• The savanna landscape is typified by tall grass and short trees. The terms parkland or bush-veld perhaps describe the landscape better.
• The trees grow in equatorial humid latitudes or along rivers' banks but decrease in height and density away from the equator.
• The trees are delicious, shedding their leaves in the cool, dry season to prevent water loss.
• Baobabs and bottle trees are water-storing devices even though they survive droughts. Many trees are umbrellas shaped exposing the narrow edge to the strong winds.
• The grass is tall and coarse growing 6 – 12 feet high. The elephant grass may attain 15 feet in height. Tufts grass has long roots which reach down to search for water.
• The grass lies dormant throughout the long rainless period and springs up in the next rainy season. As the rainfall diminishes towards the desert the savanna merges into thorny scrub.
• In Australia, this scrubland is well represented by several species such as mallee, mulga, spiniflex grass and other bushes.

Animal life of the Savanna

• The savanna in Africa is the home of wild animals. It is known as a big game country because of the vast hunting of animals all over the world.
• Animals are cracked down for their skin, tusks, horns, bone or air. Some were captured alive for zoo and laboratory specimens or pets.
• The leaf and grass-eating animals include zebra, antelope, deer, giraffe, elephants, gazelle and okapi etc. are well camouflaged species.
• Lion, leopard, tiger, hyena, panther, jaguar, jackal, lynx and puma are carnivorous animals of the savanna.
• Along the rivers of the marshy lakes are numerous species of reptiles and mammals including crocodiles, alligators, monitors and giant lizards together with larger rhinoceros and hippopotamus.
• In many parts of the east and South Africa national parks have been set up. In Kenya, there are large towers and viewing points built in the heart of the savanna.

Human life in Savanna

• In the East African plateau, the Masai tribe lived as cattle pastoralists. They are confined to 15,000 square miles of reserve in Kenya and Tanzania.
• Their land is taken over by the immigrant white settlers for coffee, tea cotton plantation and dairy farming.
• Whenever there is drought the Masai moves towards the upward and cooler plateau for cattle grazing. They build circular huts with sticks, bushes and mud for temporary shelter. 
• In northern Nigeria, Hausa are the settled cultivators. They are almost six million and doing agriculture for hundreds of years. Kano is the ancient city of Hausa.
• They cultivated cotton and tobacco. They rotate the crops between different fields at different years. They domesticate animals for milk and meat. Animal manure is used as fertilizer in the fields.

Problems prospects and development of the savanna

• World population pressure and the need for greater food production will necessitate greater economic development of the savanna.
• The deserts or the freezing tundra form climatic barriers too formidable for large-scale human intervention to take place.
• But the savanna land with an annual rainfall of over 30 inches.
• Pioneer settlements in central Africa, northern Australia and eastern Brazil have immense agricultural potential for plantation agriculture of cotton, cane sugar, coffee, oil palm, groundnuts and even tropical fruits.
• Tropical Queensland, despite its scarcity of labour force has been very successful in its attempts to develop its huge empty land.
• The newly independent states of Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Malawi have already taken to large-scale production of cotton and sisal hemp.
• Both crops thrive well in savanna conditions. In West Africa, the commercial cultivation of groundnuts, oil palm and cocoa has been gradually extended into the savanna lands.
• New drought-resistant varieties will have to be introduced into these newly emergent countries to increase their foreign earnings in such tropical raw materials. 
• Droughts may be long and trying, as rainfall is often unreliable.
• Adequate provision for irrigation, improved crop varieties and scientific farming techniques suitable for the tropical grasslands, crop failures can be disastrous for the people.
• The Sudan Climate, with distinct wet-and-dry periods is also responsible for the rapid deterioration of soil fertility.
• Torrential downpours of heavy rain cause leaching resulting in plant nutrients such as nitrates; phosphates and potash are dissolved and washed away.
• During the dry season, intense heating and evaporation dry up most of the water.
• Many savanna areas, therefore, have poor lateritic soils which are incapable of supporting good crops.
• Unless the soil is properly conserved through regular manuring, weeding and careful maintenance, crop yields are bound to decline.
• It seems necessary to introduce temperate cattle such as the English Shorthorn, Friesian or Guernsey to cross with the tropical zebu if cattle rearing is to be successful in the savanna.
• In tropical Queensland which has become Australia’s largest cattle producing state.
• The quality of the grass needs to be improved and a better network of communications is essential.
• All cattle breeding and disease control must be carried out on a scientific basis.
• In the African savanna, the attitude of such native herdsmen as the Masai who treat cattle as prestige animals, not for slaughtering, will pose many difficulties towards the commercialization of the cattle industry. But as an agricultural region, the savanna holds great promise for the future.

Hot Desert Climate

• The dry conditions in hot deserts primarily result from the impact of offshore Trade Winds, earning them the designation of Trade Wind Deserts.
• These arid regions are prominently situated on the western coasts of continents, spanning latitudes 15° to 30°N and S.
• Notable hot deserts include the expansive Sahara Desert (covering 3.5 million square miles), the Great Australian Desert, Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari Desert, and Namib Desert.
• In North America, the desert belt stretches from Mexico into the United States, encompassing diverse areas known by distinct names such as the Mohave, Sonoran, Californian, and Mexican Deserts.
• South America features the Atacama or Peruvian Desert, recognized for its extreme aridity attributed to the rain shadow effect and offshore trade winds. This desert stands out as the driest among all, receiving less than 2 cm of rainfall annually.

