CLIMAX AND CRISIS OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE: THE MARATHAS AND THE DECCAN
1. Introduction
The Mughal Empire, one of the most powerful and influential empires in Indian history, faced a series of crises and a gradual decline over the course of several decades. The rise of the Marathas in the Deccan region played a significant role in the climax and crisis of the Mughal Empire. Here's an overview of how the Marathas impacted the Mughal Empire during this period:
Rise of the Marathas:
- The Marathas were a Hindu warrior group based in the Deccan plateau of western India. They initially served as subordinates to various Mughal governors in the Deccan.
- Under the leadership of Shivaji Bhonsle (Shivaji Maharaj), the Marathas began to assert their independence and expand their territory in the late 17th century.
- Shivaji established the Maratha Empire by consolidating his power and adopting guerrilla warfare tactics.
Mughal Decline and Weak Successors:
- The decline of the Mughal Empire had already begun during the later years of Emperor Aurangzeb's rule (1658-1707). His long and costly military campaigns, religious policies, and heavy taxation weakened the empire.
- After Aurangzeb's death, the empire saw a series of weak and ineffectual rulers who were unable to maintain central control.
Maratha Invasions:
- The Marathas took advantage of the Mughal Empire's weakened state and launched several invasions into northern India during the early 18th century. They captured key provinces and cities.
Battle of Panipat (1761):
- One of the most significant events in the conflict between the Mughals and the Marathas was the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
- In this battle, the Marathas suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the Durrani Empire, led by Ahmad Shah Durrani (also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali).
- This battle severely weakened the Marathas and shattered their dreams of dominating northern India.
Fragmentation of the Empire:
- After the Battle of Panipat, the Maratha Empire faced internal divisions and conflicts among its leaders.
- Meanwhile, the Mughal Empire continued to disintegrate, with regional governors and warlords asserting their autonomy.
British Intrusion:
- As the Mughal Empire crumbled, the British East India Company emerged as a significant player in Indian politics.
- The British gradually expanded their influence and control over various regions of India, further eroding the power of both the Mughals and the Marathas.
End of Mughal Rule:
- By the early 19th century, the Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah II was merely a symbolic figurehead with no real power.
- The Indian Rebellion of 1857 marked the end of Mughal rule in India, and Bahadur Shah II was exiled by the British.
The rise of the Marathas and their conflicts with the Mughal Empire, combined with the internal weaknesses of the Mughal dynasty and external threats, contributed significantly to the climax and eventual decline of the Mughal Empire. The Battle of Panipat and the British intrusion played pivotal roles in shaping the course of Indian history during this period.
2. Rise of the Marathas - Early Career of Shivaji
The rise of the Marathas and the early career of Shivaji, also known as Shivaji Bhonsle or Shivaji Maharaj, were marked by a remarkable blend of military strategy, political maneuvering, and the establishment of an independent Maratha kingdom in the Deccan region. Here's an overview of Shivaji's early career and the factors that contributed to his rise:
Background and Childhood:
- Shivaji was born in 1630 in the town of Shivneri in the Pune district of present-day Maharashtra, India, into the Bhonsle Maratha clan.
- He was raised in the Maratha warrior tradition and was exposed to tales of valor and heroism from an early age.
Early Military Endeavors:
- Shivaji's early military expeditions began in the late 1640s when he captured the Torna Fort from a neighboring ruler.
- He continued to capture various forts and territories in the Sahyadri mountain range, which formed the nucleus of his future kingdom.
Raigad Fort:
- One of Shivaji's most significant achievements was the capture of the Raigad Fort in 1656. This fortress would later become his capital.
- The capture of Raigad was a turning point in his quest for an independent Maratha kingdom.
Administration and Revenue Reforms:
- Shivaji was not only a military leader but also an astute administrator. He established a well-structured administration in his growing territory.
- He implemented revenue reforms, abolished unjust taxes, and promoted local self-governance in the areas he controlled.
