ESTABLISHMENT OF BRITISH RULE IN INDIA

1. French in India

• The first French company that succeeded in establishing permanent trade relations with India was Compagnie des Indes chartered by Louis Xiv the king and planned by Colbert, the minister, in 1664. Its first factory was founded at Surat (1668)by Caron  and another was established at Masulipatinam in 1669
• Francois Mortin founded Pondicherry which became the capital of French in India
• In Bengal, its first factory was set up at Chandranagar in 1690-92 on the bank of river Hughli.In 1725, they acquired Mahe (Malabar) and in 1739 Karikal (Coromandel).
• The French got a firman from Aurangzeb, which permitted them to trade on the coast of Gujarat.

2. British in India

• The English Association or company to trade with the East was formed in 1599 under the auspices of a group of merchants known as The Merchant Adventures. The company was given a royal charter and exclusive privilege to trade in the East by Queen Elizabeth on 31 December 1600 and is popularly known as the East India Company.
• 1609 Captain William Hawkins arrived at the court of Mughal emperor Jahangir to seek permission to establish an English trading centre at Surat,
• But it was refused by the Emperor due to pressure from the Portuguese.
• 1612 Jahangir permitted the East India Company to set up a factory in Surat.
• 1615 Sir Thomas Roe came to the Mughal Court as ambassador of James I, king of England and succeeded in getting Imperial Farman of trade
• In 1619, the English established their factories at Agra, Ahmedabad, Baroda, and Broach.
• English opened their first factory in south Masulipatnam.
• Madras soon replaced Masulipatnam as the headquarters of the English on the Coromandel coast.
• English East India Company acquired Bombay from Charles II, then King of England in 1668 and Bombay became the headquarters of the company on the west coast.
• In 1690 English factory was established at a palace called Sutanuti by Job Charnock. Later it developed into the city of Calcutta where Fort William was built which later became the capital of British India.

3. First Carnatic War  (1746-48)

Course of War

• The English and French were fighting on the issue of Austria’s succession (1740-48). Once the war broke out in March 1740, the two companies in India started preparing for it.
• Dupleix, the French Governor-General in India since 1742, was the first to realize the necessity of obtaining political influence and territorial control.
• On September 21, 1746, the French troops, led by La Bourbonnais, captured Madras, an important English trading centre since the mid-17th century.
• Anwar-ud –din, Nawab of Carnatic, sent a large Indian army to drive the French out of Madras. He was guided by the English.
• In the battle of St.Thonie (November 4, 1746)situated on the bank of the Adyar River, Mahfuz Khan, son of Anwaruddin, was defeated by French captain Paradis. But the disciplined and organized army of the French, led by capable officers won the battle.
• The war came to an end through the treaty of Aix–La–Chapelle (1748), under which Madras was given back to the English. The French got Quebec (Canada )in exchange for Madras. The English promised not to attack Pondicherry.

3.1. Second Carnatic War ( 1749-54)

Course of War

• The Nizam of Hyderabad, Asaf Jah I died in 1748 starting a power struggle between his grandson Muzaffar Jung, and his son Nasir Jung.
• Anwaruddin Khan, the Nawab of the Carnatic supported Nasir Jung’s claim to the throne of the Nizam.
• This led Muzaffar Jung to instigate war with French support against Anwaruddin, called the Battle of Ambur.
• Anwaruddin Khan had died in the Battle of Ambur in 1749.
• Now there was a tussle for the Nawaship of Carnatic between Muhammad Ali (son of Anwaruddin) and Chand Sahib (son–in–law of Dost Ali Khan, a former Nawab of Carnatic).
• This led to a tripartite understanding among the various powers.
• After Anwaruddin Khan’s death, his son Muhammad Ali fled to Trichy. Then, Chanda Sahib was proclaimed the Nawab of the Carnatic.
• Then, French forces marched on to the Deccan and fought and killed Nasir Jung.
• Subsequently, Muzaffar Jung was installed as the Nizam of Hyderabad.
• However, Muzaffar Jung was killed a couple of months later and the French installed Salabat Jung (another son of Asaf Jah I) as the Nizam.
• In return, the French acquired from the Nizam four rich districts on the Coromandel Coast Northern ( North Sircars).
• At this time, Tirchy was under the control of Chanda Sahib and the French. But the Trichy Fort was held by Muhammad Ali.
• To undermine the growing French power in the region, the English decided to support Muhammad Ali.
• Robert Clive (later Governor of Bengal) attacked Arcot, the capital of the Carnatic, as a divisionary tactic. This is called the Siege of Arcot, in which the British won.
• After this many battles were fought and Chanda Sahib was killed in one of them.
• Thus, Muhammad Ali was installed as the Nawab of the Carnatic.
• The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754.