Mid-Latitude Desert Climate

• Temperate deserts experience aridity primarily due to either continental influences or the rain-shadow effect. In the case of the Gobi Desert, continental factors play a pivotal role, while the Patagonian Desert is shaped by the rain-shadow effect.
• These mid-latitude deserts are often situated on plateaus, significantly distant from the sea. Notable examples include Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan, Taklimakan, and the Gobi Desert in Central Asia.
• Additionally, the drier regions of the Great Basin Desert in the western United States and the Patagonian Deserts in Argentina exhibit characteristics of mid-latitude desert climates.
• The aridity of the Patagonian Desert is primarily attributed to its rain-shadow position on the leeward side of the towering Andes, rather than continental influences. This unique geographical arrangement limits the availability of moisture, contributing to the desert's distinctive climatic conditions.

Desert Climate

• In deserts, whether classified as hot or mid-latitude, the annual precipitation rarely exceeds 25 cm.
• The Atacama Desert, recognized as the driest place on Earth, receives virtually no rainfall. The typical precipitation events in deserts manifest as intense and sudden convectional thunderstorms.
• These thunderstorms unleash their deluge abruptly, pouring over limited areas for a brief but impactful duration.
• The violence and suddenness of these storms can have detrimental effects on desert landforms, occasionally leading to flash floods.
• This unique precipitation pattern contributes to the challenging and dynamic nature of desert ecosystems.

 Desert Vegetation

• Plants that exist in deserts have highly specialized means of adapting themselves to the arid environment. 
• The basic type of vegetation in deserts are xerophytes or drought resistant which usually has special ways of storing and conserving water like cactus. 
• These are rare except there is an abundance of ground water to support clusters of date palms. 
• Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition hence desert soils are deficient in humus content along with high evaporation making the soil saline. 
• Plants have few or no leaves & foliage is waxy, leathery or hairy/needle-shaped to reduce the loss of water through transpiration. 
• Thick bark & tough skins to protect them while they lie dormant from excessive evaporation.
• Developed an extended root system close to the surface to collect a lot of water during scant rainfall Develop a deep root system and reach groundwater. 

Important characteristics of Desert Vegetation

• Stay many years as dormant as a seed and when sufficient rain falls, speed up your active life to a three-week compressed cycle, producing leaves, flowers and new seeds in no time. 
• Poison neighbours to reduce competition, Stay small, it reduces a lot of water evaporation. 
• Develops into round, a more advantageous ratio of Volume/surface, and develops green cylindrical stems able to perform photosynthesis Shed some of their branches to consume less. 

Life in the Deserts

Mediterranean Climate

• The Mediterranean Climate, also known as the Warm Temperate Western Margin, is a distinctive climate type within the Köppen classification, recognized for its mild, wet winters and warm, dry summers.
• The nomenclature is derived from regions situated in the Mediterranean Basin, known for their unique biodiversity.
• Approximately 70% of the world's citrus fruits thrive in areas with this climate, earning it the moniker "garden of the world."
• In regions with a Mediterranean climate, diverse local winds, ranging from extremely hot to chilly, prevail.
• Notable winds include the Sirocco and Mistral. The climate's characteristics vary based on geographical conditions, with a significant impact on the western margins, making understanding its nuances essential.

Mediterranean Climate Countries

• Predominantly found in the western margins between 30 and 45 degrees North and South of the equator.
• Majorly developed in Central Chile.
• Other countries include California, southwestern Africa (around Cape Town), southern Australia, and southwest Australia.

Mediterranean Climate Biome

• Top biodiversity hotspot with diverse flora and fauna.
• Grasslands are common, hosting animals like bustards and various bird species.
• Waterbodies support fish, aquatic animals, and migratory birds.
• Presence of diverse insects and amphibians during migration season.

 Mediterranean Climate Vegetation

• Evergreen forests with oaks, pines, eucalyptus, bay laurel, and more.
• California boasts redwoods and sequoias.
• Fruit trees such as olives, figs, grapes, and nuts are prevalent.
• Evergreen coniferous trees like pines and cypresses.
• Shrubs, bushes, and wiry grasses characterize the vegetation.

Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate: Suitable for crop cultivation, including wheat, rice, and barley. Orchards thrive, known as the "World's Orchard's Land," cultivating citrus fruits and nuts. Wine cultivation is popular, leveraging the ideal grape-growing conditions.

Mediterranean Climate in India: While India is not within the typical Mediterranean climate zone, regions like Kashmir Valley, Kalpa in Himachal Pradesh, and Nilgiri Hills in Tamil Nadu exhibit characteristics of this climate type.