Guerrilla Warfare Tactics:
- Shivaji's military success was partly attributed to his innovative use of guerrilla warfare tactics.
- He employed strategies like surprise attacks, hit-and-run tactics, and the use of mobile cavalry units to outmaneuver larger and more powerful adversaries.
Treaty with the Mughals (1665):
- Shivaji recognized the need for diplomatic maneuvering to ensure the survival of his kingdom.
- He signed the Treaty of Purandar with the Mughal Empire in 1665, which recognized his control over the Maratha territories while acknowledging Mughal suzerainty.
Coronation as Chhatrapati (1674):
- In 1674, Shivaji was formally crowned as Chhatrapati (emperor) and established the Maratha Empire with himself as the sovereign ruler.
- This event marked the pinnacle of his career and his assertion of Maratha independence.
Naval Exploits:
- Shivaji also recognized the importance of a strong navy and built up a formidable maritime force. He successfully challenged the dominance of European powers in Indian waters.
Shivaji's early career and rise to power were characterized by his vision of establishing a Maratha kingdom, his military prowess, administrative reforms, and strategic alliances. His legacy as a warrior king and a champion of Hindu sovereignty in the Deccan region continues to be celebrated in Indian history and culture.
3. Treaty of Purandar - the Agra Visit
The Treaty of Purandar and the Agra Visit are two significant events in the life of Shivaji Maharaj, the founder of the Maratha Empire. These events had important implications for his relationship with the Mughal Empire. Here's an overview of each event:
Treaty of Purandar (1665):
- The Treaty of Purandar was a peace treaty signed between Shivaji and the Mughal Empire in 1665.
- Prior to this treaty, Shivaji had established a growing Maratha state in the Deccan, which the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb saw as a threat to his authority.
- The Mughals, under the command of Jai Singh I, launched a military campaign against Shivaji.
- Under pressure and realizing the strength of the Mughal forces, Shivaji agreed to the terms of the treaty.
- Surrender of 23 forts to the Mughals.
- Agra Fort was to be surrendered to the Mughals, and Shivaji was to visit the Mughal court in Agra.
- Shivaji agreed to serve the Mughal Empire as a Mansabdar (a noble) and to provide military assistance when required.
The Agra Visit (1666):
- As per the terms of the Treaty of Purandar, Shivaji visited the Mughal court in Agra in 1666.
- During his stay in Agra, Shivaji faced a series of humiliations and distrust from the Mughal authorities.
- He was placed under virtual house arrest and was not allowed to leave the city.
- Shivaji's frustration and concerns about his safety grew during his captivity in Agra.
- In response to his treatment, Shivaji devised a daring plan to escape from Agra.
Escape from Agra (1666):
- Shivaji, along with his son Sambhaji, and a few loyal associates, managed to escape from Agra in a dramatic and audacious manner.
- They disguised themselves as beggars and hid in large fruit baskets, which were carried out of the city by his supporters.
- Once outside Agra, they regrouped and made their way back to the Deccan.
The Agra Visit and Shivaji's escape had significant consequences:
- Shivaji's escape from Agra marked a turning point in his life and reign, as it allowed him to return to the Deccan and resume his efforts to build the Maratha Empire.
- It also marked the breakdown of the Treaty of Purandar and the resumption of hostilities between Shivaji and the Mughals.
- Shivaji continued to expand his territory and assert Maratha's independence, ultimately leading to his coronation as Chhatrapati (emperor) in 1674.
These events are crucial in understanding the complex relationship between Shivaji and the Mughal Empire during a pivotal period in Indian history. Shivaji's escape from Agra is particularly celebrated as a testament to his resourcefulness and determination in the face of adversity.
4. Aurangzeb and the Deccani States (1658-87)
The reign of Aurangzeb (1658-1707) was a critical period in the history of the Mughal Empire, particularly in relation to the Deccani states of southern India. Aurangzeb's policies and military campaigns in the Deccan had far-reaching consequences for the empire and the region as a whole. Here's an overview of Aurangzeb's engagement with the Deccani states during his reign (1658-87):
Early Campaigns in the Deccan:
- Aurangzeb ascended to the Mughal throne in 1658 after a war of succession. His rule was characterized by a strong commitment to Islamic orthodoxy.