Effects of the Second Carnatic War 

• Although the French gained the Northern Sircars, Dupleix was criticized by the French authorities because of heavy losses to the French company.
• Dupleix was called back to France. He was replaced by Charles – Robert Godeheu who signed the Treaty of Pondicherry.
• As per the treaty, the English and the French were to indulge only in commercial activities in India and not interfere in sub-continental political affairs.

3.2. Third Carnatic War (1758-63)

Course of war

• Robert Clive, the English governor of Fort St. David and Lieutenant Colonel, seized Chandan Nagar, the French settlement in Bengal in 1757. He was responsible for victory against Siraj-ud-daula, Nawab of Bengal, in the battle of Plassey, and thus financially English East India Company was more secure.
• The French appointed Count de Lally as the new governor of Pondicherry. He besieged Fort St . David and captured it on June 2, 1758, also captured Nagur and entered Tanjore.
• He then attacked Madras where he called Bussy to assist him. This was a blunder because Hyderabad was well under French control. Bussy himself was reluctant to come.
• The British forced Salabat Jang to cede 80 miles long and 20 miles wide territory to them.
• After their victory over Plassey, the English troops led by Col.Forde, captured Northern Sarkar (Dec 1758) and Masulipattinam (April 1759).
• But the most decisive battle was fought at Wandiwash (jan22, 1760) where Lally was defeated by English troops, led by Eyer Coote. Lally retreated to Pondicherry, which was besieged by the English and Lally was forced to surrender in 1761.
• The Seven Years' War ended in 1763 and a treaty was signed at Paris (Feb 10, 1763), among the other thing it was decided that Pondicherry would go to France along with five trading ports and various factories but merely as a trading centre without any fortification and armies

Causes of French Failure

• Failure lies in the structure of its company and the policies and attitude of the French Government. French company was a state undertaking company whose directors were appointed by the crown, English East India Company on the other hand was a private undertaking based on free enterprise and individual initiative.
• French could never focus towards India as their priority remained Europe whereas England gave their full attention to India.
• The French also failed to compete with the English in naval supremacy.

Result: The third Carnatic War ended the French challenge in India and led to the establishment of the British Empire in India.

 4. Battle of Plassey (1757)

• In 1717, under a royal farman by the Mughal Emperor (Farrukhsiyar)The East India Company  was granted  the freedom to import and export their goods in Bengal without paying taxes and the right to issue passes or dastaks for the movement of such goods
• In 1756 Siraj ud daula succeeded his grandfather Alivardi Khan and came in conflict with the British against the issue of misuse of dastaks.
• Siraj ud daula seized the English factory at Kasimbazar, marched on to Calcutta and occupied Fort William on June 20, 1756.

Battle of Plassey, 23 June 1757

• When news of the capitulation of Calcutta reached Madras, the authorities there immediately de decided to direct the army
• English led by Robert Clive and Watson and he came out victorious due to the treachery of Mir Jafar, commander of the Nawab army.
• Manik Chand, Nawab officer in charge of Calcutta was bribed and he surrendered Calcutta to the English.
• Siraj had to sign a treaty of Alinagar on February 9, 1757, practically conceding all demands of English.
• Siraj ud daula was forced to flee and put to death by Mir Jafar's son, Miran.
• The English proclaimed Mir Jafar the Nawab of Bengal and the company was granted the undisputed right to free trade in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.

Importance of Plassey

• Plassey put the British yoke on Bengal which could not be put off.
• The vast resources of Bengal helped the English to conquer the wars of the Deccan and extend their influence in the North.
• After Plassey English Company virtually monopolized trade and commerce of Bengal.

5. Battle of Buxar, 1764

• Mir Jafar was not able to satisfy the demands of the English, and he was forced to resign and his son-in-law, Mir Qasim was put on the throne.
• Mir Qasim was defeated in a series of battles in 1763 and fled to Awadh where he allied with Shuja ud daula, Nawab of Awadh and Shah Alam ii, the Mughal emperor.
• English army commanded by Major Hector Munro at the battlefield of Buxar.
• Three put front against company together and was thoroughly defeated in Batlle of Buxar, 22 October 1764.
• Robert Clive was made governor of Bengal; he introduced the new administrative system in Bengal called Dual government in which the nominal head was Nawab and real power was in the hands of the British. The two deputy diwans – Raja Shitab Rai and Reza Khan were appointed  with the advice of East India Company but they worked for the company rather than appointing authority

Importance of Buxar: Buxar confirmed the decision of Plassey. Now English is unchallengeable in North India.