Distribution

• Bordering the deserts, away from the Mediterranean regions and in the interiors of continents are the temperate grasslands. The grasslands are practically treeless and distinctive in their natural vegetation.
• In the southern hemisphere have a much more moderate climate; they are often dealt with together.
• In the northern hemisphere, the grasslands are far more extensive and are entirely continental.
• In Eurasia, they are called the Steppes and stretch eastwards from the shores of the Black Sea across the Great Russian plain to the foothills of the Altai Mountains, a distance of well over 2.000 miles. They are broken in a few places, being interrupted by the highlands.
• There are isolated sections in the Pustaz of Hungary and the plains of Manchuria.  In North America, the grasslands are also quite extensive and are called Prairies. They lie between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great Lakes astride the American-Canadian border. In the Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay, the grasslands extend right to the sea.
• In the south- Africa the grasslands are sandwiched between the Drakensberg and the Kalahari Desert and are further subdivided into more tropical Bush-veld to the north and more temperature High-veld to the south.
• Downs grasslands are found in Murray- the Darling Basin of Southern Australia. 

Climate

Temperature: Summer is very warm with 66°F in July and the winter months are below freezing point. vaw

 Precipitation

• The average rainfall may be taken as about 45 cm, but this varies according to the different locations.
• Most of the winter months have about 2.5 cm of precipitation, brought by the occasional depressions of the westerlies and coming in the form of snow.
• The maritime influence in the southern hemisphere causes more rainfall. There are three months (June, July and August) without any rain.
• This is the period of drought that may have such a disastrous effect on the sheep-rearing industry here.
• It comes with the depressions in winter or early spring from the Pacific coast ascending the Rockies and then descending to the Prairies.

Natural Vegetation

• Though the term ' steppe vegetation' geographically refers to the scanty vegetation of the sub-arid land of continental Eurasia.
• Their greatest difference from the tropical savanna is that they are practically treeless and the grasses are much shorter.
• Where the rainfall is moderate, above 20 inches, the grasses arc tall fresh and nutritious and are better described as long prairie grass.
• This is typical of the grass of the wheat lands in North America, the rich black earth or chernozem areas of Russian Ukraine and the better-watered areas of the Asiatic Steppes.
• Where the rainfall is light (less than 20 inches) or unreliable or the soil is poor, as in the continental interiors of Asia the short steppe type of grass prevails.
• These areas are less suitable for arable farming and are used for some form of ranching as in the High Plains of the U.S.A.
• Their growth is not abruptly checked by summer droughts or winter cold. The steppe grass can lie dormant throughout the prolonged drought.
• The appearance of the temperate grasslands varies with seasons. In spring, the grass begins to appear, green, fresh and blooming with small, colourful flowers.
• In summer, there is so much heat and evaporation that the grass is scorched.
• Towards autumn, the grass withers and dies, but the roots remain alive and lie dormant throughout the cold winter.
• The winter is harsh and long, but the snow' is never of great depth.
• Trees are very scarce in the steppes, because of the scanty rainfall, long droughts and severe winters.
• In the cultivated regions, such as the wheat farms of the Prairies, double rows of trees are planted around the house to shield the occupants from the strong winds which come unobstructed across miles of level ground.

Economic Development

• The temperate grasslands were once the home of grazing animals; wild horses in the Asiatic Steppes, swift-footed bison in the Prairies and untamed buffaloes in the Pampas.
• These grasslands were dominated by nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples like the Kirghiz of the Asiatic Steppes.
• The Red Indians of North America were mostly hunters who moved around after the bison and other animals.
• Cultivation was unknown and the region was one of the most sparsely populated parts of the world.
• The grasslands have been ploughed up for extensive, mechanized wheat cultivation and are now the ‘granaries of the world.

Nomadic herding

• This type of migratory animal grazing has almost disappeared from the major grasslands.
• The herders were wandering tribes e.g. The Kirghiz, the Kazakhs, and the Kalniuk.
• They used to travel over long distances like the Bedouins of the Arabian Desert, in search of grass and water for their animals, sheep, goats and horses.
• From these domesticated animals they obtained meat, milk, wool, hides, bones and horns.
• The wool was woven into felt for tents and garments.
• The leather was used for making boots, saddles and belts,
• The bones and horns were not wasted but made into tools, utensils and weapons.

Extensive mechanized wheat cultivation

• The temperature grasslands are ideal for extensive wheat cultivation, in the prairies, the Argentina pampas and Ukraine steppes and down of Australia, Canada, Australia, UK, Denmark and Netherlands.
• The extensive mechanized farming is the consequent low yield. 75 per cent of the Wheat is grown in the winter. In the warmer, wetter regions the Maize is grown.

Pastoral Farming

• The natural conditions suit animal farming. With the introduction of cattle, pigs, sheep and horses the temperate grasslands became major pastoral regions.
• Exporting large quantities of beef, mutton, wool, hides, milk, butter, cheese and other dairy products is important in some parts of the northern American grasslands.
• In the southern hemisphere the winter is mild and the rainfall is very distributed.
• The pampas became so involved with the pastoral industry that it took the lead in the world’s export of beef.
• Large estancias (ranches) were established, linked to the frigorificos (meat-packing factories) in the coastal ports by a dense network of roads and railways.
• Australia became the world’s largest wool exporter with one-third of its total production.