- One of his major objectives was to expand Mughal territory in the Deccan. He believed that the conquest of the Deccan was essential to securing the empire's northern heartland.
Conquest of Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687):
- Aurangzeb initiated a series of military campaigns to bring the Deccani sultanates of Bijapur and Golconda under Mughal control.
- He successfully captured Bijapur in 1686 and Golconda in 1687, incorporating these once-independent states into the Mughal Empire.
- These conquests were significant achievements, but they came at a high cost in terms of resources and manpower.
Resistance from Marathas:
- While Aurangzeb was busy in the Deccan, he faced significant opposition from the Marathas, who were led by the charismatic Shivaji Maharaj during the early part of his reign.
- The Marathas employed guerrilla warfare tactics and repeatedly challenged Mughal forces, making it difficult for Aurangzeb to subdue them completely.
Deccan Campaigns and Draining Resources:
- Aurangzeb's prolonged military campaigns in the Deccan strained the Mughal treasury and military resources. The costly and protracted nature of these campaigns weakened the empire overall.
- The Deccan campaigns also exacerbated religious tensions as Aurangzeb pursued a policy of religious intolerance and imposed Islamic law in the newly acquired territories.
Maratha Resurgence:
- After Shivaji's death in 1680, his son Sambhaji continued the Maratha resistance against the Mughals.
- The Marathas regrouped and reemerged as a formidable force in the Deccan during the latter part of Aurangzeb's reign.
Legacy of Aurangzeb's Deccan Campaigns:
- Aurangzeb's long and costly military campaigns in the Deccan, combined with his policy of religious intolerance, are often cited as contributing factors to the gradual decline of the Mughal Empire.
- The Deccan campaigns drained the empire's resources and weakened its central authority, making it vulnerable to external threats and internal strife.
Aurangzeb's focus on the Deccan and his rigid policies had significant and lasting effects on the Mughal Empire and the Deccan region. While he did expand Mughal territory, the cost of these conquests, both in terms of resources and social harmony, played a role in the empire's decline in the subsequent years. Additionally, the Marathas, who had been a persistent thorn in Aurangzeb's side, continued to gain strength and influence in the Deccan after his death, ultimately contributing to the fragmentation of the empire.
5. Marathas and the Decean (1687-1707)
The period from 1687 to 1707 in the Deccan region was marked by significant developments in the power struggle between the Marathas and the Mughal Empire under the reign of Aurangzeb. Here's an overview of the Marathas' activities and their relationship with the Deccan during this time:
The Maratha Resurgence:
- After the initial Mughal conquests in the Deccan, including the capture of Golconda and Bijapur, the Marathas regrouped and began to reassert themselves as a major force in the region.
- Under the leadership of figures like Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, and later, the Maratha chieftain Rajaram, the Marathas launched a guerrilla warfare campaign against the Mughals.
Shivaji's Legacy:
- The legacy of Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha Empire, continued to inspire the Maratha leaders during this period.
- Shivaji's vision of an independent Maratha state in the Deccan served as a rallying point for Maratha's resistance against Mughal dominance.
Mughal Maratha Conflict:
- The conflict between the Mughals and the Marathas in the Deccan escalated during these years.
- The Mughal campaigns against the Marathas were marked by protracted and inconclusive warfare, with the Marathas often relying on their knowledge of the terrain and guerrilla tactics to evade Mughal forces.
- The Deccan became the epicenter of this ongoing conflict.
Death of Aurangzeb (1707):
- In 1707, Aurangzeb, who had been personally involved in the Deccan campaigns for several decades, passed away.
- His death marked the end of an era in Mughal history and the beginning of a period of decline for the Mughal Empire.