Treaty of Allahabad

• The province of Awadh was returned to Shuja ud daula but he had to pay Rs 50 lakhs to the English. And he was forced to maintain English troops for the defence of his state.
• Shah Alam was forced to grant Diwani rights of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the English. Districts of Kara and Allahabad were given to Shah Alam and English accorded a pension of rs 26 lakh per year.

6. First Anglo-Mysore War

• In 1612, a Hindu kingdom under the Wodeyars emerged in the region of Mysore.
• Haider Ali who was appointed as a soldier in the army of Wodeyars became the de-facto ruler of Mysore.
• Mysore’s proximity with the French and Haidar Ali’s control over the rich trade of the Malabar coast threatened the political and commercial interests of the English and their control over Madras.
• The British, after their success in the Battle of Buxar with the Nawab of Bengal, signed a treaty with the Nizam of Hyderabad persuading him to give them the Northern Circars for protecting the Nizams from Haidar Ali who already had disputes with the Marathas.
• The Nizam of Hyderabad, the Marathas, and the English allied together against Haidar Ali.
• Haider diplomatically turned the Marathas neutral and the Nizam into his ally against Nawab of Arcot.
• Haider Ali started his career as a horseman in the Mysore army under the ministers of king Chikka Krishnaraja
• He became de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761 and introduced Western methods of training into his army with the help of the French army.
• He took over the Nizami army and the Marathas and captured Dod Ballapur, Sera, Bednur and Hoskote in 1761-63 and brought to submission the troublesome Poligars of South India.
• Marathas under Madhavrao attacked Mysore and defeated Haidar Ali in 1764, 1766, and 1771.
• Haider Ali raided the Marathas several times during 1774-76 and recovered all the territories he had lost previously.

Course of War

• The First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) broke out at a time when the English were allied with the Nizam of Hyderabad and Marathas.
• Haider sent his son Tipu to the court of Nizam who not only weakened him but also addressed him as Nasib-ud-daulah and Fateh Ali Khan Bahadur.
• When Haider was in trouble at Tiruvannamalai, Tipu came to his rescue
• Haider and Tipu captured Tiruppatur and Vaniyambadi forts. Tipu also captured Mangalore and Haider expelled English from the Malabar Coast.
• The British were forced to conclude a treaty near Madras in 1769 as dictated by Haider.

6.1. Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)

Course of War 

• Haider Ali forged an alliance with the Marathas and the Nizam against the British.
• He attacked the Carnatic captured Arcot and defeated the English army under Colonel Baillie in 1781.
• In the meantime, the English under Sir Eyre Coote detached both the Marathas and the Nizam from Haider’s side, but the undeterred Haider faced the English boldly only to suffer a defeat at Porto Novo (present-day Parangipettai, Tamil Nadu) in November 1781.
• However he regrouped his forces defeated the English and captured their commander, Braithwaite
• Haider died on 7 December, 1782
• Tipu carried on war for one year without any positive outcome.
• Both sides opted for peace, negotiating the Treaty of Mangalore (March 1784) under which both the parties gave back the territories they had taken from each other.
• Tipu son of Haider Ali, was a well-educated man fluent in Arabic, Persian, Kanarese, and Urdu.
• Tipu also known as Tiger of Mysore.
• Tipu organized his army on the European model with Persian words of command.
• In1796 he set up a board of Admiralty and planned for a fleet of 22 battleships and 20 large frigates.
• He established three dockyards at Mangalore, Wajedabad, and Molidabad
• Credited as a pioneer of rocket technology in India. He wrote a military manual explaining the operations of rockets
• Introduce Sericulture to Mysore state.
• Tipu was a great lover of democracy and a great diplomat who gave his support to the French soldiers at Seringapatnam in setting up a Jacobin Club in 1797.
• Tipu himself became a member of the Jacobin Club and allowed himself to be called Citizen Tipu.
• He planted the Tree of Liberty at Seringapatnam.

6.2. Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92)

The course of the War

• The Marathas and Nizam were in greater fear of Mysore than of the English. Thus the enemies of Tipu- English, Marathas, and Nizam joined hands together.
• In 1790, three British armies marched towards Mysore.
• The first under the commandership of General Medows to seize Coimbatore.
• Second army led by General Abercromby was given the task of attacking Malabar Coast.
• But Tipu's swiftness in protecting his territories forced Lord Cornwallis to lead personally. Cornwallis captured Bangalore in March 1791 and advanced to Srirangapattinam.
• Tipu was compelled to sign a treaty on February 23, 1792, known as the Treaty of Srirangapattinam.