• Rainfall mainly in summers, with more rainfall than the Mediterranean climate in the same latitude.
• It is a modified form of monsoonal climate it is thus called Temperate Monsoon or China Type of Climate.
• In the southern hemisphere this kind of climate is experienced along the warm temperate eastern coastlands of all three continents- New South Wales, Natal and Parana Paraguay Uruguay Basin.

Climate

• Warm moist summers and cool dry winters. The mean monthly temperature varies between 40 ^○ F to 78^○F. Strongly modified by maritime influence Though frosts are rare, they occasionally occur in the colder interiors.
• For most of the time, it is pleasantly warm. Rainfall is more than moderate anything from 25 inches to 60 inches. Another important feature is the fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year
• There is rain every month, except in the interior of central China. Rain comes either from convectional sources, orographic rain in summer or from depression in prolonged showers in winter. Local storms eg typhoons, hurricanes also occur
• This type of climate can be further divided into the China Type, The Gulf Type and The Natal Type. 

The China Type

• The great landmass of the Asiatic continent with its mountainous interior induces great pressure changes between summer and winter.
• Intense heating in the heart of Asia sets up a region of low pressure in summer and a tropical Pacific air stream is drawn in as the rain-bearing southeast monsoon.
• Another feature is the great annual temperature range. Another feature is the occurrence of typhoons- intense tropical cyclones that originate in the Pacific Ocean and move westwards to the coastlands bordering in South China Sea. They are most frequent in late summer.

The Gulf Type

• The Gulf Atlantic regions of the United States experience a type of climate similar to that of central China except that the monsoonal characteristics are less well established.
• There is no complete seasonal wind reversal, for the pressure gradient between mainland America and the Atlantic.
• Summers are warm and pleasant. It rarely snows in winter. The annual rainfall is heavy.
• There is no distinct dry period as in monsoon lands, and the abundant moisture has stimulated extensive cultivation of cotton and maize, in the cotton and corn belts both of which are the world's leading areas for these crops.
• There is a tendency toward summer maximum brought by the onshore trade winds which swing landwards from the Atlantic.
• The amount of rain is increased by the frequent thunderstorms in summer and by hurricanes in September and October.

The Natal Type 

• There are three distinct areas on the eastern coasts of the southern continents, lying just south of the Tropic of Capricorn which experience this type of climate.
• The narrowness of the continents and the dominance of maritime influence eliminate the monsoonal elements which characterize the corresponding climates of the northern hemisphere.
• The southeast trade winds bring about a more even distribution of rainfall throughout the year.
• The passage of depressions across the southern edges of the warm temperate eastern margins results in a slight autumn or winter maximum.
• Another feature to note is the small annual temperature range, without any really cold months.

Natural Vegetation

• Eastern margins of warm temperate latitudes have a much heavier rainfall than either the western margins or the continental interiors and thus have luxuriant vegetation.
• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees.
• On the highlands are various species of conifers such as pines and cypresses which are important softwoods.
• The well-distributed rainfall all year round makes the regions look green at all times.
• These areas are home to timber species.
• The highlands yield extensive forests of chestnuts, ironwoods and blackwoods.
• The forests also have oak, camphor, camellia and magnolia.

Economic Development

• These are intensively tilled areas. Widespread cultivation of maize and cotton in the corn and cotton belts of the USA. Fruit and tobacco are also grown. Rice, tea and mulberries are extensively grown in monsoon China.
• Cane sugar in Natal, coffee and maize in South America and dairying in NEW South Wales and Victoria.
• These are the world's greatest rice-growing areas. The most intensively farmed areas are the basins of the SI-Kiang, Yang-Tze Kiang, and Hwang Ho.  In the Gulf States- corn, cotton and tobacco are important crops.

CORN

• The chief food crop raised is corn –the humid air, sunny summer, and heavy showers suit the crop well. It is grown right from the Gulf Coast to the Midwest south of the Great Lakes, with the greatest contribution in Nebraska, Iowa, Indiana and Ohio.
• It accounts for less than 3 per cent of corn exports because most of it is used for fattening animals, mostly cattle and pigs.
• The Gulf-type climate is best for cotton growing. It's long, hot growing season with 200 days frost-free and a moderately high temperature of about 75F.

Cotton Cultivation: Mississippi Flood Plains, Atlantic Coastlands of Georgia and South Carolina, Black Prairies of Texas and Read Prairies of Oklahoma. South of the Gulf land is devoted to citrus fruits, cane sugar and, market gardening as in Florida.

Tobacco-Incidentally native crop of America: Tobacco Growing Areas-Virginia, Maryland, Georgia, North and South Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee.  The humid atmosphere the warmth and the well-drained soils of the Gulf states, enable tobacco to be successfully cultivated in many of the eastern states of the USA. 

Crop cultivation in the eastern margins of the Southern Hemisphere

• The warm moist summers and frost-free winters not only support crops but also animals. In the coastlands of Natal, cane sugar is the dominant crop followed by cotton and tobacco.
• Maize is extensively cultivated for use both as mealie an important food item for Africans and Silage an animal fodder for cattle rearing.
• In South America where rainfall is less than 40 inches, there is much grassland on which cattle and sheep are kept for meat, wool and hides.
• In southern Brazil, yerba mate(Paraguay tea ) and the lumbering of araucaria or Parana pine are important occupations. cattle and sheep are reared and maize and cane sugar are grown. 