Expansion of Maratha Territory:
- Following Aurangzeb's death, the Marathas continued their expansion in the Deccan.
- The Marathas gradually gained control over a significant portion of central and western India, forming the Maratha Confederacy.
The Rise of the Maratha Chhatrapatis:
- Shivaji's vision of an independent Maratha state was realized with the rise of the Maratha Chhatrapatis (emperors), who exerted authority over the newly acquired territories.
- The Marathas established their capital at Raigad and later at Satara.
Influence Beyond the Deccan:
- The Marathas expanded their influence beyond the Deccan and engaged in conflicts with other regional powers, including the Mughals in northern India.
Mughal Decline and Maratha Dominance:
- The decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of the Marathas in the 18th century marked a significant shift in the power dynamics of India.
- The Marathas emerged as a formidable force and played a prominent role in Indian politics for several decades.
The period from 1687 to 1707 witnessed the resurgence of the Marathas in the Deccan and their eventual dominance in the region. The Mughal-Maratha conflict during this time set the stage for the Marathas to expand their influence and establish a significant presence in the Indian subcontinent in the subsequent years.
6. Assessment of Aurangzeb and the Jagirdari Crisis
Assessment of Aurangzeb:
Positive Aspects:
- Military Achievements: Aurangzeb was a capable military strategist and expanded the Mughal Empire's territorial holdings during his reign. His conquests in the Deccan and the South, including the capture of Bijapur and Golconda, demonstrated his military prowess.
- Administrative Reforms: Aurangzeb implemented certain administrative reforms, such as introducing measures to curb corruption and streamline revenue collection. He also paid attention to administrative details and maintained records of state affairs.
- Religious Piety: Aurangzeb is often seen as a devout Muslim who sought to uphold Islamic law. He promoted the construction of mosques and the spread of Islamic education.
Negative Aspects:
- Religious Intolerance: Aurangzeb's strict interpretation of Islamic law led to a policy of religious intolerance. He imposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims and persecuted religious minorities, including Hindus and Sikhs, leading to social unrest.
- Lengthy and Costly Campaigns: His prolonged military campaigns, especially in the Deccan, drained the Mughal treasury and exhausted the empire's resources. The cost of these campaigns played a significant role in the empire's decline.
- Centralization: Aurangzeb's centralizing tendencies led to greater bureaucratic control, which often resulted in inefficiency and corruption. This weakened the authority of local officials, including jagirdars (landholders).
Assessment of the Jagirdari Crisis:
The Jagirdari Crisis during Aurangzeb's reign was characterized by several factors:
- Revenue Collection and Overextension: The Mughal Empire's reliance on the jagirdari system for revenue collection had become problematic. Jagirdars were entrusted with collecting revenue from specific regions in exchange for a share of the revenue. However, over time, many jagirdars had become hereditary landholders, leading to revenue leakage and inefficiencies.
- Aurangzeb's Attempts at Reform: Aurangzeb recognized the issues within the jagirdari system and made efforts to reform it. He attempted to assert more control over the jagirdars, limit their hereditary rights, and increase the state's share of revenue.
- Resistance and Revolts: The attempts at reform faced significant resistance from the jagirdars, who held considerable power and influence in their respective regions. This resistance often led to revolts and rebellions against Mughal authority.
- Impact on the Economy: The Jagirdari Crisis, with its associated revolts and administrative conflicts, had a negative impact on the Mughal economy. It contributed to financial instability and was one of the factors that weakened the empire's fiscal position.
While Aurangzeb had military successes and implemented certain administrative reforms, his religious policies, military campaigns, and struggles with the Jagirdars during the Jagirdari Crisis contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire. The Jagirdari Crisis, in particular, highlighted the weaknesses in the Mughal administrative system and the challenges of maintaining centralized control over a vast and diverse empire.
Previous year Question1. With reference to Mughal India, what is/are the difference/differences between Jagirdar and Zamindar? (UPSC 2019)
Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Answer: d |