Treaty of Srirangapattinam

1. One-half of Tipu’s kingdom was to be ceded to the allies.
2. Three crores and thirty lakh rupees were to be paid by Tipu either in gold mohurs or bullions. One crore and sixty-five lakh rupees were to be given immediately and the rest in three instalments but within a year.
3. All prisoners belonging to the four powers (English, Marathas, Nizam, Carnatic )were to be released.
4. Two sons of Tipu were to be given in English custody till the treaty was fully honoured.

6.3. Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 

• Once again English allied with the Nizam and Marathas.
• Three units of the English army led by General Harris, General Stewart and Arthur Wellesley marched from three different directions on Tipu’s kingdom.
• On 8 March Stewart defeated Tipu at Sedasere and on the 27 he was defeated at Mallavelly by Harris.
• English besieged Srirangapattinam on 17 April and with the help of Mir Sadiq, an insider succeeded in storming into the fort
• On May 4, 1799, Tipu was killed while defending his fort. Krishnaraja, the descendant of the Woodeyar dynasty was restored and was compelled to sign Subsidiary Alliance in 1799.
• Kanora, Coimbatore and Srirangapatnam annexed to company dominion

7. First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)

• The Anglo-Maratha war started when Raghunath Rao, after killing Peshwa Narayan Rao, claimed the post of Peshwa.
• But the widow of Narayan Rao gave birth to Madhav Rao Narayan.
• The Marathas Sardars, led by Nana Phadnis, accepted the minor Madhav Rao Narayan as Peshwa.
• Raghunath Rao, in search of a friend, concluded a treaty with the English at Surat on March 7, 1775.

Treaty of Surat

• The English agreed to assist Raghunath Rao with a force of 2500 men.
• Raghunath Rao agreed to give Salsette, Bassein to the English.
• The Maratha would not raid into Bengal and Carnatic.
• As security, Raghunath Rao deposited six lakhs.
• Some areas of Surat and Bharuch would be given to the English.
• If Raghunath Rao decided to enter into a pact with Poone, the English would be involved.
• The Calcutta council became more powerful by Regulating Act, of 1773 and condemned the activities of the Bombay government, rejecting the treaty of Surat. It sent Lieutenant Upton to Poone who concluded the Treaty of Purandhar On March 1, 1776.

Treaty of Purandhar

• The English and the Marathas would maintain peace.
• The English East India Company would retain Salsette.
• Raghunath Rao would go to Gujarat, and Poone would give him rs 2500 per month as a pension.

French who were old rivals of the English East India Company, came closer to the Poone Darbar. The Court of Directors of the English East India Company was worried about the new political development, so it rejected the Treaty of Purandhar. The Bombay Government renewed its ties with Raghunath Rao and a British troop was sent to Surat but the British troop was defeated and the Bombay Government was forced to sign the Treaty of Wadgaon (1779) with Poone Durbar.

Treaty of Wadgaon

• The Bombay Government would return all the territories, which it occupied after 1773, to the Marathas.
• The Bombay Government would stop the English army coming from Bengal.
• Sindhia would get some income from Bharuch.

Treaty of Salbal

• Treaty of Salbai was signed on 17 May 1782 by representatives of the Maratha Empire and the British East India Company after long negotiations to settle the outcome of the First Anglo-Maratha War; it was signed between Warren Hastings and Mahadaji Scindia.
• The British would support Raghunath Rao, but he would get a pension from Poone, the headquarters of Peshwa.
• Salsette and Elephanta were given to the English.
• Sindhia got the land to the west of Yamuna.
• The Maratha and the English agreed to return the rest of the areas to each other.

This treaty benefitted the company as they got peace for the next twenty years from Marathas.

7.1. Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-06)

Course of War

• After Tipu Sultan Mysore was captured by the British in 1799, the Marathas were the only major Indian power left outside of British domination.
• At that time Marathas confederacy consisted of five major chiefs, the Pehswa at Pune, the Gaekwads at Baroda, the Holkars at Indore, the Scindias at Gwalior and the Bhonsles at Nagpur.
• There were internal squabbles among themselves.
• In the Battle of Poona in 1802, Yashwantrao Holkar, the chief of the Holkars of Indore defeated the Peshwas and the Scindias.
• Baji Rao II sought British protection and signed the Treaty of Bassein with them.
• As per this treaty, he ceded territory to the British and agreed to the maintenance of British troops there.
• The Scindias and the Bhonsles didn’t accept this treaty and this caused the second Anglo-Maratha war in Central India in 1803.