Areas from Britain, the climatic belt stretches far inland into the lowlands of North-West Europe including Northern West France, Belgium, Netherlands, Denmark, Western Norway, and North America-Coastlands of British Columbia (as the Rockies Prevent the onshore westerlies from penetrating far inland). In Southern Hemisphere-Southern Chile, Tasmania and Most parts of the Newzeland. These areas are under the permanent influence of westerlies. These are regions of much cyclonic activity. 

Climate

Temperature- 40F and 60F: Summers are never very warm. The climate is ideal for maximum comfort and mental alertness. Winters are mild, with no station record below freezing points in western Europe this is because of the warming effect of the Warm North Atlantic Drift and The Prevalence of South Westerly.  Night frost does occur and snow falls in winter. The oceanic influences not only keep the winters very mild but also the summers cool. 

Precipitation: Adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a slight winter or autumn from cyclonic sources. Since rain-bearing winds come from the west the western margins have the heaviest rainfall. The amount decreases eastwards.

The Seasons: Four distinct seasons in the British climate-

1. Light snowfall can be expected in the winter months
2. Winter is the season of cloudy skies, foggy and misty mornings
3. Spring is the driest most refreshing seasons
4. Long sunny summers.

Natural Vegetation 

Economic Development 

• Market Gardening: In north-western Europe intensive market gardening is carried out eg The Values of Yourt and Evesham in the UK.
• Mixed Farming: Throughout  Britain and North Western Europe, farmers practice both arable farming (cultivation of crops on ploughed land) and pastoral farming (keeping animals on grass meadows).  Crops may be raised for cash sales or as fodder for cattle or sheep.  The farmers also plant a few fruit trees, rear pigs keep poultry mainly for eggs and even have bees for honey. Among cereals, wheat is extensively grown almost entirely for home consumption because of the dense population. The next important crop is barley. the better quality barley is sold to the breweries for beer making or whisky distilling. Malting Barley is grown in South Eastern Britain. The temperate western margin climate is ideal for intensive dairying. Besides dairying, some cattle are kept as beef cattle. 
• Sheep Rearing: Britain is the home of the best-known sheep Leicesters, Lincolns and Southdowns which are dual-purpose noted for wool as well as mutton Major sheep areas-Pennines, Scottish Highlands Southern Uplands Welsh Mountains Sarplands of South Eastern England.
• Other agricultural activities: Potatoes play a pivotal role in the home economy of cool temperate areas, serving as one of the most significant food crops. This versatile crop is known for its high starch production and adaptability to various climatic and soil conditions. With a global impact, Europe stands as the primary producer of the annual potato crop. Among European nations, Poland, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom emerged as the top four contributors to the world's potato production.
• Deciduous Forests in Cool Temperate Areas: The natural vegetation in cool temperate areas is characterized by deciduous forests. These forests undergo a unique adaptation to cold weather, shedding their leaves during winter to protect themselves from frosts and snow. The deciduous hardwoods prevalent in this climate, including oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, poplar, and horn-beam, hold high timber value, making them valuable from both commercial and industrial perspectives. Unlike equatorial forests, deciduous trees are prized for their timber, fuel, and industrial uses.
• Life and Economy in Cool Temperate Areas: The cool temperate region stands apart with its remarkable industrial development. Predominant production includes machinery, chemicals, textiles, and various manufactured goods. Fishing plays a crucial role in the economies of regions like Britain, Norway, and British Columbia. The exceptional industrial prowess is a hallmark of the region's economic landscape.

Geographical Distribution

• Broad east-west spread, merging with Arctic tundra in the north and steppes in the south.
• Also known as Sub-Arctic, characterized by evergreen coniferous vegetation forming a continuous belt in the north.
• Referred to as Taiga, similar to climates in Northern Europe, including Sweden and Finland.
• Absent in the Southern Hemisphere due to the narrowness of southern continents in high latitudes and strong oceanic influence.
• Coniferous vegetation in the Southern Hemisphere is limited to mountain uplands of South Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania, and Southeast Australia.

 Climate

• Cold long winters and cool, brief summers, with spring and autumn serving as transitional seasons.
• Isotherm of 50°F for the warmest month forms the poleward boundary of the Siberian climate, and winter months are below freezing.
• Annual temperature range varies, with extremes observed (e.g., 54°F in Moscow and 73°F in Churchill, which is more northerly).
• Known as the "cold pole of the earth" due to extreme temperatures.
• Siberia experiences heavy snowfall, with frost occurring in August and September.
• Rivers like the Volga, Ob, Lena, and Yenisey are ice-covered for an extended period during winter.
• Winds, such as the blizzards of Canada and the Buran of Europe, can reach speeds of 50 mph, reducing visibility with snowflakes in the lower atmosphere.
• Siberia is sparsely populated due to the harsh and unbearable conditions.

