Chauth and Sardeshmukhi system, under which they collected 25% of land revenue as Chauth from regions under their influence and an additional 10% as Sardeshmukhi from areas directly administered by them. This revenue collection system provided resources for the empire.
• The Maratha Empire controlled significant trade routes and ports along the western coast of India, such as Surat and Bombay.
• Trade with European colonial powers, including the British, French, and Portuguese, was prominent. These ports served as vital centres of trade and commerce.
• Handicrafts and manufacturing industries, including textiles, pottery, metalwork, and jewellery, thrived. The Marathas were known for supporting local industries and artisans.
• Investments were made in infrastructure, including the construction and maintenance of roads, bridges, and waterways. This facilitated trade and communication within the empire.

Other Indian States and Society

• India was home to various regional states and kingdoms during the 18th century, each with its own economic characteristics. These states had diverse cultural influences, economies, and trade patterns.
• Agriculture remained the primary economic activity across regions, with variations in crops and farming practices.
• Different regions specialized in the production of specific crops or goods.
• Trade networks, both overland and maritime, connected various parts of India.
• Trade relations with European colonial powers, as well as with other Asian countries, contributed to economic activity.
• Society continued to be structured along caste lines, with different castes engaged in specific economic roles.
• There was limited social mobility, but certain communities found economic opportunities in trade, crafts, and agriculture.
• The 18th century marked the increasing influence of European colonial powers, particularly the British East India Company.
• British economic policies and trade regulations began to affect Indian trade and commerce.
• Cultural exchanges occurred between India and other parts of the world, leading to the sharing of ideas, art, and goods.
• Indian textiles, spices, and other products were sought after in global markets.
• The period also saw challenges such as wars, famines, and natural disasters that could disrupt economic activities and trade.
• The 18th century was a precursor to the colonial dominance that India would experience in the 19th century.
• The British gradually expanded their control, leading to significant economic and social changes.

Social and cultural life in India during the 18th century, which included the Maratha Empire and various other Indian states, was diverse and influenced by a multitude of factors. Here are some key aspects of social and cultural life during this period:

Maratha Empire

• Maratha society was characterized by a mix of different social groups. The Marathas, who were initially a warrior group, had become the dominant political power.
• However, society also included various other communities such as Brahmins, Kunbis, and different artisan groups.
• Marathi, the native language of the Marathas, saw significant literary development during this period.
• Marathi literature thrived, with the composition of various literary works, including poetry, historical chronicles, and religious texts.
• Hinduism was the predominant religion, and the Marathas patronized and supported Hindu temples and religious institutions.
• The Bhakti and Sant movements continued to influence religious life, emphasizing devotion to God over ritualistic practices.
• The Marathas made contributions to art and architecture. The construction of forts, palaces, and temples, such as the Shaniwar Wada in Pune, showcased Maratha's architectural prowess.
• Traditional Hindu festivals like Diwali, Holi, and Ganesh Chaturthi were celebrated with great enthusiasm.
• These festivals often involved cultural performances, music, dance, and processions.
• Gender roles in Maratha society were traditional, with men often engaged in military and administrative roles, while women primarily managed households. However, women also played important roles in family and social life.

Other Indian States and Society

• The 18th century saw the decline of the Mughal Empire, resulting in the emergence of various regional states and kingdoms across India. These states had diverse cultural influences and practices.
•  Various regional languages and dialects thrived during this period. Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi, and Urdu, among others, continued to develop as literary languages with rich traditions of poetry, prose, and cultural expression.
•  India continued to be a land of religious diversity. The syncretic traditions, such as Sufism in Islam and Bhakti in Hinduism, promoted tolerance and religious harmony. Many rulers of regional states followed policies of religious inclusivity.
• The architectural and artistic styles varied from region to region. The Deccan Sultanates, for example, had their distinct architectural features, blending Persian and Indian elements.
• Indian society continued to be stratified along caste lines, with caste-based roles and hierarchies.
• However, social mobility was not entirely stagnant, and various reform movements emerged to challenge caste-based discrimination.
•  Trade routes, both overland and maritime, connected different parts of India and beyond. Trade with Europe and other parts of Asia continued to be significant.
• The 18th century witnessed cultural exchanges between India and other parts of the world, especially with European colonial powers. This had an impact on art, literature, and lifestyle.
• The British East India Company's increasing influence and control over parts of India during the late 18th century marked the beginning of significant colonial rule, which would profoundly impact Indian society and culture in the coming decades.