Results

• All the Marathas forces were defeated by the British in these battles.
• The Scindias signed the Treaty of Surji- Anjangaon in 1803 through which the British got the territories of Rohtak, Ganga –Yamuna doab, Gurgaon, etc.
• The Bhonsles signed the Treaty of Deogaon in 1803 in which the English acquired Cuttack, Balasore and the area west of Wardha River.
• The Holkars signed the Treaty of Rajghat in 1805 according to which they gave up Tonk, Bundi and Rampura to the British.
• As a result of the war, large parts of Central India came under British control.

7.2. Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1818)

• The Marathas were unhappy with the British resident's interference in their internal matters.
• The chief reason for this war was the British conflict with the Pindaris whom the British suspected were being protected by the Marathas.
• The Maratha chiefs Peshwa Bajirao ii, Malharrao Holkar and Mudhoji ii Bhonsle forged a united front against the English.
• Daulat Rao Shinde, the fourth major Maratha chief was pressured diplomatically to stay away.
• The British won the war.

Results

• The Treaty of Gwalior was signed in 1817 between Shinde and the British, even though he had not been involved in the war. As per this Shinde gave up Rajasthan to the British.
• The Treaty of Mandasor was signed between the British and the Holkar chief in 1818. An infant was placed on the throne under British guardianship.
• The Peshwa surrendered in 1818. He was dethroned and pensioned off to a small estate in Bithur. Most parts of his territory became part of the Bombay Presidency.
• The territories annexed from the Pindaris became the Central provinces under British India.
• This war ended the Maratha empire, an obscure descendant of Shivaji was placed as the ceremonial head of the Maratha confederacy at Satara.

Causes of Maratha's Defeat 

• Unstable Maratha state.
• Unstable economy
• Weak rulers
• Inferior military organization
• Superior English diplomacy and espionage
• The Company’s espionage system

8. First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46)

• Major Broad was placed in Amritsar as the East India Company’s agent in 1843.
• The Sikh forces crossed the Sutlej in December 1845 and took offensive positions against the English forces.
• Battles were fought in different places and the English victory at Sobraon led to the signing of the Lahore Treaty in 1846 which ended the war.

Treaty of Lahore

• Sikhs had to give the southern territory of Sutlej – the Jalandhar Doab.
• Punjab had to give Rs 1.5 crore as indemnity but Lahore Darbar was not in a position to give it. so it agreed to transfer to the company the territories situated between the rivers Beas and Indus, including Kashmir and Hazarah, instead of one crore rupees. Punjab agreed to pay the remaining 50 lakh rupees in cash.
• The Maharaja of Punjab gave up his entire claim over the forts, land, and hills situated between Beas and Satluj.
• Maharaja agreed to reduce his army. Punjab was not allowed to retain more than 12000 troops in cavalry and 20,000 troops in infantry.
• All 250 guns were given to the British
• British troops were to be allowed to pass through Lahore territories.
• Without the prior approval of the British no European or American would be employed in Punjab.
• Dalip Singh was recognized as the Maharaja, his mother Rani Jindan as regent and Lal Singh as Wazir.
• The company promised not to interfere in the internal matters of Punjab. However, the Company‘s Resident in Punjab, Sir Henry Lawrence always violated this code.

8.1. Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49)

• Humiliation caused by the First Anglo –Sikh war wherein the Sikh Empire had lost some territories to the British East India Company.
• The Sikh regent, Maharani Jindan Kaur was not treated properly by the British.
• Multan was governed by Dewan Mulraj. He resented the Lahore court's demand for increased tax assessment and revenues.
• The British Resident at that time was Sir Frederick Currie. He undermined Mulraj and imposed another governor Sardar Kahan Singh along with a British agent Patrick Vans Agnew.
• In 1848, Vans Agnew and another officer who arrived in Multan to take charge were murdered by Mulraj’s troops.
• This news led to unrest in Punjab and many Sikh soldiers joined the rebel forces against the British.

Course of War

• Battles were fought in Ramnagar and Chilianwala.
• The battle at Ramnagar was indecisive whereas the Sikhs won at Chilianwala.
• The final battle was fought at Gujarat near Chenab in 1849. This was won by the British forces.
• The Afghan forces under Dost Mohammad Khan had joined the Sikh's side.

Results

• Punjab was annexed by the British in March 1849, under Lord Dalhousie as per the Treaty of Lahore.
• The eleven-year-old Maharaja Duleep Sigh was pensioned off to England.
• Jind Kaur was separated from her son the Maharaja and taken to Firozpur.
• Sir John Lawrence was appointed as the first Chief Commissioner of Punjab to take care of the administration.
• Dalhousie was recognized for his role in the annexation of Punjab to the British and was made a Marquis.