 Precipitation

• Annual precipitation ranges from 15 to 25 inches, with rainfall well distributed throughout the year.
• Summer experiences a maximum in conventional rainfall as the interior regions are heated.
• Winters are characterized by snowfall, as the mean temperature remains below freezing.
• Coniferous vegetation, requiring less moisture and transpiring less, is well-suited to these conditions.
• Factors affecting precipitation include altitude, latitude, proximity to poles, exposure to westerlies, temperate monsoons, and penetration of cyclones.
• European USSR receives more than 20 inches of precipitation due to westerlies and cyclones, while precipitation decreases poleward and southward.

Benefits and Challenges

• Permanent snowfields are absent due to melting in spring and summer, causing rivers to thaw, rise in water levels, and floods.
• Snow is a poor conductor of heat, protecting the ground from severe cold and providing moisture when it melts in spring.
• Ploughing improves acidic podzolic soil, enabling some agriculture.

Vegetation

• The region is the richest source of softwood, primarily conifers.
• Coniferous trees are used in building construction, furniture, paper, pulp, rayon, and matches.
• Major softwood producers include the USSR, USA, Canada, and Fenoscandian countries (Finland, Norway, Sweden).
• The Taiga in Siberia is the richest source of temperate softwood, with conifers occurring in pure strands.
• Four main species dominate Pine (White, Red, Scots, Jack & Lodge Pole), Fir (Douglas & Balsam), Spruce, and Larch.
• Coniferous trees have a uniform, straight, tall structure, reaching up to 100 feet. Toward the poles, they are spaced and transform into tundra vegetation.
• Conifers have a two-year fructification cycle, with seeds pollinated in one year and dispersed in the next.
• Unlike deciduous trees, conifers do not annually replace leaves. Leaves can remain for up to 5 years, with food stored in trunks, and thick bark protects trunks from the cold.
• Conifers have a conical shape to prevent snow accumulation and offer little grip to winds.
• The leaves are small, thick, leathery, and needle-shaped. Due to acidic podzolic soil and limited sunlight, little undergrowth is present.
• Conifers are also found in mountainous areas in temperate and tropical countries.

  Economic Development

• Many areas are untouched in Canada, Eastern Europe, and Asiatic Russia.
• Lumbering is a significant economic activity, with logs transported to sawmills.
• Limited agriculture exists in bordering steppes, involving crops like barley, oats, rye, and root crops such as potatoes.
• Indigenous populations like the Samoyeds and Yakuts in Siberia, as well as Canadians, engage in hunting, fishing, and trapping.
• Trapping focuses on fur-bearing animals such as muskrats, ermine, mink, silver foxes, squirrels, otters, bears, sables, lynx, and martens.
• Quality and thickness of fur increase during the keenest cold of winter.
• In Canada, trappers and hunters use automatic rifles, live in log cabins, and may have fur farms to ensure a regular supply of furs, replacing the hunting of wild animals in Siberia.
• Lumbering involves sawmilling, with logs processed into timber and plywood. Wood pulp production for paper making and newsprint is a significant industry.
• About 1/4th of the world's softwood is used as fuel. Timber is also used as an industrial raw material, with by-products processed into articles like rayon, paints, dyes, resins, etc.
• Logging is facilitated during winter when sap ceases to flow, and snow-covered ground simplifies logging and haulage. Logs are dragged to rivers and floated downstream, utilizing cheap hydropower for sawmills.
• The Northern Sea route links Murmansk and Vladivostok via the Arctic Ocean.

 

12. The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin (Lauren-tian) Climate

The Cool Temperate Eastern Margin, also known as the Laurentian climate, is characterized by an intermediate climate between the British and Siberian climates. It exhibits both maritime and continental influences and is found in two distinct regions:

North American Region

• Includes the Northeastern USA (Maritime Province, New England) and Newfoundland.
• Features a blend of maritime and continental characteristics.
• The climate is influenced by the proximity to the Atlantic Ocean.

Asiatic Region

• Encompasses Eastern Asia, Eastern Siberia, Northern China, Manchuria, Korea, and Northern Japan.
• Similar to the North American Region, it experiences a combination of maritime and continental influences.
• Extends across parts of Asia with diverse geographical features.

General Characteristics

• Intermediate Climate: Positioned between the milder British climate and the colder Siberian climate.
• Maritime and Continental Influence: The climate is influenced by both the ocean (maritime) and the land (continental).
• Southern Hemisphere Absence: Not found in the Southern Hemisphere due to factors such as small continental sections, oceanic influence, and an equable climate.

Climate

The climate characteristics of the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin, focusing on both the North American and Asiatic regions:

General Climate Characteristics

• Cold Dry Winters: Winters are characterized by temperatures below freezing point, with dry westerlies originating from continental interiors.
• Warm Wet Summers: Summers are warm and wet, featuring a cooling effect from offshore cold currents.
• Year-Round Rainfall: Rainfall is distributed throughout the year.
• Distinct Summer Maximum: The presence of easterly winds from oceans results in a distinct summer maximum in precipitation.
• Annual Precipitation: Ranges from 30 to 60 inches, with approximately 2/3 of the precipitation occurring in summers.

North American Region

• Uniform Rainfall: The North American region experiences uniform rainfall influenced by the Atlantic Ocean and the Great Lakes.
• Gulf Stream Influence: The warm Gulf Stream increases the moisture content of easterly winds from the open Atlantic.
• Westerlies and Great Lakes: Westerlies across the Rockies carry depressions over the Great Lakes to the New England States, promoting wet conditions in winters.
• Mixing of Warm Gulf Stream and Cold Labrador Current: This mixing produces mist, fog, and increased precipitation.
• Newfoundland Specifics: Newfoundland experiences more drizzles than any other part of the world.
• Summer Conditions: During summers, westerlies bring less depression, and continental influence extends to the coast. The temperature range is 74°F to 104°F, with high relative humidity and prolonged heat waves.

Asiatic Region

• Cold and Dry Winters: Winters in the Asiatic region are cold and dry.
• Warm and Wet Summers: Summers are warm and wet.
• Peking Specifics: Peking experiences seven dry months from October to April, with only 2.1 inches of rain, which is 1/12th of the annual 25-inch rainfall. The highest rainfall occurs in July.
• Mountain Interiors: Intense heating in summer, low pressure, and moisture winds from the Pacific Ocean and Sea of Japan resulted in the Southeast Monsoon, also known as a cool temperate monsoon climate.
• Long Cold Winters: The region experiences long cold winters with a significant annual temperature range of 55°F.
• Winter Conditions: Dry, cold wind from Asia in winter carries fine yellow dust as loess in Shansi, Shensi & Hwang Ho. Winter rain falls as snow in Northern China, Korea, and Hokkaido in Japan.
• Climate Modification: The climate is modified by insularity, involving the meeting of warm and cold currents. The Southeast Monsoon occurs in summer, while the Northwest Monsoon occurs in winter, bringing dry and cold winds.
• Two Rain Maxima: There are two rainfall maxima – one in June (Plum Rain) and the other in September (Typhoon Rain).

 

 

Natural Vegetation

• Cool Temperate Forest: Characterized by a cool temperate climate with heavy rainfall and warm summers. Damp air from fog contributes to the overall moisture content.
• Coniferous Trees North of 50° Latitude: North of the 50° latitude, the natural vegetation consists primarily of coniferous trees. This area represents a continuation of the taiga, the biome dominated by coniferous forests found in high northern latitudes. Notably, the forest is not highly adaptable to extremely cold conditions.
• Lumbering as the Main Activity: Lumbering, the industry of harvesting timber, is a significant economic activity in this region. Timber is a major export item, reflecting the abundance of forest resources.
• Coniferous Tree Species: Common coniferous tree species in the region include fir, spruce, and larch. These trees are well-suited for the cool temperate climate and contribute to the forest ecosystem.
• Deciduous Trees South of 50° Latitude: South of the 50° latitude, the natural vegetation shifts to deciduous trees. Tree species such as oak, beech, maple, and birch are prevalent in this area.
• Open Forests with Long Growing Season: Deciduous forests in this region experience a longer growing season of approximately 6 months. Moisture availability supports rapid growth, fostering the development of ferns and other understorey vegetation.
• Pure Stands and Commercial Exploitation: Trees in these regions often occur in pure stands, meaning that specific tree species dominate certain areas. This makes commercial exploitation of forests easier due to the concentration of valuable timber resources.
• Canada's Greater Reserve of Coniferous Softwoods: Canada, part of the North American region in the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin, is noted for having a greater reserve of coniferous softwoods. Softwood species like fir, spruce, and pine are abundant and contribute significantly to the lumber industry.

 

 

Economic Development

• Lumbering – Timber, Paper, and Pulp Industries: Lumbering is a significant economic activity in the region. Timber, derived from the abundant forests, is a major resource for the lumber industry. The processing of timber is not limited to wood products but extends to paper and pulp industries, contributing to the production of paper and related products.
• Agriculture – Potatoes on Podzolized Soil, Oats, and Barley: Agriculture in the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin involves the cultivation of specific crops. Potatoes are grown on podzolized soil, which is characteristic of certain areas with acidic and leached soils. Other important crops include oats and barley, which thrive in the cool temperate climate.
• Asiatic Region – Soybeans, Groundnut, Sesame, Rapeseed, Tung Oil, and Mulberry: In the Asiatic region (including North China, Manchuria, and Korea), agriculture is diversified with the cultivation of various crops. Soybeans are a significant crop in this region, providing a valuable source of protein and oil. Other crops include groundnut (peanuts), sesame, rapeseed (canola), tung oil, and mulberry (likely for silk production).
• North American Region – Dairy Farming, Hay Cultivation, Fruit Growing: Dairy farming is a prominent agricultural activity in the North American region of the Cool Temperate Eastern Margin. Hay cultivation is important for providing fodder for livestock, including dairy cattle. Fruit growing is another notable aspect of agriculture, taking advantage of the favourable climate conditions for producing various fruits.

 

Fishing

Newfoundland

• Location: Newfoundland boasts the world's largest fishing ground on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
• Conditions: Abundant plankton in shallow waters and a gentle continental slope contribute to the richness of marine life.
• Participating Countries: Fleets from Canada, USA, Norway, France, Britain, Denmark, Russia, and Japan engage in fishing activities in this region.
• Economic Importance: Fishing is a major employment source and a significant contributor to exports in Newfoundland.
• Fish Species: Mainly focused on cod, which is consumed fresh or processed (dried, salted, smoked, or packed in ice). Other fishes include haddock, halibut, hake, herring, plaice, and mackerel.
• Fishing Techniques: Various methods include trawlers, conical nets, drifters, and rectangular nets equipped with radar and radio devices for navigation through dense fog. Offshore fishermen use traps, lines, and nets for crabs, lobsters, and shrimps.
• Freshwater Fishing: Inland water bodies support the fishing of freshwater fishes like salmon, trout, eel, and sturgeon.
• Major Fishing Ports: St. John's in Newfoundland is the headquarters of the Grand Banks fishing industry, known for sealing and whaling. Processing plants are located in Halifax and Yarmouth in Nova Scotia and New England.
• Concerns: Overfishing is a growing problem, and the industry faces challenges related to sustainability.

Japan

• NW Pacific Fishing Area: Japan relies heavily on the Northwest Pacific fishing area for its seafood supply.
• Cultural Importance: Fish is a major diet and a chief source of protein in Japan due to cultural practices and scarcity of meat.
• Fish Waste Utilization: Fish waste, fish meal, and seaweed are used as fertilizers in farms.
• Seaweed Cultivation: Japan is known for cultivating seaweed, and this industry is an integral part of its fishing sector.
• Pearl Culture: South Japan is recognized for pearl culture, with shellfish called pearl oysters producing highly prized pearls. The lining is used to manufacture pearl buttons.
• Whaling Fleet: Japan has a history of whaling and maintains a whaling fleet, returning to the coast for refuelling or replenishment of fresh provisions.
• Major Fishing Nation: Japan is a major fishing nation, contributing to approximately 1/6th of the total global fish catch.
• Land Utilization: With 80% of the land being non-agricultural, Japan heavily relies on the sea for its protein supply.

Hokkaido, Japan:

• Climate Influence: The climate in Hokkaido is too cold for extensive agriculture, making fishing a primary economic activity.
• Major Fishing Ports: Hakote and Kushiro are large fishing ports with refrigeration facilities.
• Geographical Challenges: Lack of lowlands and pastures necessitates dependence on fishing.
• Protein Source: Fishing is a main source of protein for the region, meeting both local demand and export purposes.
• Fishing Techniques: Fishing activities range from small boats, nets, traps, and lines to highly mechanized commercial deep-sea demersal fishing using trawlers and refrigeration plants.
• Research Focus: The region is a major centre for marine and fishing research, reflecting the importance of the fishing industry.

Distribution of Tundra Climate

Tundra climates are predominantly found in regions located north of the Arctic Circle and south of the Antarctic Circle. These climates are characterized by extensive ice-caps, primarily situated in highlands and high latitude areas of Greenland and Antarctica. In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica boasts the largest single stretch of ice cap, reaching thicknesses of up to 10,000 feet. The lowlands in these regions, including the coastal strip of Greenland, the barren grounds of northern Canada and Alaska, and the Arctic seaboard of Eurasia, exhibit tundra climate characteristics.

Tundra Climate Characteristics

Temperature

• The tundra climate is marked by an extremely low mean annual temperature.
• Mid-winter temperatures can plummet to 40 – 50 °C below freezing.
• Summers are relatively warmer, but not more than four months experience temperatures above freezing-point.
• Within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, weeks of continuous darkness occur due to the Earth's rotation and revolution.
• The ground remains frozen, rendering it inaccessible to plants, and frost can occur at any time. Blizzards with speeds of up to 130 miles per hour are not uncommon.

Precipitation: Precipitation primarily takes the form of snow and sleet. Convectional rainfall is generally absent in the tundra climate.

Natural Vegetation in Tundra Climate

Flora

• Tundra regions lack trees, and the vegetation primarily consists of the lowest forms, such as mosses and lichens.
• Coastal lowlands exhibit slightly more favourable conditions, supporting hardy grasses, reindeer moss, berry-bearing bushes, and Arctic flowers during the brief summer.

Fauna

• Wildlife in the tundra includes birds migrating north during summer to prey on insects emerging after the snow thaws.
• Mammals like wolves, foxes, musk-ox, Arctic hares, and lemmings inhabit tundra regions.
• Penguins are exclusive to Antarctic regions.

Human Activities in Tundra Regions

• Human activities are concentrated along the coast, and people often lead semi-nomadic lives.
• Eskimos inhabit regions like Greenland, northern Canada, and Alaska, constructing compact igloos during winter.
• Their diet consists of fish, seals, walruses, and polar bears, with rifles replacing traditional harpoons for hunting.

Recent Developments in the Arctic Region

• New settlements have emerged due to mineral discoveries, including gold mining in Alaska, petroleum extraction in the Kenai Peninsula, and copper mining at Rankin Inlet, Canada.
• Iron ore deposits in Labrador are gaining importance as reserves around the Great Lakes decline.
• Sweden benefits from rich iron ore deposits at Kiruna and Gallivare, contributing to a prosperous export trade in iron and steel.
• Modern ice-breakers facilitate navigation in frozen seas, enabling the shipment of timber and fur from Siberia.